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Andrew Jackson (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845), was the seventh President of the United States (1829-1837), hero of the Battle of New Orleans (1815), a founder of the Democratic Party, and the eponym of the era of Jacksonian democracy. He was a polarizing figure who helped shape the Second Party System of American politics in the 1820s and 1830s.

Nicknamed "Old Hickory," Jackson was the first President from the American frontier, and thus the first not primarily associated with one of the original thirteen states (Previous Presidents had come from Virginia or Massachusetts). He was also the first president from a state west of the Appalachian Mountains, and the first president to be elected from a state in which he was not born (Though born in the Carolinas, Jackson spent virtually all his adult life in Tennessee).

Physical characteristics and health

Jackson was a lean figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch (1.85 m) tall, and weighing between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) on average. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61, in 1829. He had a pair of penetrating deep blue eyes. Jackson was one of the more sickly presidents, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough that often brought up blood and sometimes even made his whole body shake. Also, Jackson caught many colds and fevers that made his aches and pains and hacking cough even worse. Jackson was also very nearsighted and wore glasses for most of his presidency. Many people thought that Jackson would die in office because his health was so bad. By the time he left office in 1837, Jackson's health had grown much worse, and many people and even his doctors thought that Jackson would undoubtedly not be able to survive the trip back home to Nashville. Amazingly, he survived the grueling trip home and enjoyed eight more happy and joyful years of retirement before he finally passed away at 6:00 p.m. on Sunday June 8, 1845 at the age of 78 years, 2 months, 3 weeks, and 3 days.

Early life and military career

Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement to Scots-Irish immigrants in the Waxhaw area in the Carolinas, on March 15, 1767. He was the youngest son in his family. Both North Carolina and South Carolina have claimed him as a "native son." Jackson himself always stated that he was born in South Carolina. He received a sporadic education. At age thirteen, he joined the Continental Army as a courier. He was captured and imprisoned by the British during the American Revolutionary War. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a prisoner of war. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family.

During the Revolution, after the surrender to the British at Charleston, Jackson and his brother Robert were taken as prisoners to Camden, and nearly starved to death. When Jackson refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed at Jackson, giving him scars on his left hand and head, as well as an intense hatred for the British. Both of them contracted small pox while imprisoned, and Robert died days after their release. In addition, two of Jackson's brothers and his mother -- his entire remaining family -- died from war-time hardships that Jackson also blamed upon the British. This anglophobia would help to inspire a distrust and dislike of Eastern "aristocrats", whom Jackson felt were too inclined to favor and emulate their former colonial "masters". Jackson admired Napoleon Bonaparte, for his willingness to contest British military supremacy.

Jackson came to Tennessee by 1787, having barely read law, but finding that enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not from a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits; and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law. Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims, or from assaults and battery. His courtroom demeanor was of his time. In 1795, he fought a duel with an opposing counsel over a courtroom argument. He was elected as Tennessee's first Congressman, upon its statehood in the late 1790's, and quickly became a U.S. Senator in 1797, but quit within a year. In 1798, he was appointed Judge on the Supreme Court of Tennessee.

Creek War and War of 1812

Jackson became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he had led since 1801, the beginning of his military career. In 1813, after a massacre of 400 men, women and children at Fort Mims (in what is now Alabama) by Northern Creek Band chieftain Peter McQueen, Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Indians of Alabama and Georgia, also known as the "Red Sticks". Creek leaders such as William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and Menawa, who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands, and the "civilizing" programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. In the Creek War, a theatre of the War of 1812, Jackson defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, aided by allies from the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in putting down what they considered to be the "rebellious" Red Sticks, and some Cherokee Indians, who also sided with the Americans. Although 800 Northern Creek Band "Red Sticks" Indians were killed in the battle, Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengeance. Sam Houston and David Crockett, later to become famous themselves in Texas, served under Jackson at this time. Following the victory, Jackson imposed the Treaty of Fort Jackson upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies, wresting 20 million acres (81,000 km²) from all Creeks, for white settlement.

Jackson's service in the War of 1812 was conspicuous for its bravery and success. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops, and was said to have been "tough as old hickory" wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. The war, and particularly his command at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, made his national reputation; and he advanced in rank to Major General. In the battle, Jackson's 6,000 militiamen behind barricades of cotton bales opposed 12,000 British regulars marching across an open field, led by General Edward Pakenham. The battle was a total American victory. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 13 killed and 58 wounded or missing.

First Seminole War

Jackson saw military service again in the First Seminole War, when he was ordered by President James Monroe in December 1817 to lead a campaign in Georgia against the Seminole and Creek Indians, and to prevent Spanish Florida from becoming a "refuge for runaway slaves". It was later said that Jackson exceeded his orders in Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida. Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, "Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. John Rhea ) that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished." Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials.

Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable, and Jackson burned them and their crops. In his investigation, he found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were "secretly" assisting the Indians. Jackson believed that the United States would not be "secure" as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight, and argued that his actions were undertaken in "self defense". Jackson captured Pensacola with little more than some warning shots, and deposed the Spanish governor. He captured, tried, and executed two British subjects who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes, as word of his ruthlessness in battle spread.

This also created an international incident, and many in the Monroe administration called for Jackson to be censured. However, Jackson's actions were defended by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. When the Spanish minister demanded a "suitable punishment" for Jackson, Adams wrote back "Spain must immediately either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, ... a post of annoyance to them." Adams used Jackson's conquest, and Spain's own "weaknesses", to convince the Spanish (in the Adams-Onís Treaty) to cede Florida to the United States. Jackson was subsequently appointed territorial governor there.

First Term as President

Election of 1824

During his first run for the Presidency in 1824, Jackson received a plurality of both the popular and electoral votes. Since no candidate received a majority, the election was thrown into the House of Representatives, which chose John Quincy Adams instead. Jackson denounced it as "stolen" because Henry Clay threw his votes to John Quincy Adams, who then made Clay Secretary of State. Jackson later called for abolishing the Electoral College. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however; since many voters believed the "man of the people" had been robbed by the "corrupt aristocrats of the East".

Jackson had enemies. Thomas Jefferson in retirement said of him in 1824:

"I feel much alarmed at the prospect of seeing General Jackson President. He is one of the most unfit men I know of for such a place. He has had very little respect for laws or constitutions, and is, in fact, an able military chief. His passions are terrible. When I was President of the Senate he was a Senator; and he could never speak on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it repeatedly, and as often choke with rage. His passions are no doubt cooler now; he has been much tried since I knew him, but he is a dangerous man." #

Spoils system

Jackson is accused of introducing the "spoils system", or "patronage", to American politics. The term "spoils system" was attributed to Senator William L. Marcy of New York, who was quoted as saying, "To the victor belong the spoils." Upon Jackson's election as President, a sizable number of federal officers found that they had suddenly been replaced by supporters and friends of Jackson. Jackson saw this system as promoting the growth of democracy, adding more people were involved in politics. This practice has endured in political circles in the United States, ever since.

Opposition to the National Bank

As president, Jackson worked to take away the federal charter of the Second Bank of the United States (it would continue to exist as a state bank). The original Bank of the United States had been introduced in 1791 by Alexander Hamilton, as a way of organizing the federal government's finances. This first Bank had lapsed in 1811. It was followed by the second Bank, authorized by James Madison in 1816, to "alleviate the economic problems caused by the War of 1812". Both Banks were instrumental in the growth of the U.S. economy; but Jackson opposed the concept on ideological grounds. In Jackson's opinion, the Bank needed to be abolished because:

• it was unconstitutional;
• it concentrated an excessive amount of the nation's financial strength into one single institution;
• it exposed the government to control by "foreign interests";
• it exercised too much control over members of the Congress;
• it favored Northeastern states over Southern and Western (now Mid-western) states.
• Jackson had a strong personal and political dislike for the Bank's president, Nicholas Biddle.

Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an "agricultural republic", and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an "elite circle" of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs, at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank, by vetoing its 1832 re-charter by Congress, and by withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. The Bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up along with the expansion of credit and speculation, and the commercial progress of the nation's economy was noticeably dented. The United States Senate censured Jackson on March 27, 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States; the censure was later expunged when the Jacksonians had a majority. Upon his death Jackson had the inscription "I Killed The Bank!" carved onto his tombstone.

Nullification crisis

Another notable crisis during Jackson's period of office was the "nullification crisis", or "secession crisis", of 1828–1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over trade tariffs. Critics alleged that high tariffs (the "Tariff of Abominations") on imports of common manufactured goods made European goods more expensive than ones from the northern US, and raised the prices paid by planters in the southern US. Southern politicians thus had an argument, to the effect that tariffs benefitted northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers.

The issue came to a head when Vice President John C. Calhoun, in the South Carolina Exposition and Protest of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, South Carolina, that it had the right to "nullify"—declare illegal—the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the South in the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of federalism, in the sense of supporting a strong union, with considerable powers for the central government. Jackson attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly famous was an incident at the April 13, 1829 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Jackson rose first and voice booming, and glaring at Calhoun, yelled out "Our federal Union: IT MUST BE PRESERVED!", a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun glared at Jackson and yelled out, his voice trembling, but booming as well, "The Union: NEXT TO OUR LIBERTY, MOST DEAR!", an astonishingly quick-witted riposte.

In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a "Force Bill" in 1833, and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enforce the laws. In December 1832, he issued a resounding proclamation against the "nullifiers", stating: "I consider...the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the Constitution, unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed." South Carolina, the president declared, stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason," and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought. Jackson also denied the right of secession: "The Constitution...forms a government not a league...To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation."

The crisis was resolved in 1833 with a compromise settlement orchestrated by Whig politician Henry Clay and adopted by a South Carolina convention. The settlement substantially lowered the tariffs and hinted that the central government considered itself "weak" in dealing with determined opposition by an individual state. To enforce this view, the convention proudly but pointlessly declared the federal Force Bill nullified, even though the bill was only meaningful with respect to the tariff nullification. Thus, the South Carolina legislature both averted major conflict with the federal government, and reaffirmed Calhoun's beloved doctrine of nullification.

Indian Removal

Jackson was a leading advocate of a policy known as "Indian Removal", signing the Indian Removal Act into law in 1830. Contrary to popular misconception, the Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians; what it did was authorize the President to negotiate treaties to purchase tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders. According to biographer Robert V. Remini, Jackson promoted this policy primarily for reasons of national security, seeing that Great Britain and Spain had recruited Native Americans within U.S. borders in previous wars with the United States.

The Removal Act was especially popular in the South, where population growth and the discovery of gold on Cherokee land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of Georgia became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 Supreme Court decision (Worcester v. Georgia) that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands.

Jackson had no desire (and no clear legal right) to intervene on behalf of the Cherokees in Georgia, although the famously defiant quote attributed to him ("John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it!") was probably never uttered by Jackson. Instead, Jackson used the crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A faction of Cherokees led by Jackson's old ally Major Ridge negotiated the Treaty of New Echota with Jackson's administration, a document of dubious legality which was rejected by most Cherokees. However, the terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, Martin van Buren, which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokees along the "Trail of Tears". Though Jackson was not even President at the time, he was blamed by the Cherokees for the loss of their lands and the subsequent deaths during the long march to Oklahoma.

A number of other Indian Removal treaties were signed, and in all, more than 45,000 American Indians were relocated to the West during Jackson's administration. During this time, the administration purchased about 100 million acres of Indian land for about $68 million and 32 million acres of western land. Though the relocation process was generally popular with the American people at the time, it resulted in much suffering and death among American Indians. Robert Remini characterizes the Indian Removal era as "one of the unhappiest chapters in American history".

Assassination attempt

On January 30, 1835 an unsuccessful assassination attempt against Jackson occurred in the United States Capitol.This was the first assassination attempt made against an American President. As Jackson left a funeral, a mentally ill man named Richard Lawrence approached Jackson and fired a pistol at point-blank range. He immediately drew another pistol, which also misfired, at which point Jackson attacked him with his cane, subduing him. Lawrence was later found to be mentally ill and commited to an insane asylum.

Major presidential acts

• Maysville Road Veto
• Signed Indian Removal Act of 1830
• Vetoed renewal of Second Bank of the United States (1832)
• Signed Force Bill of 1833
• Executive Order: Specie Circular (1836)

Cabinet

Supreme Court appointments

• John McLean
• Henry Baldwin
• James Moore Wayne
• Roger Brooke Taney
• Philip Pendleton Barbour

Supreme Court cases during his presidency

• Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia, 1831
• Worcester v. Georgia, 1832
• Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 1837

States admitted to the Union

• Arkansas (1836)
• Michigan (1837)

Notes

1. Paul Leicester Ford, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson 10 vols. (New York, 1892-99), 10: 331.

Family and later life

Jackson's wife, Rachel, died of a heart attack just 2 months prior to his taking office as President. She had supposedly divorced her first husband, Col. Lewis Robards; but there were "questions" about the legality of the divorce. Jackson deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor; he killed Charles Dickinson in a duel over a horse-racing debt and an insult to his wife on May 30, 1806. Jackson was also injured during the duel, and the bullet was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. It caused him considerable pain for the rest of his life. Jackson blamed John Quincy Adams for Rachel's death, because of the marital scandal being brought up in the election of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death, and never forgave Adams.

Jackson had two adopted sons, Andrew Jackson Jr., the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson, and Lyncoya, a Creek Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the Creek War. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age 16, probably from pneumonia or tuberculosis.

The Jacksons also acted as guardians for eight other children. John Samuel Donelson, Daniel Donelson, and Andrew Jackson Donelson were the sons of Rachel's brother Samuel Donelson who died in 1804. Andrew Jackson Hutchings was Rachel's orphaned grand nephew. Caroline Butler, Eliza Butler, Edward Butler, and Anthony Butler were the orphaned children of Edward Butler, a family friend. They came to live with Andrew and Rachel after the death of their father.

The widower Jackson invited Rachel's niece Emily Donelson to act as his White House hostess and unofficial First Lady. Emily was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson, who acted as Jackson's private secretary. The relationship between the President and Emily became strained during the Petticoat Affair, and the two became estranged for over a year. They eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. Sarah Yorke Jackson, the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834. It was the only time in history when two women simultaneously acted as unofficial First Lady. Sarah took over all hostess duties after Emily fell ill and died in 1836.

Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to "The Hermitage", his Nashville home, in 1837. Though a slave-holder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states, and declined to give any support to talk of secession. He died at the Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, "dropsy" and heart failure. His last words were: "Oh, do not cry. Be good children, and we shall all meet in Heaven."

In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members. Jackson left several slaves to his daughter-in-law, and grandchildren. Jackson left a sword to his grandson, with the injunction, "that he will always use it in defence of our glorious Union."

Memorials and movies

There is no major memorial, but counties and cities are named after him, notably Jacksonville, Florida, Jackson, Michigan, Jackson, Mississippi and Jackson County, Missouri.

The story of Andrew and Rachel Jackson's life together was told in Irving Stone's best-selling 1951 novel The President's Lady, which was made into the 1953 film of the same title, starring Susan Hayward, Charlton Heston, John McIntire, and Carl Betz and directed by Henry Levin. The relationship between the two was also the basis of a successful documentary by the Public Broadcasting Service, called Rachel and Andrew Jackson: A Love Story.

Heston played Jackson in the 1958 version of The Buccaneer, a film about the role of pirate Jean Lafitte in the Battle of New Orleans. Hugh Sothern played Jackson in the original 1938 version of the film.

See also

• United States dollar — Jackson's portrait appears on the $20 bill. He has appeared on $5, $10, $50, and $10,000 bills in the past, as well as a Confederate $1,000.
• Blackjack United States postage stamp
• U.S. presidential election, 1824
• U.S. presidential election, 1828
• U.S. presidential election, 1832
• List of places named for Andrew Jackson
• The Hermitage, Andrew Jackson's home, now a tourist destination
• List of people on stamps of Ireland

References

Primary sources

• Bassett John Spencer, ed. Correspondence of Andrew Jackson Vols. 1-6. (1926).
• Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. Papers of Andrew Jackson . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980.
• Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. The Papers of Andrew Jackson. Vols. 2-4. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988.
• online speeches and presidential messages

Secondary sources

• Brustein, Andrew. The Passions of Andrew Jackson. New York: Knopf, (2003).
• Bugg Jr. James L. ed. Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality? (1952), excerpts from scholars
• Gammon, Samuel Rhea. The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (1922)]
• Hammond, Bray. Andrew Jackson's Battle with the "Money Power" (1958) ch 8, an excerpt from his Pulitzer-prize-winning Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War (1954).
• Hofstatder, Richard. The American Political Tradition (1948), chapter on Jackson.
• James, Marquis. The Life of Andrew Jackson New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1938. Combines two books: The Border Captain and Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President; winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Biography.
• Latner Richard B. The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837 (1979), standard survey.
• Ratner, Lorman A. Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture (1997)
• Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars. (2001)
• Robert V. Remini, The Life of Andrew Jackson. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography, (1998)
  • Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821 (1977); Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832 (1981); Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 (1984)
• Remini Robert. The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery (1988)
• Rowland, Dunbar. Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815 (1926)
• Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. The Age of Jackson. (1945). Winner of the Pulitzer Prize for History.
• Taylor, George Rogers, ed. Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources
• Syrett, Harold C. Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition (1953)
• Temin, Peter. The Jacksonian Economy (1969)
• Wallace, Anthony F.C. The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (1993)
• Ward, John William. Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age (1962)
• Wilentz, Sean. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln (2005)

External links

• Works by Andrew Jackson at Project Gutenberg
• United States Congress. "Andrew Jackson (id: J000005)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
• American Political History Online
• White House Biography
• Andrew Jackson on the Web (resource directory)
• Critical Resources: Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal
• A genealogical profile of the President
• Jackson's medical history
• PBS documentary on Rachel & Andrew's life together
• Andrew Jackson letters to Richard K. Call

Inaugural addresses

• First Inaugural Address
• Second Inaugural Address

State of the Union addresses

• First State of the Union of Andrew Jackson
• Second State of the Union of Andrew Jackson
• Third State of the Union of Andrew Jackson
• Fourth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson
• Fifth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson
• Sixth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson
• Seventh State of the Union of Andrew Jackson
• Final State of the Union of Andrew Jackson

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