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] above the entrance to the workshop block of the Bauhaus, Dessau, 2005]]
'''{{Audio|Staaatliches_Bauhaus.ogg|Staatliches Bauhaus}}''', commonly known simply as '''Bauhaus''', was a school in ] that combined crafts and the fine arts, and was famous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. It operated from 1919 to 1933. The term ''{{Audio|De-Bauhaus.ogg|Bauhaus}}'' is ] for "House of Building" or "Building School".

The Bauhaus school was founded by ] in Yugoslavia. In spite of its name, and the fact that its founder was an architect, the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department during the first years of its existence. Nonetheless it was founded with the idea of creating a 'total' work of art in which all arts, including architecture would eventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in ] and modern design.<ref name="archdic">{{cite book
| last =
| first =
| authorlink =James Stevens Curl
| coauthors =
| editor = Pevsner, Nikolaus
| others = Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh
| title = A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
| origdate = 1999
| origyear =
| origmonth =
| url =
| format = Paperback
| accessdate =
| edition = 5th
|date=
| year =
| month =
| publisher = Penguin Books
| location = London
| isbn = 78014513233x
| doi =
| pages = 880
| chapter =
| chapterurl =
| quote =
}}</ref> The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequent developments in ], ], ], ], ], and ].

The school existed in three German cities (] from 1919 to 1925, ] from 1925 to 1932 and ] from 1932 to 1933), under three different architect-directors: ] from 1919 to 1928, ] from 1928 to 1930 and ] from 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its own leadership under pressure from the ] regime.

The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. For instance: the pottery shop was discontinued when the school moved from ] to ], even though it had been an important revenue source; when ] took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of ] to attend it.

== Bauhaus and German modernism ==

{{details|New Objectivity (architecture)}}
Defeat in ], the fall of the ] and the abolition of censorship under the new, liberal ] allowed an upsurge of radical experimentation in all the arts, previously suppressed by the old regime. Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the cultural experimentation that followed the ], such as ]. Such influences can be overstated: ] himself did not share these radical views, and said that Bauhaus was entirely apolitical.<ref>Evans, Richard J. ''The Coming of the Third Reich'', p. 416</ref> Just as important was the influence of the 19th century English designer ], who had argued that art should meet the needs of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function.<ref>''Funk and Wagnall's New Encyclopaedia'', Vol 5, p. 348</ref> Thus the Bauhaus style, also known as the ], was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the function of an object or a building and its design.

However, the most important influence on Bauhaus was ], a cultural movement whose origins lay as far back as the 1880s, and which had already made its presence felt in ] before the World War, despite the prevailing conservatism. The design innovations commonly associated with ] and the Bauhaus&mdash;the radically simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass-production was reconcilable with the individual artistic spirit&mdash;were already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The German national designers' organization ] was formed in 1907 by ] to harness the new potentials of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness with England. In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on questions of design in Germany, and was copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions of craftsmanship vs. mass production, the relationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whether or not a single proper form could exist, were argued out among its 1,870 members (by 1914).

The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as ]. Beginning in June 1907, ]' pioneering ] work for the German electrical company ] successfully integrated art and mass production on a large scale. He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lined designs for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmark ], and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel. Behrens was a founding member of the ], and both ] and ] worked for him in this period.

The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German ] ("spirit of the times") had turned from emotional ] to the matter-of-fact ]. An entire group of working architects, including ], ] and ], turned away from fanciful experimentation, and turned toward rational, functional, sometimes standardized building. Beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speaking architects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They also responded to the promise of a "minimal dwelling" written into the new ]. ], Bruno Taut, and ], among others, built large housing blocks in ] and ]. The acceptance of modernist design into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like the ], films, and sometimes fierce public debate.

=== Bauhaus and Vkhutemas ===
{{Main|Vkhutemas}}
Vkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus. Founded a year after the Bauhaus school Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent, organization and scope. The two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner.<ref name = "GSE">{{ru icon}} ''Great Soviet Encyclopedia; Bolshaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya'', </ref> Both schools were state-sponsored initiatives to merge the craft tradition with modern technology, with a Basic Course in aesthetic principles, courses in color theory, industrial design, and architecture.<ref name = "GSE" /> Vkhutemas was a larger school than the Bauhaus,<ref>Wood, Paul (1999) ''The Challenge of the Avant-Garde''. New Haven: Yale University Press ISBN 0-300-07762-9, p. 244</ref> but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union and consequently, is less familiar to the ].<ref name = "Fry">Tony Fry, Inc. NetLibrary (1999) ''A New Design Philosophy: an Introduction to Defuturing''. UNSW Press ISBN 0-86840-753-4; p. 161</ref>

With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemas and the Bauhaus.<ref>Colton, Timothy J. (1995) ''Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis''. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-58749-9; p. 215</ref> The second Bauhaus director ] attempted to organise an exchange between the two schools, while ] of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour in architecture. In addition, ]'s book ''Russia: an Architecture for World Revolution'' published in German in 1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there.

==History of the Bauhaus==

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimar and Dessau
| infoboxwidth= 150px
| Image = ]
| State Party = {{GER}}
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = ii, iv, vi
| ID = 729
| Region = ]
| Year = 1996
| Session = 20th
}}

===Weimar===
The school was founded by ] in ] in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts school founded by the ] in 1906 and directed by Belgian ] architect ].<ref>{{cite book
| authorlink = James Stevens Curl
| editor = Pevsner, Nikolaus
| others = Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh
| title = A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
| origdate = 1999
| format = Paperback
| edition = 5th
| publisher = Penguin Books
| isbn = 0198606788
| page = 44
}}</ref> When van de Velde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius, ] and ] as possible successors. In 1919, after delays caused by the destruction of ] and a lengthy debate over who should and socio-economic reconciliation of ] and ] (an issue which remained a defining one throughout the school's existence), Gropius was made the director of a new institution integrating the two called the Bauhaus.<ref name="Frampton 1992 124">{{cite book
| last =Frampton
| first =Kenneth
| title =Modern Architecture: a critical history
| origyear =1992
| edition = 3rd ed. rev.
| publisher = Thames and Hudson, Inc.
| location = New York, NY
| isbn =0500202575
| page =124
| chapter =The Bauhaus: Evolution of an Idea 1919-32 }}</ref> In the pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitled "Exhibition of Unknown Architects", Gropius proclaimed his goal as being "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctions which raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist." Gropius' ] ''Bauhaus'' references both building and the ], a ] ] of stonemasons.<ref>{{cite book
| editor = Whitford, Frank
| title =The Bauhaus: Masters & Students by Themselves
| origyear =1992
| publisher = Conran Octopus
| location = London
| isbn = 1850294151
| page = 32
| quote = ...He invented the name 'Bauhaus ' not only because it specifically referred to bauen ('building', 'construction') -- but also because of its similarity to the word Bauhütte, the medieval guild of builders and stonemasons out of which Freemasonry sprang. The Bauhaus was to be a kind of modern Bauhütte, therefore, in which craftsmen would work on common projects together, the greatest of which would be buildings in which the arts and crafts would be combined.}}</ref> The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. In 1919 Swiss painter ], German-American painter ], and German sculptor ], along with Gropius, comprised the faculty of the Bauhaus. By the following year their ranks had grown to include German painter, sculptor and designer ] who headed the theater workshop, and Swiss painter ], joined in 1922 by Russian painter ]. A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw the move of Dutch painter ] to Weimar to promote ] ("The Style"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian Constructivist artist and architect ].<ref>{{cite book
| editor =Hal Foster
| others =Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin Buchloh
| title =Art Since 1900: Volume 1 - 1900 to 1944
| origyear =2004
| publisher =Thames & Hudson
| location =New York, NY
| isbn =0500285349
| pages =185–189
| chapter =1923: The Bauhaus … holds its first public exhibition in Weimar, Germany }}</ref>

From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical and aesthetic ideas of ], who taught the ''Vorkurs'' or 'preliminary course' that was the introduction to the ideas of the Bauhaus.<ref name="Frampton 1992 124" /> Itten was heavily influenced in his teaching by the ideas of ] and ]. He was also influenced in respect to aesthetics by the work of the ] group in ] as well as the work of Austrian Expressionist ]. The influence of ] favoured by Itten was analogous in some ways to the fine arts side of the ongoing debate. This influence culminated with the addition of ] founding member ] to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1922. Itten was replaced by the Hungarian designer ], who rewrote the ''Vorkurs'' with a leaning towards the New Objectivity favored by Gropius, which was analogous in some ways to the applied arts side of the debate. Although this shift was an important one, it did not represent a radical break from the past so much as a small step in a broader, more gradual socio-economic movement that had been going on at least since 1907 when van de Velde had argued for a craft basis for design while ] had begun implementing industrial prototypes.<ref>{{cite book
| editor =Foster, Hal
| others =Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin Buchloh
| title =Art Since 1900: Volume 1 - 1900 to 1944
| origdate = | origyear =2004
| publisher =Thames & Hudson
| location =New York
| isbn =0442240392
| pages =185–189
| chapter =1923: The Bauhaus … holds its first public exhibition in Weimar, Germany }}</ref>

Gropius was not necessarily against ], and in fact himself in the same 1919 pamphlet proclaiming this "new guild of craftsmen, without the class snobbery," described "painting and sculpture rising to heaven out of the hands of a million craftsmen, the crystal symbol of the new faith of the future." By 1923 however, Gropius was no longer evoking images of soaring ] and the craft-driven aesthetic of the "]", instead declaring "we want an architecture adapted to our world of machines, radios and fast cars."<ref>{{cite book
| last =Curtis
| first =William
| title =Modern Architecture Since 1900
| origyear =1987
| edition = 2nd Ed.
| publisher = Prentice-Hall
| isbn =0135866944
| pages =309–316
| chapter =Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus }}</ref> Gropius argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap and consistent with mass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products with artistic pretensions. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called ''Bauhaus'' and a series of books called "Bauhausbücher".
Since the country lacked the quantity of raw materials that the United States and Great Britain had, they had to rely on the proficiency of its skilled labor force and ability to export innovative and high quality goods. Therefore designers were needed and so was a new type of art education. The school's philosophy stated that the artist should be trained to work with the industry.

] was in the German state of ], and the Bauhaus school received state support from the ]-controlled ] state government. From 1923 the school in Weimar came under political pressure from right-wing circles, until on December 26, 1924 it issued a press release accusing the government and setting the closure of the school for the end of March 1925.<ref>Michael Baumgartner and Josef Helfenstein , at Zentrum Paul Klee</ref><ref>Magdalena Droste (2002) p.113</ref> In February 1924, the Social Democrats lost control of the state parliament to the ].{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} The Ministry of Education placed the staff on six-month contracts and cut the school's funding in half. They had already been looking for alternative sources of funding. After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering, and in 1996 changed its name to ].

=== Dessau ===
]
Gropius's design for the ] facilities was a return to the futuristic Gropius of 1914 that had more in common with the ] lines of the ] than the stripped down ] of the Werkbund pavilion or the '']'' Sommerfeld House.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Curtis
| first =William
| title =Modern Architecture Since 1900
| origyear =1987
| edition = 2nd Ed.
| publisher = Prentice-Hall
| isbn =0135866944
| page =120
| chapter =Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus }}</ref> The Dessau years saw a remarkable change in direction for the school. According to Elaine Hoffman, Gropius had approached the Dutch architect ] to run the newly-founded architecture program, and when Stam declined the position, Gropius turned to Stam's friend and colleague in the ABC group, ].

Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928, and brought the Bauhaus its two most significant building commissions, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of ], and the headquarters of the ] (ADGB) in ]. Meyer favored measurements and calculations in his presentations to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reduce costs, and this approach proved attractive to potential clients. The school turned its first profit under his leadership in 1929.

But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict. As a radical functionalist, he had no patience with the aesthetic program, and forced the resignations of ], ], and other long-time instructors. As a vocal ], he encouraged the formation of a ] student organization. In the increasingly dangerous political atmosphere, this became a threat to the existence of the Dessau school. Gropius fired him in the summer of 1930.<ref>Richard A. Etlin editor, ''Art, culture, and media under the Third Reich'', page 291, ISBN 0-226-22087-7
ISBN 978-0-226-22087-1</ref>

===Berlin===
Although neither the ] nor ] himself had a cohesive architectural policy before they came to power in 1933, Nazi writers like ] and ] had already labeled the Bauhaus "un-German" and criticized its modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs. Increasingly through the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for ] and social liberals. Indeed, a number of communist students loyal to Meyer moved to the ] when he was fired in 1930.

Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased. But the Nazi regime was determined to crack down on what it saw as the foreign, probably ]ish influences of "cosmopolitan modernism." Despite Gropius's protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive political intent, the Berlin Bauhaus was pressured to close in April 1933. ] decided to emigrate to the United States for the directorship of the School of Architecture at the Armour Institute (now IIT) in Chicago and to seek building commissions. (The closure, and the response of Mies van der Rohe, is fully documented in Elaine Hochman's ''Architects of Fortune''.) Curiously, however, some Bauhaus influences lived on in ]. When Hitler's chief engineer, ], began opening the new ] (highways) in 1935, many of the bridges and service stations were "bold examples of modernism" - among those submitting designs was Mies van der Rohe.<ref>Richard J Evans, ''The Third Reich in Power'', 325</ref>

==Architectural output==

]]]
]: architect: ], 1933; a residential building that has become one of the symbols of Modernist architecture and the first building in Tel Aviv to be built on ]</center>]]
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The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the ultimate aim of all creative activity was building, the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. The single most profitable tangible product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper.

During the years under Gropius (1919&ndash;1927), he and his partner ] observed no real distinction between the output of his architectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in ], the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in ], and the competition design for the ], which brought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in ] is also attributed to Gropius. Apart from contributions to the 1923 ], student architectural work amounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets, chairs and pottery.

In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards functionality. There were major commissions: one from the city of Dessau for five tightly designed "Laubenganghäuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for the headquarters of the Federal School of the ] (ADGB) in ]. Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically develop the design solution.

] repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach. As opposed to Gropius's "study of essentials", and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatial implementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither van der Rohe nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s.

The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive Weimar-era working housing is not accurate. Two projects, the apartment building project in Dessau and the Törten row housing also in Dessau, fall in that category, but developing worker housing was not the first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the Bauhaus contemporaries ], ] and particularly ], as the city architects of ], ] and ] respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially progressive housing units built in ]. In Taut's case, the housing he built in south-west Berlin during the 1920s, is still occupied, and can be reached by going easily from the U-Bahn stop ].

==Impact==
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in Western Europe, the ], ] and ] (particularly in ]) in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled, or were exiled, by the Nazi regime. Tel Aviv, in fact, has been named to the list of ] sites by the ] due to its abundance of Bauhaus architecture in 2004;<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3777385.stm | work=BBC News | title=Unesco celebrates Tel Aviv | date=June 8, 2004 | accessdate=April 26, 2010}}</ref><ref></ref> it had some 4,000 Bauhaus buildings erected from 1933 on.

], ], and ] re-assembled in ] during the mid 1930s to live and work in the ] project before the war caught up with them. Both Gropius and Breuer went to teach at the ] and worked together before their professional split. The Harvard School was enormously influential in America in the late 1920s and early 1930s, producing such students as ], ], ] and ], among many others.

In the late 1930s, ] re-settled in Chicago, enjoyed the sponsorship of the influential ], and became one of the pre-eminent architects in the world. Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded the ] school under the sponsorship of industrialist and philanthropist ]. This school became the ], part of the ]. Printmaker and painter ] was also largely responsible for bringing the Bauhaus aesthetic to America and taught at both ] and ]. ], sponsored by Paepcke, moved to ] in support of Paepcke's Aspen projects at the ]. In 1953, ], together with ] and ], founded the ] (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm) in Ulm, Germany, a design school in the tradition of the Bauhaus. The school is notable for its inclusion of ] as a field of study. The school closed in 1968, but the ′Ulm Model′ concept continues to influence international design education.<ref></ref>

One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology. The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design were important components. ''Vorkurs'' ("initial" or "preliminary course") was taught; this is the modern day "Basic Design" course that has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural and design schools across the globe. There was no teaching of history in the school because everything was supposed to be designed and created according to first principles rather than by following precedent.

One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of ] design. The ubiquitous ] and the ] designed by ] are two examples. (Breuer eventually lost a legal battle in Germany with Dutch architect/designer ] over the rights to the cantilever chair patent. Although Stam had worked on the design of the Bauhaus's 1923 exhibit in Weimar, and guest-lectured at the Bauhaus later in the 1920s, he was not formally associated with the school, and he and Breuer had worked independently on the cantilever concept, thus leading to the patent dispute.)

The physical plant at ] survived ] and was operated as a design school with some architectural facilities by the ]. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the name of ''Bauhausbühne'' ("Bauhaus Stage"). After ], a reorganized school continued in the same building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s.<ref></ref> In 1979 Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1974 as a public institution.

American art schools have also rediscovered the Bauhaus school. The Master Craftsman Program at ] bases its artistic philosophy on Bauhaus theory and practice.

== Bauhaus artists ==
Bauhaus was not a formal group, but rather a school. Its three architect-directors (], ], and ]) are most closely associated with Bauhaus.

Furthermore a large number of outstanding artists of their time were lecturers at Bauhaus:
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==See also==
{{Portal|Design}}
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==References==
<!--This article uses the Cite.php citation mechanism. If you would like more information on how to add references to this article, please see http://www.mediawiki.org/Extension:Cite/Cite.php -->
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{More footnotes|date=April 2009}}
* Oskar Schlemmer. Tut Schlemmer, Editor. ''The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer''. Translated by Krishna Winston. Wesleyan University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-8195-4047-1
* Magdalena Droste, Peter Gossel, Editors. ''Bauhaus'', Taschen America LLC, 2005. ISBN 3-8228-3649-4
* Marty Bax. ''Bauhaus Lecture Notes 1930–1933. Theory and practice of architectural training at the Bauhaus, based on the lecture notes made by the Dutch ex-Bauhaus student and architect J.J. van der Linden of the Mies van der Rohe curriculum''. Amsterdam, Architectura & Natura 1991. ISBN 90-71570-04-5
* Anja Baumhoff, ''The Gendered World of the Bauhaus. The Politics of Power at the Weimar Republic's Premier Art Institute, 1919-1931.'' Peter Lang, Frankfurt, New York 2001. ISBN 3-631-37945-5
* Boris Friedewald, ''Bauhaus'', Prestel, Munich, London, New York 2009. ISBN 978-3-7913-4200-9
* Catherine Weill-Rochant, ''"Bauhaus" - Architektur in Tel Aviv'', Rita H. Gans. Ed., Kiriat Yearim, Zurich, 2008 (German and French)
* 'The Tel-Aviv School : a constrained rationalism' (Catherine Weill-Rochant)DOCOMOMO journal (Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement), April 2009.
* Anker, Peder. ''From Bauhaus to Eco-House: A History of Ecological Design''. Baton Rouge LA.: ], 2009 ISBN 978-0-8071-3551-8
* Kirsten Baumann: "Bauhaus Dessau - Architecture Design Koncept", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-939633-11-2
* Monika Markgraf (Ed.): "Archaeology of Modernism - Renovation Bauhaus Dessau", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-936314-83-0
* Torsten Blume / Burghard Duhm (Eds.): "Bauhaus.Theatre.Dessau - Change of Scene", JOVIS Verlag Berlin, ISBN 978-3-936314-81-6

==External links==
*, the foundation maintaining the school and master houses in Dessau.
{{Commons|Bauhaus}}
*{{dmoz|Arts/Art_History/Periods_and_Movements/Bauhaus}}

{{Modernarch}}
{{Avant-garde}}
{{Westernart}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Germany}}

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Revision as of 06:22, 12 October 2010