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| Haiti, better known by its stage name Ludacris, likes men. | |||
| {{pp-move-indef}} | |||
| {{Infobox country | |||
| |native_name = {{native name|fr|République d'Haïti}}<br />{{native name|ht|Repiblik Ayiti}} | |||
| |conventional_long_name = Republic of Haiti | |||
| |common_name = Haiti | |||
| |image_flag = Flag_of_Haiti.svg | |||
| |image_coat = Coat of arms of Haiti.svg | |||
| |image_map = Haiti (orthographic projection).svg | |||
| |national_motto = '']'' <ref></ref> | |||
| |national_anthem = '']''<br/>''The Dessalines Song''</center><br>] | |||
| |official_languages = ], ] | |||
| |demonym = Haitian | |||
| |ethnic_groups = 95% ], 5% ] and white<ref name="CIA_20110303" /> | |||
| |capital = ] | |||
| |latd=18 |latm=32 |latNS=N |longd=72 |longm=20 |longEW=W | |||
| |largest_city = capital | |||
| |government_type = ] ] ] | |||
| |leader_title1 = ] | |||
| |leader_name1 = ] | |||
| |leader_title2 = ] | |||
| |leader_name2 = ] | |||
| |area_rank = 140th | |||
| |area_magnitude = 1 E10 | |||
| |area_km2 = 27,750 | |||
| |area_sq_mi = 10,714 <!--Do not remove per ]--> | |||
| |percent_water = 0.7 | |||
| |population_estimate = 9,719,932<ref name="CIA_20110303" /> | |||
| |population_estimate_rank = 87th | |||
| |population_estimate_year = 2011 | |||
| |population_density_km2 = 350.27<!-- (population_estimate ÷ area_km2) --> | |||
| |population_density_sq_mi = 907.22<!-- (population_estimate ÷ area_sq_mi) --> | |||
| |GDP_PPP = $11.477 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2011/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2008&ey=2011&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=263&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=30&pr.y=10 |title=Haiti |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=2011-04-21}}</ref> | |||
| |GDP_PPP_rank = | |||
| |GDP_PPP_year = 2010 | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,164<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_nominal = $6.632 billion<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_nominal_year = 2010 | |||
| |GDP_nominal_per_capita = $673<ref name=imf2/> | |||
| |GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = | |||
| |sovereignty_type = ] | |||
| |established_event1 = ] declared<br />('']'') | |||
| |established_date1 = 30 October 1697 | |||
| |established_event2 = Independence declared | |||
| |established_date2 = 1 January 1804 | |||
| |established_event3 = Independence recognized from France | |||
| |established_date3 = 17 April 1825 | |||
| |HDI = {{decrease}} 0.404<ref name="UNDP_2010" /> | |||
| |HDI_rank = 145th | |||
| |HDI_year = 2010 | |||
| |HDI_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">low</span> | |||
| |Gini = 59.2<ref name="wb-gini">{{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini Index |author= |date= |work= |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=2 March 2011}}</ref> | |||
| |Gini_year = 2001 | |||
| |Gini_category = <span style="color:#e0584e;">high</span> | |||
| |currency = ] | |||
| |currency_code = HTG | |||
| |country_code = | |||
| |time_zone = | |||
| |utc_offset = -5 | |||
| |drives_on = right | |||
| |cctld = ] | |||
| |calling_code = 509}} | |||
| '''Haiti''' {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Haiti.ogg|ˈ|h|eɪ|t|i}} (] '']'' {{IPA-fr|a.iti|}}; ] ''Ayiti'' {{IPA-ht|ajiti|}}), officially the '''Republic of Haiti''' ({{lang|fr|''République d'Haïti''}}; | |||
| {{lang|ht|''Repiblik Ayiti''}}) is a ] country. It occupies the western, smaller portion of the island of ], in the ] archipelago, which it shares with the ]. ''Ayiti'' (''land of high mountains'') was the indigenous ] or ] name for the island. The country's highest point is ], at {{convert|2680|m|ft|0|}}. The total area of Haiti is {{convert|27750|km2|sqmi|0}} and its capital is ]. ] and ] are the official languages. | |||
| Haiti's regional, historical, and ] position is unique for several reasons. It was the first independent nation in Latin America and the first ]-led ] in the world when it gained independence as part of a successful ] in 1804.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/country_profiles/1202772.stm |title=Country profile: Haiti |date=2010-01-19 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=2010-01-23}}</ref> Despite having common cultural links with its ] neighbors, Haiti is the only predominantly ] independent ] in the Americas. It is one of only two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) that designate ] as an ]; the other French-speaking areas are all ] '']'', or '']'', of France. | |||
| Haiti is the poorest country in the ] as per the ]. It has experienced political violence throughout its ]. Most recently, in February 2004, an armed rebellion forced the resignation and exile of previous President ], and a provisional government took control with security provided by the ] (MINUSTAH). ], the current president, was elected in the ]. | |||
| A 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck ]. Although the exact number was difficult to determine, the highest unbiased source estimated 220,000 people were killed.<ref> World Vision Australia, 12 July 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2011.</ref> Haitian government estimates were higher.<ref name="bbc100210">{{cite news|title=Haiti quake death toll rises to 230,000|date=2010-02-10|publisher=]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8507531.stm}}</ref> The Presidential palace, Parliament and many other important structures were destroyed, along with countless homes and businesses, leaving many homeless. Due to its severity, the country has yet to recover from this and subsequent disasters.<ref>http://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressrelease/2011-01-06/year-indecision-leaves-haiti-recovery-standstill</ref> | |||
| ==History== | |||
| {{Main|History of Haiti}} | |||
| {{See also|2004 Haitian rebellion|United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti}}<!-- Please add new information to relevant articles of the series --> | |||
| ===Precolonial and Spanish colonial periods=== | |||
| The island of ], of which Haiti occupies the western third, is one of many Caribbean islands inhabited at the time of European arrival by the ] Indians, speakers of an ] language. The Taíno name for the entire island was either ''Ayiti'' or ''Kiskeya''. In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean Islands, the largest unit of political organization was led by a '']''; hence the term 'caciquedom' (French ''caciquat'', Spanish ''cacicazgo'') for these Taíno ], which are often called "]". Before the arrival of Christopher Columbus, the island of Hispaniola was divided among five or six long-established caciquedoms.<ref>Cassá 1995: 126.</ref><ref>Wilson 1990: 110.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests. Taíno cultural artifacts include ] in several locations in the country, which have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day ], a town in the southwest, is at the site of Xaragua's former capital. | |||
| ] landed at ] on December 5, 1492, and claimed the island for Spain. Nineteen days later, his ship the '']'' ran aground near the present site of ]; Columbus was forced to leave behind 39 men, founding the settlement of ]. Following the destruction of La Navidad by the local ], Columbus moved to the eastern side of the island and established ]. One of the earliest leaders to fight off Spanish conquest was Queen '']'', a princess of ''Xaragua'' who married ''Caonabo'', the cacique of ''Maguana''. The couple resisted Spanish rule in vain; she was captured by the Spanish and executed in front of her people. To this day, Queen Anacaona is revered in Haiti as one of the country's founders. | |||
| ] telling a story of missionaries arriving in ]]] | |||
| The Spanish exploited the island for its ], mined chiefly by local ] directed by the Spanish occupiers. Those refusing to work in the mines were killed or sold into slavery. Europeans brought with them ] that were new to the Caribbean, to which the indigenous population lacked ]. These new diseases were the chief cause of the dying off of the Taíno,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9968/9968.ch01.php |title=David A. Koplow, '' Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge'' |accessdate=2010-01-13}}</ref> but ill treatment, malnutrition, and a drastic drop in the birthrate as a result of societal disruption also contributed. The first recorded ] outbreak in the Americas occurred on Hispaniola in 1507.<ref> ''Texas Department of State Health Services''. Retrieved 2010-01-14.</ref> | |||
| The ], were the first nationally codified set of laws governing the behavior of Spanish settlers in America, particularly with regards to native Indians. They forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their ] to ],<ref>". Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> and legalized the colonial practice of creating ]s, where Indians were grouped together to work under colonial masters.<ref>. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> The Spanish crown found it difficult to enforce these laws in a distant colony. | |||
| The Spanish governors began importing ] ] for labor. In 1517, ] authorized the draft of slaves. The Taínos became virtually, but not completely, ] on the island of Hispaniola. Some who evaded capture fled to the mountains and established independent settlements. Survivors mixed with escaped African slaves (runaways called '']'') and produced a multiracial generation called '']''. ] settlers later called people of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry '']''. The '']'' were children born to relationships between native women and European – usually Spanish – men. During French rule, children of mixed race, usually born of unions between African women and European men, were called ''mulâtres''. | |||
| ] was nicknamed "Flail of the Spaniards" and had a reputation for brutality – offering ] to Spanish prisoners]] | |||
| As a gateway to the Caribbean, Hispaniola became a haven for ]. The western part of the island was settled by French ]s. Among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing ]. His success prompted many of the numerous buccaneers and freebooters to turn into settlers. This population did not submit to Spanish royal authority until the year 1660 and caused a number of conflicts. By 1640, the buccaneers of ] were calling themselves the '']''. French pirate ], who operated in ] and ], was born in Port-au-Prince around 1782.<ref>, ''Smithsonian'' magazine, August 2006. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| ], who might have been born in St Marc, Saint-Domingue in 1745, established a ] post at present-day ] of which he can be considered one of the founders. ], the renowned ] and painter, was born in 1785 in Les Cayes, Saint-Domingue and painted, cataloged and described the birds of North America. | |||
| In 1779, more than 500 volunteers from Saint-Domingue, under the command of ], fought alongside American colonial troops against the British in the ], one of the most significant foreign contributions to the American Revolutionary War.<ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| | doi = 10.2307/274860 | |||
| | issn = 00318906 | |||
| | volume = 41 | |||
| | issue = 4 | |||
| | pages = 356–366 | |||
| | last = Clark | |||
| | first = George P. | |||
| | title = The Role of the Haitian Volunteers at Savannah in 1779: An Attempt at an Objective View | |||
| | journal = Phylon (1960–) | |||
| | year = 1980 | |||
| | accessdate=2010-02-16 | |||
| | publisher = Clark Atlanta University | |||
| | jstor = 274860 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| ===17th century settlement=== | |||
| Bertrand d'Orgeron attracted many colonists from ] and ], such as the Roy family (Jean Roy, 1625–1707); Hebert (Jean Hebert, 1624, with his family) and Barre (Guillaume Barre, 1642, with his family). They and others were driven from their lands when more land was needed for the extension of the ] ]s. From 1670 to 1690, a drop in the tobacco markets significantly reduced the number of settlers on the island. | |||
| The first ] for processing sugar was built in 1685. | |||
| ===Treaty of Ryswick and slave colony (1697)=== | |||
| France and Spain settled hostilities on the island by the ] of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them. France received the western third and subsequently named it ] (not the current Santo-Domingo, which is in the Dominican Republic and was part of the eastern side given to the Spanish through the treaty). Many French colonists soon arrived and established plantations in Saint-Domingue due to high ] potential. By 1789, there were approximately 40,000 French immigrants on the western part of the island,<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples |first=Paul R. |last=Magocsi |publisher=University of Toronto Press |page=649 |year=1999 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA649 |isbn=0-802-02938-8}}</ref> while by 1763 the French population of ] numbered only 65,000.<ref>, ''L’Encyclopédie de l'histoire du Québec'' / The Quebec History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2010-01-14.</ref> | |||
| By about 1790, Saint-Domingue had greatly overshadowed its eastern counterpart in terms of wealth and population. It quickly became the richest French colony in the New World due to the immense profits from the sugar, coffee and ] industries. The French-enacted '']'' ("Black Code"), prepared by ] and ratified by ], established rigid rules on slave treatment and permissible freedom. Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.<ref name="Farmer-LROB">{{cite web |author= Paul Farmer| title=Who removed Aristide? |accessdate=2010-02-19 |date=April 15, 2004 |url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n08/farm01_.html |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080608222428/http://www.lrb.co.uk/v26/n08/farm01_.html |archivedate=June 6, 2008}}</ref> | |||
| ===Revolution (1791)=== | |||
| {{Main|Haitian Revolution}} | |||
| ], leader of the Haitian Revolution and the first ruler of an independent Haiti]] | |||
| Inspired by the ] and principles of the rights of men, free people of colour and slaves in Saint-Domingue and the French and West Indies pressed for freedom and more civil rights. Most important was the revolution of the slaves in Saint-Domingue, starting in the heavily African-majority northern plains in 1791. In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to reestablish control. They began to build an alliance with the free people of colour who wanted more civil rights. In 1793, France and Great Britain went to war, and British troops invaded Saint-Domingue. The execution of ] heightened tensions in the colony. To build an alliance with the '']'' and slaves, the French commissioners ] and ] abolished slavery in the colony. Six months later, the ] led by ] and the ] endorsed ] and extended it to all the French colonies.<ref>. Retrieved 2010-01-14.</ref> | |||
| ], a former slave and leader in the slave revolt—a man who rose in importance as a military commander because of his many skills—achieved peace in 1794 in Saint-Domingue after years of war against both external invaders and internal dissension. Having established a disciplined, flexible army, Louverture drove out not only the Spanish but also the British invaders who threatened the colony. He restored stability and prosperity by daring measures that included inviting planters to return and insisting freed men work on plantations to renew revenues for the island. He also renewed trading ties with Great Britain and the United States. In the uncertain years of revolution, the United States played both sides, with traders supplying both the French and the rebels.<ref>, ''The New York Times'', March 22, 1987. Retrieved 2010-01-14.</ref> | |||
| === <span id="Independence">Independence and Division (1804)</span> === | |||
| When the French government changed, new members of the national legislature – lobbied by planters – began to rethink their decisions on colonial slavery. After Toussaint Louverture created a separatist constitution, ] sent an expedition of 20,000 men under the command of his brother-in-law, General ], to retake the island. Leclerc's mission was to oust Louverture and restore slavery. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months, ] had killed most of the French soldiers.<ref>, Montana State University. Retrieved 2010-01-14.</ref> More than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake colony, including 18 generals.<ref> by Adam Hochschild, '']'', May 30, 2004. Retrieved 2010-02-18.</ref> Leclerc invited Toussaint Louverture to a ], kidnapped him and sent him to France, where he was imprisoned at ]. He died there in 1803 of exposure and ]<ref name = Farmer-LROB/> or ] and ]. | |||
| ] in French service and the ]. Some Polish soldiers ultimately fought with the Haitian rebels for reasons that are historically disputable.<ref>, Webster University. Retrieved 2010-02-19.</ref>]] | |||
| Slaves, along with free ''gens de couleur'' and allies continued their fight for independence after the French transported Louverture to France. The native leader ] – long an ally and general of Toussaint Louverture, brilliant strategist and soldier – defeated French troops led by ], at the ]. At the end of the double battle for ] and independence, former slaves proclaimed the independence of Saint-Domingue on 1 January 1804,<ref name=Haiti>, Webster University. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> declaring the new nation be named "Ayiti", both a Native American and African term, meaning "home or mother of the earth" in the Taino-Arawak Native American language and "sacred earth or homeland" in the Fon African language, to honor one of the indigenous Taíno names for the island. Haiti is the only nation born of a slave revolt. Haiti's perseverance and successful resistance against colonial forces would influence the future of the United States Civil War.<ref name = Farmer-LROB/> Historians have estimated the slave rebellion resulted in the death of 100,000 blacks and 24,000 of the 40,000 white colonists.<ref>Blackpast.com . Retrieved 2010-02-19.</ref> In February 2010, the eight-page document containing the official , which was believed to have been destroyed or thrown out, was found by a Canadian graduate student from ] in Britain's ]. Coming as it did soon after the 2010 devastating earthquake, the discovery is seen by many to be providential.<ref> NT Times, March 31, 2010</ref> | |||
| The revolution in Saint-Domingue unleashed a massive multiracial exodus: French ] colonists fled with those slaves they still held, as did numerous ], some of whom were also slaveholders and transported slaves with them.<ref>, ''The African-American Migration Experience''. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> In 1809, nearly 10,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue arrived from ], where they had first fled, to settle ''en masse'' in ].<ref>, ''The Nation'', 2008-12-10.</ref> They doubled that city's population and helped preserve its French language and culture for several generations. In addition, the newly arrived slaves added to the city's African and multiracial culture.<ref>, Center for Cultural & Eco-Tourism, University of Louisiana. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| Dessalines was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" by his troops.<ref>Constitution of Haiti ] ''New-York Evening Post'' 1805-07-15.</ref> He exiled or killed the remaining whites and ruled as a ].<ref>, ]. Retrieved 2010-02-19.</ref> In the continuing competition for power, he was ] on 17 October 1806.<ref name=Haiti/> The country was then divided between a ] in the north directed by ]; and a ] in the south directed by ], an ''homme de couleur''. Henri I is best known for constructing the '']'', the largest ] in the Western Hemisphere, to defend the island against the French. Despite opposition from the mulatto populace, Henri Christophe successfully united Northern Haiti for a period of time under a semi-feudal ] system, establishing a rigid education and economic code aimed at sustainable improvement for all Haitians.<ref></ref> | |||
| In 1815, ], the South American political leader who was instrumental in Latin America's struggle for independence from Spain, received military and financial assistance from Haiti. Bolívar had fled to Haiti after an attempt had been made on his life in Jamaica, where he had unsuccessfully sought support for his efforts. In 1817, on condition that Bolívar free any enslaved people he encountered in his fight for South American independence, Haitian president ] provided Bolívar with soldiers, weapons and financial assistance, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the ] (Now ], ], ] and ]).<ref>{{cite book |title=Simón Bolívar: essays on the life and legacy of the liberator |editor=Bushnell, David and Langley, Lester |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |page=5 |isbn=0742556190 |accessdate=2010-01-24}}</ref> | |||
| ===Reunification=== | |||
| ], one of the leaders of the Haitian Revolution, and ] from 1818 to 1843]] | |||
| Beginning in 1821, President ], also an ''homme de couleur'' and successor to Pétion, managed to reunify the two parts of St. Domingue and extend control over the western part of the island.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sagás |first=Ernesto |title=An apparent contradiction? Popular perceptions of Haiti and the foreign policy of the Dominican Republic |publisher=Sixth Annual Conference of the Haitian Studies Association |date=October 14, 1994 |url=http://haitiforever.com/windowsonhaiti/esagas2.shtml |accessdate=2007-08-19 }}</ref> In addition, after ] declared its independence from Spain, Boyer sent forces in to take control. Boyer then ruled the entire island.<ref>, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> According to ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', "During his presidency, Boyer tried to halt the downward trend of the economy — which had begun with the successful revolt of black slaves against their French masters in the 1790s — by passing the Code Rural. Its provisions sought to tie the peasant labourers to plantation land by denying them the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own and by creating a rural constabulary to enforce the code."<ref>, ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref><ref>, Bob Corbett, July, 1995, Webster University. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| During Boyer's administration, his government negotiated with ], an agent of the ] (ACS), to encourage ] from the United States to emigrate to Haiti. They hoped to gain people with skills to contribute to the independent nation. In the early 19th century, the ACS – an uneasy blend of ] and slaveholders – proposed resettlement of American free blacks to other countries, primarily to a colony in ], as a solution to problems of ] in the US. Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 American free blacks migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by the ACS.<ref>, from Girard Alphonse Firire, Ph.D., "HAITI AND ITS DIASPORA: NEW HISTORICAL, CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC FRONTIERS", 27 August 1999. Retrieved 2010-01-15.</ref> Due to the poverty and other difficult conditions there, many returned to the US within a short time. | |||
| In July 1825, King ] of France sent a fleet of 14 vessels and thousands of troops to reconquer the island. Under pressure, ] by which France formally recognized the independence of the nation in exchange for a payment of 150 million ] (reduced to 90 million in 1838) – an indemnity for profits lost from the slave trade. French ] ] wrote, "Imposing an indemnity on the victorious slaves was equivalent to making them pay with money that which they had already paid with their blood." | |||
| After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843. A long succession of ]s followed his departure to exile. National authority was disputed by factions of the army, the elite class, and the growing commercial class, increasingly made up of numerous ] businessmen: ], Americans, French and English.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} | |||
| In 1912, ]ns residing in Haiti participated in a plot in which the ] was destroyed.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}} On more than one occasion, French, US, German and British forces allegedly claimed large sums of money from the vaults of the National Bank of Haiti.<ref name = "UOH">Paul Farmer, ''The Uses of Haiti'' (Common Courage Press: 1994).</ref> ] bankrolled and armed opposing groups.<ref>{{cite book|title=The uses of Haiti |first1=Paul |last1=Farmer |first2=Jonathan |last2=Kozol |page=74 |edition=3 |publisher=Common Courage Press |year=2006 |isbn=1567513441}}</ref> | |||
| In addition, national governments intervened in Haitian affairs. In 1892, the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of ].{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} In January 1914, British, German and US forces entered Haiti, ostensibly to protect their citizens from civil unrest.<ref name = "UOH"/> | |||
| ===1915–1934=== | |||
| In an expression of the ] to the ], the ] the island in 1915 and US Marines were stationed in the country until 1934. According to Munro, treaties in 1915 and 1917 gave the U.S. State and Navy departments (and the Navy's Marine Corps) effective control over key government roles; the U.S. assumed responsibility for maintaining domestic peace and put down several small rebellions such as the "Cacos" uprising. Haiti had huge debts, which were refinanced by new loans from the National City Bank of New York, and paid off by American government officials who took control of customs and the national budget. The U.S. transformed the Garde into a modern police force and built up advanced public health, education, ports and roads. The U.S. Marines supervised the operations of a client Haitian government, and emphasized American-style modernization of the infrastructure and universal education. Haitian traditionalists were highly resistant to these changes while the urban elites wanted more control. Together they helped force an end to the occupation in 1934.<ref>A. J. Angulo, "Education During the American Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934", ''Historical Studies in Education'', Fall 2010, Vol. 22 Issue 2, pp 1–17</ref> President ] sent a commission that set up a plan of withdrawal that was achieved under President ]. The first step was a gradual, systematic turnover of government functions to the Haitian government; in 1934 it took control of the Garde and the Marines departed. The debts were still outstanding and the American financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.<ref>Dana G. Munro, "The American Withdrawal From Haiti, 1929–1934", ''Hispanic American Historical Review'', Feb 1969, Vol. 49 Issue 1, pp 1–26 </ref> | |||
| In 1915, ] was elected president. He was succeeded by ] in the 1922 elections. Borno worked closely with the Americans. Aware that many Haitians did not speak French, he was the first president to authorize the use of Creole in the education system. ] fiber cultivation was introduced to Haiti, and sugar and cotton became significant exports.<ref>Henl, pp. 454–455.</ref> | |||
| Recognition of the distinctive traditionalism of the Haitian people had a sharp impact on black writers in the U.S. (as well as white writers exploring black themes), including ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>Mary A. Renda, ''Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1915–1940'' (2000)</ref> | |||
| ===1934–1956=== | |||
| The US occupation forces established a boundary between Haiti and the Dominican Republic by taking disputed land from the latter. After the US left in 1934, ] dictator ] – in an event known as the ] – ordered his Army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.<ref name="Farmer180">Paul Farmer, ''Aids and accusation: Haiti and the geography of blame'' 2006 California University Press ISBN 978-0-520-24839-7, pp. 180–181.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Wucker |first=Michele |title=Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians and the Struggle for Hispaniola| work=Windows on Haiti |url=http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/wucker.html |accessdate=2007-12-26}}</ref> In a "three-day genocidal spree", he murdered between 10,000 and 20,000 Haitians.<ref name="Farmer180"/> He then developed a uniquely Dominican policy of racial discrimination, ] ("anti-Haitianism"), targeting the mostly black inhabitants of his neighboring country. | |||
| ] was succeeded as President in 1941 by ]. In 1949, Lescot tried to change the constitution to allow for his own reelection, but in 1950 this triggered another coup. General ] led the country until December 1956, when he was forced to resign by a general strike. After a period of disorder, ] saw Dr. ] elected President. | |||
| ===1957–1986=== | |||
| From 1957 to 1986 Haiti was governed by the ] of the Duvalier family. | |||
| Former minister of health and labor ], known as "Papa Doc" and initially popular among the blacks,{{clarify|which was everybody, so this makes no sense|date=February 2011}} was the President of Haiti from 1957 until his death in 1971. A strong believer in the rights of the Haitian black majority, he advanced black interests in the public sector.<ref name="bryan">The Haitian revolution and its effects. Patrick E. Bryan.</ref> He stayed in power by enlisting an organization known as '']'' ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace.<ref> ''Encyclopædia Britannica''</ref> | |||
| In the 1960s and 1970s, Haiti's diaspora made vital contributions to the establishment of ] Africa's newly independent countries as Haiti's ] professors, medical doctors, administrators and development specialists emigrated to these countries.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} | |||
| "Papa Doc" was succeeded by his son (born July 3, 1951) ] – known also as "Bébé Doc" – who led the country from 1971 until his ouster in 1986. In 1986, protests against "Baby Doc" led him to seek exile in France. Army leader General ] headed a new ].<ref name = "USEH">. Retrieved 2010-01-13.</ref> | |||
| In March 1987, a new Constitution was overwhelmingly approved by Haiti's population. ] were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tonton Macoute, and scores more were massacred around the country. Fraudulent ], boycotted by opposition candidates, and the elected President, ], was overthrown some months later in the ] when he sought to assert his constitutional control over the military. The ] followed after the ] brought to the fore the increasing prominence of former Tontons Macoutes, and General ] led a military regime until March 1990. Throughout the late 1980s and into the 1990s, leading members of the military, intelligence and police were involved in the ], assisting Colombian drug traffickers smuggling drugs into the United States.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}} | |||
| ===1990s=== | |||
| In December 1990, the former priest ] was elected President in the ], winning more than two thirds of the vote. His 5-year mandate began on 7 February 1991, having survived a coup attempt even before his inauguration, when former ] leader ] seized the provisional President ] and declared himself President. After large numbers of Aristide supporters filled the streets in protest and Lafontant attempted to declare martial law, the Army crushed the incipient coup. | |||
| During Aristide's short-lived first period in office, he attempted to carry out substantial reforms, which brought passionate opposition from Haiti's business and military elite. His relationship with the National Assembly soon deteriorated, partly over his selection of his friend ] as Prime Minister. In September, Aristide was overthrown in the ], led by Army General ], and flown into exile. Elections were scheduled, but then cancelled. The ] condemned the coup, and the United Nations set up a ]. A campaign of terror against Aristide supporters was started by ]. In 1993, Constant, who had been on the U.S. ]'s payroll as an informant since 1992, organized the ] (FRAPH), which targeted and killed an estimated 5000 Aristide supporters. | |||
| In 1994, an American team, under the direction of the Clinton Administration, successfully negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of US forces under ], thereby paving the way for the restoration of Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president.<ref name="CCHaiti">{{cite web |author= The Carter Center |title=Activities by Country: Haiti |url=http://www.cartercenter.org/countries/haiti.html |accessdate=2010-02-19}}</ref> In October 1994, Aristide returned to Haiti to complete his term in office.<ref> by CATHERINE S. MANEGOLD, October 16, 1994, NYTimes.com. Retrieved 2010-02-19.</ref> Aristide disbanded the Haitian army, and established a civilian police force. | |||
| Aristide vacated the presidency in February 1996, the scheduled end of his 5-year term based on the date of his inauguration. In the ], ] was elected as president for a five-year term, winning 88% of the popular vote. Préval had previously served as Aristide's Prime Minister from February to October 1991. | |||
| ===21st century=== | |||
| {{See also|2004 Haitian rebellion|United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti|2010 Haiti earthquake}} | |||
| The ] gave the presidency back to Aristide with an overwhelming 92% of the vote.<ref>Hallward, P. Damming the Flood:Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of containment', London, UK: Verso Books 2007, p. xiii, 78–79</ref> The election had been boycotted by the opposition, now organised into the ], over a dispute in the ]. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence and ]s. Aristide supporters attacked the opposition.<ref name=bussandgardner>''Haiti in the balance: why foreign aid has failed and what we can do about it.'' Terry F. Buss,Adam Gardner.</ref> Aristide spent years negotiating with the ] on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive. | |||
| In 2004, a ] began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital; and Aristide was forced into exile, whereupon the United Nations stationed peacekeepers in Haiti. Much evidence points to a key U.S. role in Aristide's ouster, with Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, claiming that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces. Mrs. Aristide stated that the kidnappers wore US Special Forces uniforms, but changed into civilian clothes upon boarding the aircraft that was used to remove Aristide from Haiti.<ref></ref><ref></ref> ] assumed interim authority. ] was elected President in February 2006, following ] marked by uncertainties and popular demonstrations. The ] (also known as MINUSTAH) remains in the country, having been there since the ]. The United States led a vast international campaign to prevent Aristide from returning to his country while he was exiled in South Africa. Released Wikileaks cables show that high-level U.S. and U.N. officials coordinated a politically motivated prosecution of Aristide to prevent him from "gaining more traction with the Haitian population and returning to Haiti." The United States and its allies allegedly poured tens of millions of dollars into unsuccessful efforts to slander Aristide as a drug trafficker, human rights violator, and heretical practitioner of voodoo.<ref>http://www.democracynow.org/2011/8/11/haiti_wikileaks_cables_expose_how_us</ref> | |||
| ]<ref> by Yves Pierre-Louis & Kim Ives – Haiti Liberté, July 02, 2008. HaitiAnalysis.com. Retrieved 2010-02-19.</ref><ref name=Preval>, AFP, 2008-06-23.</ref> was the second female ] (September 2008-Nov. 2009).<ref name=Ratify>, Associated Press, 2008-07-31.</ref> ] (1995–1996) was the first. | |||
| ===2010–2011: Earthquake, cholera, and flood events=== | |||
| {{main|Haiti cholera outbreak}} | |||
| <!---editors need to be aware that there is already a "summary" below on the earthquake and try to match that. Or change the other two places---> | |||
| The ] left up to 316,000 people dead and 1.6 million homeless.<ref></ref> Massive homelessness and displacement continues and does not appear to have significantly abated. Government agencies were also hard hit. Two days afterwards thousands of U.S. troops arrived to aid in the earthquake relief effort<ref>, BBC News, 15 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> and relief agencies are playing a large role in rebuilding Haiti's infrastructure, while taking care of the short-term emergency needs of the many injured and displaced Haitians.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8482237.stm |title=The challenge of rebuilding Haiti |date=29 January 2010 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=2010-01-31}}</ref> In October 2010 a cholera epidemic was identified, a disease thought to be accidentally introduced by aid workers from abroad. More than 3,500 people in a region to the north of ] were treated for ], acute ], ], and severe ]. There were fears the outbreak would reach camps housing survivors of the earthquake. | |||
| <!---still repeats cholera material from above. needs better integration---> | |||
| There were initial protests against the U.N. peacekeeping forces because of their suspected role in introducing cholera. These led to violent attacks on November 15, 2010. The cholera outbreak had, at that point, killed around 900 people, and sickened around 15,000.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6AA5PC20101115 | agency=Reuters | title=Haitians attack U.N. troops, blame them for cholera | date=2010-11-15}}</ref> Many Haitian people alleged that the strain may have come from the Nepalese peacekeepers, who have a base on the Artibonite river, but the U.N. did not want the Haitian people to come to conclusions and blame the Nepalese based on "misinformation".<ref name=autogenerated2>{{dead link|date=May 2011}}</ref> The last cholera outbreak in Haiti was forty years ago,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/world/americas/15cholera.html | work=The New York Times | first=Randal C. | last=Archibold | title=Cholera Deaths Up in Haiti, With Worst to Come | date=2010-11-14}}</ref> and "The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention found that the cholera strain now ravaging the country matched a strain specific to South Asia, but said they had not pinpointed its origin or how it arrived in Haiti."<ref name=autogenerated2 /><ref>http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/story/2010/11/16/haiti-cholera-deaths.html</ref> | |||
| General elections had been planned for January 2010, but were postponed due to the earthquake. The ] for senate, parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between ] and ] took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Martelly the winner. | |||
| ==Geography== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main|Geography of Haiti}} | |||
| Haiti is on the western part of ], the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind ] and the ] (the latter shares a {{convert|360|km|mi|0|adj=on}} border with Haiti). Haiti at its closest point is only about {{convert|45|nmi|km mi|0}} away from Cuba and has the second longest coastline ({{convert|1771|km|mi|0|abbr=on|disp=/}}) in the Greater Antilles, Cuba having the longest. The country lies mostly between latitudes ] and ] (] island lies just north of 20°), and longitudes ] and ]. Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys. | |||
| The northern region consists of the ''Massif du Nord'' (Northern Massif) and the ''Plaine du Nord'' (Northern Plain). The ''Massif du Nord'' is an extension of the ''Cordillera Central'' in the Dominican Republic. It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the ], and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the ''Plaine du Nord'' lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the ''Massif du Nord'' and the North Atlantic Ocean. The central region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The ''Plateau Central'' (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the ''Massif du Nord''. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the ''Plateau Central'' are the ''Montagnes Noires'', whose most northwestern part merges with the ''Massif du Nord''. Its westernmost point is known as Cap Carcasse. | |||
| The southern region consists of the ] (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (also known as the ]). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country's saline lakes, such as ] and Haiti's largest lake, ]. The ] mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the ] in the west. This mountain range harbors ], the highest point in Haiti at {{convert|2680|m|ft|0}} *<ref>. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| The country's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which is oriented south of the Montagnes Noires. This region supports the country's (also Hispaniola's) longest river, the ], which begins in the western region of the ] and continues most of its length through central Haiti and onward where it empties into the ]. The eastern and central region of the island is a large elevated plateau. Haiti also includes various offshore islands. The historically famous island of ] (Île de la Tortue) is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The ] of ] is located on the island of the same name, in the ]. Gonâve Island is moderately populated by rural villagers. ] (Cow Island), a lush island with many beautiful sights, is located off the tip of southwestern Haiti. Also part of Haiti are the ] and Île d' Anacaona. | |||
| ] (right) shows the amount of deforestation on the Haitian side]] | |||
| ===Environment=== | |||
| {{Main|Environment of Haiti|Deforestation in Haiti}} | |||
| In 1925, Haiti was lush, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions. Since then, the population has cut down an estimated 98% of its original forest cover for use as fuel for cookstoves, and in the process has destroyed fertile farmland soils, contributing to ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/haiti/53.htm |title=Forestry in Haiti |publisher= |accessdate=2010-02-16}}</ref> | |||
| In addition to ], ] has caused periodic flooding, as seen on 17 September 2004. Earlier that year in May, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.<ref>, by Amy Bracken, September 22, 2004. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| There has been little marine, coastal, and river basin management. Forest cover in the steep hills surrounding Haiti's river basin retains soil, which in turn retains water from rainfall, reducing river flood peaks and conserving flows in the dry season. But deforestation has resulted in much of the soil being released from the upper catchments. Many of Haiti's rivers are now highly unstable, changing rapidly from destructive flooding to inadequate flows.<ref>http://www.haitiregeneration.org/node/67</ref>Scientists at the ]<ref>'s</ref> and the ] are working on the Haiti Regenerative Initiative <ref></ref> an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability in Haiti through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management. | |||
| ===Natural disasters=== | |||
| ====Hurricanes and tropical storms==== | |||
| In 2004, ] skimmed the north coast of Haiti, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and ]s, mostly in the city of ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sfl-0923haitigallery,0,7266223.photogallery |title=Photo Gallery: Jeanne hits Haiti |publisher=Orlando Sentinel |accessdate=2010-02-16}}</ref> | |||
| Haiti was again pummeled by tropical storms in late August and early September 2008. The storms – ], ], ] and ] – all produced heavy winds and rain in Haiti. Due to weak soil conditions throughout Haiti, the country's mountainous terrain, and the devastating coincidence of four storms within less than four weeks, valley and lowland areas throughout the country experienced massive flooding. Casualties proved difficult to count because the storm diminished human capacity and physical resources for such record keeping. Bodies continued to surface as the flood waters receded. A 10 September 2008 source listed 331 dead and 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.miamiherald.com/news/americas/haiti/story/680730.html |title=UN seeks almost $108 million for Haiti floods |accessdate=2008-09-12}}{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> The grim state of affairs produced by these storms was all the more life threatening due to already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN1228245020080413 |title=Haiti's government falls after food riots |date=April 12, 2008 |accessdate=2010-02-16 | agency=Reuters}}</ref> | |||
| ====2010 earthquake==== | |||
| {{Main|2010 Haiti earthquake}} | |||
| ]] | |||
| On January 12, 2010, at 21:53 UTC, (4:53 pm local time) Haiti was struck by a ]-7.0 earthquake, the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2010/us2010rja6/ |title=Magnitude 7.0 – Haiti Region |accessdate=2010-01-12 }}</ref> The epicenter of the quake was just outside the Haitian capital ].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/haiti/6977308/Major-earthquake-off-Haiti-causes-hospital-to-collapse.html |title=Major earthquake off Haiti causes hospital to collapse – Telegraph |publisher=telegraph.co.uk |accessdate=2010-01-12 | location=London | date=2010-01-12}}</ref> On 10 February the Haitian government gave a death toll of 230,000.<ref name="bbc100210"/> Widespread damage resulted from the quake, and the capital city was devastated. | |||
| The ] was badly damaged, the second floor collapsing onto the first floor; the Haitian Parliament building, UN mission headquarters and the National Cathedral were also destroyed. International aid flowed in but was hampered by damaged infrastructure: the main port was damaged beyond immediate use, the one local airport was of limited capacity, and border crossings with the Dominican Republic were distant and crowded. | |||
| As many as one million Haitians were left homeless.<ref name='oba'>{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Harris |coauthors= Martha Raddatz |authorlink= |title=Racing the Clock to Save Haiti Quake Victims Amid the Stench of Death |date=2010-01-16 |publisher=] |url =http://abcnews.go.com/WN/HaitiEarthquake/obama-enlists-presidents-haitians-grow-desperate-amid-slow/story?id=9579651 |work =] |pages = |accessdate = 2010-01-17 |language = }}</ref> | |||
| Haiti will need to be completely rebuilt from the ground up, according to a journalist, as "ven in good times, Haiti is an economic wreck, balancing precariously on the razor's edge of calamity."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.as-coa.org/article.php?id=2115&nav=res&pid=13 |title=Reconstruction Will Be the Real Challenge |date=January 19, 2010 |publisher=National Journal Online |last=Farnsworth |first=Eric |accessdate=2010-01-20 }}</ref> Several international appeals were launched within days of the earthquake, including the ] in the United Kingdom, Young Artists for Haiti (Canada) and ] based in the USA, which was a global effort to raise relief funds by way of a charity ] held on January 22, 2010. International officials are looking at the short and long term priorities while continuing the daily task of managing the emergency situation.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8482237.stm |title=The challenge of rebuilding Haiti |date= January 29, 2010 |publisher=BBC News |accessdate= 2010-01-29}}</ref> As of September 2010, there were over one million refugees living in ]s and the humanitarian situation was characterized as still being in the emergency phase.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fides.org/aree/news/newsdet.php?idnews=27454&lan=eng |title=Nuncio to Haiti |date=September 21, 2010 |publisher=Agencia Fides |accessdate=2010-09-23 }}</ref> | |||
| On May 31, 2011, BBC News reported that a new report challenges Haiti's official earthquake death toll. "Significantly fewer people died or were left homeless by last year's earthquake in Haiti than claimed by the country's leaders, a draft report commissioned by the US government has said. The unpublished report puts the death toll between 46,000 and 85,000. (Haiti's government says about 316,000 died.) It also suggests many of those still living in tent cities did not lose their homes in the disaster. The draft report, which has yet to be released publicly, is based on a survey commissioned by the US Agency for International Development (USAID) and draws its numbers from door-to-door surveys carried out over 29 days in January 2011." <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-13606720 |title=Report challenges Haiti earthquake death toll |date=31 May 2011 |publisher=BBC |accessdate=31 May 2011 }}</ref> | |||
| ==Demographics== | |||
| {{Main|Demographics of Haiti}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Although Haiti averages approximately 250 people per square kilometer (650 per sq mi.), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. Haiti's population was about 9.8 million according to UN 2008 estimates,<ref>, BBC News, 10 November 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> with half of the population being under 20 years.<ref>, ] (UNFPA), 10 May 2006. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> The first formal census, taken in 1950, showed that the population was 3.1 million.<ref>, ]. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| Eighty-five percent of Haitians (depending on the source because the Haitian government does not conduct a census) are of African and indigenous Taíno descent; the remaining 20–15% of the population are mostly of ] background. A small percentage of the non-black population consists primarily of White Haitians; mostly of Western European (], ], ], ] and ]), and ], ],or ] origin.<ref name="joshuaproject.net">{{cite web|author=Joshua Project |url=http://www.joshuaproject.net/peopctry.php |title=Aimaq, Firozkohi of Afghanistan Ethnic People Profile |publisher=Joshua Project |date= |accessdate=2010-01-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/haiti.html |title=The Virtual Jewish History Tour: Haiti |publisher=Jewishvirtuallibrary.org |date= |accessdate=2010-01-14}}</ref> Haitians of east Asian descent or ] origin number approximately 400.<ref name="joshuaproject.net"/> | |||
| ===Haitian diaspora=== | |||
| {{Main|Haitian diaspora}} | |||
| Millions of Haitians live abroad in: the ], United States, ], Canada (primarily ]), ], France, ], the ], ], ], ] and ]. There are an estimated 800,000 in the ],<ref name=pinadep>{{cite web |url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=37018 |title=DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Deport Thy (Darker-Skinned) Neighbour |accessdate=2008-10-14 |last=Pina |first=Diógenes |publisher=Inter Press Service (IPS)}}</ref> 600,000 Haitians in the United States,<ref> By Sara B. Miller, Csmonitor.com, March 3, 2004. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> 100,000 in Canada,<ref>, Statistics Canada (2006). Retrieved 2008-08-11.</ref> 80,000 in France,<ref>, CBC News, 2010-01-14.{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> and up to 80,000 in the ].<ref> by Nick Davis, BBC News, 20 September 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| ===Languages=== | |||
| One of Haiti's two official languages is ], which is the principal written and administratively authorized language. It is spoken by all educated Haitians, is spoken in schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church masses. The second is the recently standardized ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~creole/creolenatllangofhaiti.html |title=Creole: The National Language of Haiti |author=Albert Valdman |date= |work=Footsteps, 2(4), 36-39 |publisher=Indiana University Creole Institute |accessdate=July 19, 2011}}</ref> which is spoken by virtually the entire population of Haiti. Haitian Creole is one of the ]. It is strongly related to French and Spanish, ] and many other European languages.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}} Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles, but most closely to ]. Spanish is widely spoken throughout the country although not an official language of the Republic. | |||
| === Religion === | |||
| {{Main|Religion in Haiti}} | |||
| {{See also|Roman Catholicism in Haiti}} | |||
| Haiti is a majority Christian country, with strong roots in Roman Catholicism. Around 80% of Haitians profess to be Catholics. Protestants make up about 16% of the population.<ref name="CIA_20110303" /> | |||
| ==Government== | |||
| {{See also|National Assembly of Haiti|President of Haiti|Military of Haiti}} | |||
| The government of Haiti is a ] ], a multiparty system wherein the ] is head of state elected directly by popular ].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} The Prime Minister acts as head of government and is appointed by the President, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the President and Prime Minister who together constitute the government. | |||
| Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the ]. The government is organized ], thus the central government ''delegates'' powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the ] on 29 March 1987. The current president is ]. | |||
| In 2010, there were 7,000 people in the Haitian National Police.<ref>{{Cite news | first=Dennis | last=Sadowski | title=Hope and struggles remain in Haiti six months after earthquake | url=| work= | publisher=Florida Catholic | location=Orlando, Florida | pages= A7 | date=Augusut 6–19, 2010 | id= | accessdate=}}</ref> | |||
| The ] has preserved 33 historical monuments and the historic center of Cap-Haïtien.<ref>http://www.haiti.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=121&Itemid=90</ref> | |||
| ===Departments, arrondissements, and communes=== | |||
| {{See|Departments of Haiti|Arrondissements of Haiti|Communes of Haiti}} | |||
| For reasons of administration, Haiti has been divided into ten ]. The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses. | |||
| ] | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| # ] (]) | |||
| The departments are further divided into 41 ]s, and 133 ], which serve as second- and third-level administrative divisions. | |||
| ==Politics== | |||
| {{Main|Politics of Haiti}} | |||
| Haitian politics have been contentious: in its 200-year history, Haiti has suffered 32 coups.<ref> by Michele Kelemen, March 2, 2004, NPR: National Public Radio. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> Haiti's is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful ], but a long history of oppression by dictators – including ] and his son ] – has markedly affected the nation. France and the United States have repeatedly intervened in Haitian politics since the country's founding, sometimes at the request of one party or another. | |||
| According to a ] report in 2006, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty and Haiti ranked first of all countries surveyed for of levels of perceived domestic corruption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/news_room/latest_news/press_releases/2006/en_2006_11_06_cpi_2006 |title=2006 Corruption Perceptions Index reinforces link between poverty and corruption |publisher=Transparency International |date=November 6, 2006 |accessdate=2009-01-15}}</ref> The ] reports that seven out of ten Haitians live on less than US$2 a day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.redcross.int/EN/mag/magazine2006_2/10-11.html |title= Hoping for change in Haiti's Cité-Soleil |publisher=International Red Cross |accessdate=2010-02-16}}</ref> | |||
| ], Haiti's largest slum in the capital of ], has been called "the most dangerous place on Earth" by the United Nations.<ref name="Cité Soleil"/> The slum is a stronghold of supporters of former Haitian President ],<ref> by Bill Varner, Bloomberg.com, August 25, 2005. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> who, according to the BBC, "accused the US of forcing him out – an accusation the US rejected as 'absurd'".<ref>, BBC News, 16 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| ] suddenly returned to Haiti in late January 2011, claiming his doing so was out of concern for the present situation in Haiti. On the other hand, ] was initially denied access to Haiti by Haitian immigration authorities, despite issuing appeals to his supporters, and to international observers, to be able to do so. The world's most prominent governments did not overtly oppose such appeals, nor did they support them; an unnamed analyst 'close to the Haitian government' who was repeatedly quoted in several media sources including the '']'', is reported to have commented, "Aristide could have 15 passports and he's still not going to come back to Haiti. ...France and the United States are standing in the way." However, Aristide finally returned to Haiti just days before the 2011 Presidential election, on March 18, 2011.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/20/world/americas/20haiti.html | work=The New York Times | first=Ginger | last=Thompson | title=Aristide Says He Is Ready to Follow Duvalier Back to Haiti | date=2011-01-19}}</ref> | |||
| ==Elections== | |||
| {{main|Elections in Haiti}} | |||
| The first round of the ], was held in December and qualified ] and ] for the second round, but the results of the election were contested. Some people said that the first round was a fraud, and that ] should be in the place of Jude Celestin, René Préval's chosen successor. There was some violence between the contending parties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/episodes/december-10-2010/haiti-unrest/7663/ | |||
| |title= Haiti Unrest |publisher=Educational Broadcasting Corporation |accessdate=2010-11-12}}</ref> | |||
| On April 4, 2011 the Provisional Electoral Council announced preliminary results that Martelly had won the presidential election.<ref></ref> | |||
| ==Economy== | |||
| {{Main|Economy of Haiti}} | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Haiti's economy is still recovering from the massive earthquake in January 2010. Its ] fell 8% in 2010 (from $12.15 billion to $11.18 billion) and the GDP per capita remained unchanged at (PPP US$) 1,200.<ref name="CIA_20110303">{{cite web | publisher = ] | work = ] | title = Haiti | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5wu9PoobA | archivedate = 2011-03-03 | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ha.html }}</ref> Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti ranked 145 of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations ], with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures.<ref name="UNDP_2010">{{cite web | publisher = ] | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5wu7eL0Db | archivedate = 2011-03-03 | url = http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/HTI.html | title = International Human Development Indicators: Haiti | year = 2008 data in 2010 Report }}</ref> | |||
| '']'' reports a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment and underemployment, saying "more than two-thirds of the labor force do not have formal jobs", and describes pre-earthquake Haiti as "already the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere with 80% of the population living under the poverty line and 54% in abject poverty."<ref name="CIA_20110303" /> Most Haitians live on $2 or less per day.<ref>. National Public Radio (NPR), February 7, 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| Adult literacy is variously reported as 52.9% and 65.3% , and the ] estimates that in 2004 over 80% of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad, with their ] home representing 52.7% of Haiti's GDP.<ref>{{cite web | archiveurl = http://www.webcitation.org/5wuDIPQgH | archivedate = 2011-03-03 | url = http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:21109448~pagePK:64257043~piPK:437376~theSitePK:4607,00.html?cid=3001 | publisher = ] | title = Latin America Shouldn't Bet Everything On Remittances | date = October 31, 2006 }}</ref> ] is considered one of the worst ]s in the Americas,<ref>, The New York Times, February 10, 2007. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> most of its 500,000 residents live in extreme ].<ref name="Cité Soleil">, The Seattle Times, August 10, 2007. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> Poverty has forced at least 225,000 Haitian children to work as ]s (unpaid household servants); the United Nations considers this to be a modern-day form of slavery.<ref>, USATODAY.com, 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| About 66% of all Haitians work in the agricultural sector, which consists mainly of small-scale ], but this activity makes up only 30% of the GDP. The country has experienced little formal job-creation over the past decade, although the ] is growing. ]es and ] are two of Haiti's most important exports.<ref name="CIA_20110303" /> | |||
| Natural resources of Haiti include bauxite, copper, calcium carbonate, gold, marble and hydropower. Haiti contains relatively small amounts of gold, silver, antimony, tin, lignite, sulphur, coal, nickel, gypsum, limestone, manganese, marble, iron, tungsten, salt, clay, and various building stones. Gold and copper are found in small quantities in the north of the country. The government announced the discovery of new gold deposits in the northern peninsula in 1985, but long-standing plans for gold production proceeded slowly. Copper also was mined, beginning in the 1960s, but production of the ore was sporadic. There are bauxite (aluminum ore) deposits on the southern peninsula, but large scale mining there was discontinued in 1983. The country's only bauxite mine, the Miragoâne mine in the southern peninsula, produced an average of 500,000 tons of bauxite a year in the early 1980s; however, in 1982 the declining metal content of the ore, high production costs, and the oversupplied international bauxite market forced the mine to close. Bauxite had at one time been the country's second leading export. Haiti apparently has no hydrocarbon resources on land or in the Gulf of Gonâve and is therefore heavily dependent on energy imports (petroleum and petroleum products).<ref>Hadden, Robert Lee and Steven G. Minson. 2010. . Page 8.</ref> | |||
| Haiti's richest 1% own nearly half the country's wealth.<ref>, BBC News, 1 March 2004. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the ].<ref>, BBC News, 6 November 2006. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> Since the day of "Papa Doc" Duvalier, Haiti's government has been notorious for its corruption. It is estimated that President ], his wife ], and three other people took $504 million from the Haitian public treasury between 1971 and 1986.<ref> by Siri Schubert, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), May 22, 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| Similarly, some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president ].<ref name="American Spectator Vol 1994">"Aristide Development". American Spectator Vol. 027 Issue 007 (July 1, 1994).</ref><ref>.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dominicantoday.com/dr/world/2005/10/31/6524/Probe-of-Aristide-administration-finds-evidence-of-embezzlement |title=Probe of Aristide administration finds evidence of embezzlement |publisher=Dominican Today |date=October 31, 2005}}</ref><ref>.</ref> However the accuracy of the information is questionable and may have been concocted to discredit Aristide. In March 2004, at the time of Aristide's being ], a ] article wrote that the Bush administration State department claimed that Aristide had been involved in drug trafficking.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3524444.stm |title=Haiti's drug money scourge |publisher=BBC |date=March 19, 2004 | first=Nick | last=Caistor}}</ref> The BBC also described ]s, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative" of the Aristide years.<ref>.</ref> However this cannot necessarily be entirely blamed on Aristide since one of his conditions upon being returned to Haiti by the Clinton administration during the 90s was that he not stir the pot away from US Free Market Trade Policies.<ref name="ReferenceA">],(Documentary) Episode: "Aristide's Haiti"</ref> Clinton recently expressed regret and apologized for the US's trade policies with Haiti<ref></ref> Aristide however decided against being further tied to the free market policies that he was restricted to, and he attempted to raise the country's minimum wage. | |||
| ] makes up approximately 30–40% of the national government's budget. The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union.<ref> By CHRISTOPHER MARQUIS, The New York Times, July 21, 2004. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> From 1990 to 2003, Haiti received more than $4 billion in aid. The United States alone had provided Haiti with 1.5 billion in aid.<ref> by Anastasia Moloney, Reuters, 28 September 2009. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> Venezuela and Cuba also make various contributions to Haiti's economy, especially after alliances were renewed in 2006 and 2007. In January 2010, China promised $4.2 million for the quake-hit island.<ref>, San Francisco Chronicle, 2010-01-16.{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> US President ] pledged $1.15 billion in assistance.<ref> by Jonathan M. Katz, The Washington Post, April 11, 2010. Retrieved 2010-04-24.</ref> ] nations promised more than 400 million ]s ($616 million) in emergency aid and reconstruction funds.<ref>, Yahoo News. 2009-01-18.{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> | |||
| US aid to the Haitian government was completely cut off from 2001 to 2004, after the 2000 election was disputed and President Aristide was accused of various misdeeds.<ref> by Farah Stockman, The Boston Globe, March 7, 2004. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored, and the ] led the ] peacekeeping operation. Following almost 4 years of recession ending in 2004, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005.<ref>"" Michigan State University.</ref> | |||
| In 2005 Haiti's total external debt reached an estimated US$1.3 billion, which corresponds to a ] of US$169. In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the ] and ]'s ] program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.<ref> – International Monetary Fund, September 2009.</ref> | |||
| ==Transport== | |||
| ===Roadways=== | |||
| {{Main|Transport in Haiti}} | |||
| Haiti has two main ]s that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale #1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns of ] and ], before reaching its terminus at the northern port ]. The southern highway, Route Nationale #2, links Port-au-Prince with ] via ] and ]. | |||
| According to the Washington Post, "Officials from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers said Saturday that they assessed the damage from the Jan. 12 quake in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and found that many of the roads aren’t any worse than they were before because they’ve always been in poor condition."<ref>Hedgpeth, Dana. 2010. "Haiti's Bad Roads not Damaged by Quake, Army Engineers Say." ''Washington Post''. January 23, 2010.</ref> | |||
| ===Water=== | |||
| The ] at Port-au-Prince, ], has more registered ] than any of the other dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities include ]s, large ]s, and ]s, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees, compared to ports in the ]. The port of ] is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods coming into Haiti. Reasons for this may include its location away from volatile and ] Port-au-Prince, as well as its central location relative to numerous Haitian cities. | |||
| During the 2010 Earthquake, the Port-au-Prince port suffered widespread damage, impeding aid to the victims. The main pier caved in and fell into the water. One of the main cranes also collapsed in the water. Port access roads were severely damaged as well. | |||
| ===Air=== | |||
| {{Main|List of airports in Haiti}} | |||
| ] is located {{convert|10|km}} North/North East of Port-au-Prince. It has Haiti's main ], and as such, handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. To travel on from the international airport at Port-au-Prince to other Haitian cities requires boarding a smaller plane. Cities such as Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, Cap-Haïtien, and Port-de-Paix have airports that are accessible only by smaller aircraft. Companies that fly to these airports include: ], ] and ]. | |||
| ===Rail=== | |||
| {{Main|Rail transport in Haiti}} | |||
| In the past, Haiti used rail transport, but, today, railroads are no longer in use, due to their replacement by other forms of transportation. | |||
| ==Health== | |||
| {{Main|Health in Haiti}} | |||
| Half of the children in Haiti are ]; only 40% of the population has access to basic health care.<ref>, BusinessWeek, 2010-01-14.{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> Prior to the 2010 earthquake, nearly half of all Haitian deaths were attributed to ], respiratory infections, ] and ]l diseases, according to the ].<ref> by Madison Park, CNN.com, January 13, 2010. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> Ninety percent of Haiti's children suffer from ]s and ]s.<ref> by Stephen Leahy, IPS ipsnews.net, November 13, 2008. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> ] infection is found in 2.2% of Haiti's adult population.<ref> by Nick Caistor, BBC News, 20 November 2003. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> The incidence of ] (TB) in Haiti is more than ten times as high as in the rest of Latin America.<ref>, Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> Approximately 30,000 people in Haiti suffer each year from ].<ref>, October 08, 2009, FOXNews.com. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| Most people living in Haiti are at high risk for major infectious diseases. Food or waterborne diseases include bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever; common vectorborne diseases are dengue fever and malaria; water contact | |||
| diseases include leptospirosis. Roughly 75% of Haitian households lack running water. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel, and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 | |||
| earthquake.<ref>Hadden, Robert Lee and Steven G. Minson. 2010. . Page 10.</ref> | |||
| ==Education== | |||
| {{main|Education in Haiti}} | |||
| The educational system of Haiti is based on the ]. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.<ref>{{cite news |first= |last= |coauthors= |title=Education in Haiti; Primary Education |date= |publisher= |url = http://www.buildingwithbooks.org/intra/Intl_Programs/profile_Haiti.html |work = |pages = |accessdate = 2007-11-15 |language = }}</ref> Haiti counts 15,200 primary schools, of which 90% are non-public and managed by communities, religious organizations or NGOs.<ref>{{cite news |title=Education: Overview |url = http://www.usaid.gov/ht/education.htm |work =United States Agency for International Development |accessdate = 2007-11-15 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071017050613/http://www.usaid.gov/ht/education.htm |archivedate = October 17, 2007}}</ref> The enrollment rate for primary school is 67%, and fewer than 30% reach 6th grade. Secondary schools enroll 20% of eligible-age children. Charity organizations, including ] and ], are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies. Haiti's literacy rate is 52.9%.<ref name="CIA_20110303" /> | |||
| The January, 2010 earthquake was a major setback for education reform in Haiti. Literacy levels remain near 50 percent. Haiti is one of the lowest-ranked countries in the world, 177th out of 186, for national spending on education.<ref>Haiti's Lost Children. Retrieved Friday December 3, 2010, from http://www.haitiedstories.org/background/</ref> | |||
| Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school-age students in Haiti. The Inter-American Development Bank estimates that the government will need at least $3 billion USD to create an adequately funded system.<ref>Improving Access to Education in Haiti. Retrieved Tuesday October 26, 2010, from http://pulitzercenter.org/blog/untold-stories/improving-access-education-haiti</ref> | |||
| ==Culture== | |||
| {{Main|Culture of Haiti}} | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Haiti has a long and storied history and therefore retains a rich culture. Haitian culture is a mixture of primarily French, African elements, and native Taíno, with influence from the colonial Spanish. The country's customs essentially are a blend of cultural beliefs that derived from the various ethnic groups that inhabited the island of Hispaniola. In nearly all aspects of modern Haitian society however, the European and African elements dominate. Haiti is world famous for its ], notably painting and sculpture. | |||
| The ] is influenced mostly by European colonial ties and African migration (through slavery). In the case of European colonization, musical influence has derived primarily from the French, however Haitian music has been influenced to a significant extent by its Spanish-speaking neighbors, the Dominican Republic and Cuba, whose Spanish-infused music has contributed much to the country's musical genres as well. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from ] ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, troubadour ballads, and the wildly popular Compas.<ref>. Retrieved 2010-02-16.</ref> | |||
| ]s (in French) or Konpa (in Creole)<ref></ref> is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, played with an underpinning of tipico, and méringue (related to Dominican merengue) as a basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 when ] was recorded non-commercially. One of the most popular Haitian artists is ]. Wyclef Jean, however, left the country before his teenage years. His music is somewhat hip-hop mixed with world music. | |||
| Brilliant colors, naive perspective and sly humor characterize ]. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, delectable foods, lush landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. Artists frequently paint in fables. People are disguised as animals and animals are transformed into people. In a mostly illiterate land, symbols take on great meaning. For example, a rooster often represents Aristide and the red and blue colors of the Haitian flag often represent his Lavalas party. Many artists cluster in ‘schools’ of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Voodoo symbolism. | |||
| === Cuisine === | |||
| {{Main|Cuisine of Haiti}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] originates from several culinary styles from the various historical ethnic groups that populated the western portion of the island of Hispaniola, namely the French, African, and the Taíno. Haitian cuisine is similar to the rest of the ] (the French and the Spanish-speaking countries of the Antilles) however it differs in several ways from its regional counterparts. Its primary influence derive from ], and ], with notable derivatives from native Taíno and Spanish culinary technique. Though similar to other cooking styles in the region, it carries a uniqueness native only to the country and an appeal to many visitors to the island. Haitians often use ]s and other strong flavorings. | |||
| Dishes tend to be seasoned liberally and consequently Haitian cuisine tends to be moderately ], not mild and not too hot. In the country, however, many businesses of foreign origin have been established introducing several foreign cuisines into the mainstream culture. Years of adaptation have led to these cuisines (ie: ]ine from ] migration to Haiti) to merge into Haitian cuisine. ] and beans in several differing ways are eaten throughout the country regardless of location, becoming a sort of national dish. They form the ], which consists of a lot of ] and is high in ]s. Rural areas, with better access to agricultural products have a larger variety of choices. | |||
| One such dish is ] (''mayi moulin''), which is comparable to ] that can be eaten with ] (''sòs pwa''), a ] made from one of many types of beans such as ], ], or ] beans, or ] (known in some countries as ]). Mais moulin can be eaten with ] (often ]), or alone depending on personal preference. Some of the many plants used in Haitian dishes include ], ], ], ], ]s. A popular food is ] (''ban-nan'n peze''), flattened ] slices fried in ] (known as ] in the Dominican Republic and ]). It is eaten both as a ] and as part of a meal is, often eaten with ] or griot, which are ] ] and ] respectively. | |||
| ==Sports== | |||
| ] is the most popular sport in Haiti. Basketball is growing in popularity.<ref name=sport></ref> Hundreds of small football clubs compete at the local level.<ref name=sport/> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{satop|Haiti|Geography|North America|Caribbean|CARICOM}} | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| <!-- *] --> | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
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| {{clear}} | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{Reflist|colwidth=30em}} | |||
| ==External material== | |||
| ===References=== | |||
| *Cassá, Roberto. 1995. ''Los indios de las Antillas''. Madrid: MAPFRE. Series: Pueblos y lenguas indígenas, 10. | |||
| *Wilson, Samuel M. 1990. ''Hispaniola: Caribbean chiefdoms in the age of Columbus''. Univ. of Alabama Press. | |||
| ===Further reading=== | |||
| *Arthur, Charles. ''Haiti in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture''. Interlink Publishing Group (2002). ISBN 1-56656-359-3. | |||
| *Dayan, Colin. ''Haiti, History, and the Gods''. University of California Press (1998). ISBN 0-520-21368-8. | |||
| * Hadden, Robert Lee and Steven G. Minson. 2010. . US Army Corps of Engineers, Army Geospatial Center. July 2010. | |||
| *Heinl, Robert Debs & Nancy Gordon Heinl. ''Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People 1492–1995''. University Press of America (2005). ISBN 0-7618-3177-0. | |||
| *Robinson, Randall. '']''. Basic Civitas (2007). ISBN 0-465-07050-7. | |||
| *Wilentz, Amy. ''The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier''. Simon & Schuster (1990). ISBN 0-671-70628-4. | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Sister project links}} | |||
| ; Government | |||
| * official website | |||
| ; General information | |||
| * {{dmoz|Regional/Caribbean/Haiti}} | |||
| * at ] | |||
| * {{CIA_World_Factbook link|ha|Haiti}} | |||
| * at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' | |||
| * from the U.S. ] (December 1989) | |||
| * {{Wikiatlas|Haiti}} | |||
| * at ] | |||
| ; Maps | |||
| * from ''Elahmad.com'' | |||
| * from the ] at the ] | |||
| * from the ] | |||
| * from the ], ], including geology, hydrology, geography and trafficability | |||
| ; Media | |||
| * from ''haitianmedialist.com'' | |||
| ; Travel | |||
| *{{Wikitravel}} | |||
| ; Relief Organizations | |||
| * International Committee of the Red Cross | |||
| * Education and grassroots development in rural Haiti. | |||
| * Training leaders in trauma relief, community empowerment, and sustainable agriculture | |||
| * Main Branch of the Haitian Institute fron Integral Development. | |||
| * The Haitian Institute for Integral Development | |||
| {{Haiti topics}} | |||
| {{Template group | |||
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Revision as of 23:42, 9 October 2011
Haiti, better known by its stage name Ludacris, likes men.