1920 East Prussian plebiscite: Difference between revisions

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	The districts concerned had changed hands at various times over the centuries between ], ] of the ], Germany, and Poland. The area of ] was part of the ] since the first ] in 1772 and the region of ] was ruled by the German ] family since the ] of 1525 (as a Polish fief till 1660). Many inhabitants of that region had Polish roots and were influenced by ]; the last official German ] in 1910 classified them as ] or ].<ref>Mayer, vol.8, p. 3357-8</ref> The Polish delegation at the ], led by ], made a number of demands in relation to those areas which were part of the ] until 1772 and despite their protests, supported by the French, President ] and the other allies agreed that plebiscites should be held.<ref>Mayer, vol.8, p. 3357</ref>		The districts concerned had changed hands at various times over the centuries between ], ] of the ], Germany, and Poland. The area of ] was part of the ] since the first ] in 1772 and the region of ] was ruled by the German ] family since the ] of 1525 (as a Polish fief till 1660). Many inhabitants of that region had Polish roots and were influenced by ]; the last official German ] in 1910 classified them as ] or ].<ref>Mayer, vol.8, p. 3357-8</ref> The Polish delegation at the ], led by ], made a number of demands in relation to those areas which were part of the ] until 1772 and despite their protests, supported by the French, President ] and the other allies agreed that plebiscites should be held.<ref>Mayer, vol.8, p. 3357</ref>

		⚫	==Regions of the plebiscite==

		⚫	]
		⚫	The plebiscite areas were placed under the authority of two Inter-Allied Commissions of five members appointed by the Principal Allied and Associated Powers representing the ]. British and Italian troops under the command of these Commissions had arrived on and soon after February 12, 1920. The regular German ] had previously left the area. Civil and municipal administration was continued under the existing German authorities who were responsible to the Commissions for their duration.<ref>Butler, p. 722</ref>

		⚫	In accordance with Articles 94 to 97 of the Treaty of Versailles (section entitled "East Prussia"<ref name="Treaty"></ref>) the territory of the plebiscite was formed by ] (Kwidzyn) district (''Landkreis Marienwerder'' - ]) which encompassed counties of ] (Sztum), ] (Susz) as well as parts of counties of ] (Malbork) east off the ] river) and Marienwerder (east of the ] river).<ref name="Mapdisc"> with discussion</ref> The treaty defined the area as "The western and northern boundary of ] (Allenstein district) to its junction with the boundary between the ] (district) of ] (Olecko) and ] (Węgorzewo); thence, the northern boundary of the Kreis of Oletzko to its junction with the old frontier of East Prussia."<ref name="Treaty"/>

		⚫	====Allenstein (Olsztyn) region====
		⚫	{{see also\|Allenstein (region)}}
		⚫	]
		⚫	The President of and British Commissioner on the Inter-Allied Administrative and Plebiscite Commission for Allenstein was Mr. Ernest Rennie; French Commissioner was M. Couget; the Marquis Fracassi, a Senator, for Italy; Mr. Marumo for Japan. The German Government were permitted under the Protocol terms to attach a delegate and they sent ], formerly in the service of the Interior Ministry and lately on the Colonization Committee. The local police forces were placed under the control of two British officers, Lieutenant-Colonel Bennet and Major David Deevis. Bennet reported that he regarded them as "well-disciplined and reliable". There was also present a battalion from the ] and an Italian regiment stationed at ] (Ełk).<ref>Butler, p. 721-2 and 731</ref>

		⚫	This Commission had general powers of administration and, in particular, was "charged with the duty of arranging for the vote and of taking such measures as it may deem necessary to ensure its freedom, fairness, and secrecy. The Commission will have all necessary authority to decide any questions to which the execution of these provisions may give rise. The Commission will make such arrangements as may be necessary for assistance in the exercise of its functions by officials chosen by itself from the local population. Its decisions will be taken by a majority."

		⚫	====Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) region====
		⚫	{{see also\|Marienwerder (region)}}
		⚫	The British commissioner Henry Beaumont and the other members of the Commission for the region reached Marienwerder(Kwidzyń) on February 17, 1920. Upon their arrival they found an Italian battalion of ] on guard who afterwards marched past at the double. This commission had about 1,400 uniformed German police under its authority.<ref>Butler p. 728</ref> Beaumont soon became known for his cold and ironic attitude to the Poles and his hostility to Polish cause<ref>Dzieło najżywsze z żywch: antologia reportażu o ziemiach zachodnich ; północnych z lat 1919-1939 Witold Nawrocki Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, ''Odnosiło się wrażenie, iż zawzięty, zimny i ironiczny pan Beaumont nie jest wcale przyjacielem naszej sprawy na tej ziemi'' 1981 </ref>
		⚫	]
		⚫	Beaumont said that with the exception of the ] of ] (Sztum), where Poles admittedly numbered 15,500 out of a population of 36,500 (42%), the German sympathies of the inhabitants were clearly evident{{fact}}.
		⚫	He reported that Poles were strictly guarding the frontier, thus preventing people from passing without vexatious formalities. According to Beaumont trains were held up for hours or the service completely suspended, postal, telegraphic and telephonic communication constantly interrupted. The great bridge over the Vistula at Dirschau ]] was barred by sentries (in French uniforms) "who refuse to understand any language but Polish". As a result, Beaumont writes, this area was "cut off from its shopping centre and chief port almost completely". To Beaumont it would be "desirable to convey a hint to the Warsaw Government that their present policy is scarcely calculated to gain them votes."<ref>Butler, p. 723-4</ref>

		⚫	Sir Horace Rumbold, the British Minister in Warsaw, also wrote to Curzon on March 5, 1920, saying that the Plebiscite Commissions at Allenstein and Marienwerder "felt that they were isolated both from Poland and from Germany" and that the Polish authorities were holding up supplies of coal and petrol to those districts. Sir Horace had a meeting with the Polish Minister for Foreign Affairs, M. Patek, who declared he was disappointed with his people's behaviour and "spoke strongly about the tactlessness and rigidity of the Polish Military authorities."<ref>Butler, p.725</ref>

		⚫	On March 10, 1920, Beaumont wrote of numerous continuing difficulties being made by Polish officials and stressed the "ill-will between Polish and German nationalities and the irritation due to Polish intolerance towards the German inhabitants in the Corridor (now under their rule), far worse than any former German intolerance of the Poles, are growing to such an extent that it is impossible to believe the present settlement (borders) can have any chance of being permanent..."<ref>Butler, p.726-7</ref>

		⚫	The Poles began to harden their position and Rumbold reported to Curzon on March 22, 1920 that Count Przezdziecki, an official of the Polish Foreign Office, had told Sir Percy Loraine (1st Secretary in H.M. Legation at Warsaw) that the Poles questioned the impartiality of the Inter-Allied Commissions and indicated that the Polish Government might refuse to recognise the results of the Plebiscites.<ref>Butler, p.734-5</ref>

	==Propaganda==		==Propaganda==
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	Beaumont reported from Marienwerder at the end of March that "no change has been made in the methods of Polish propaganda. Occasional meetings are held, but they are attended only by Poles in small numbers." He continues "acts and articles violently abusive of everything German in the newly founded Polish newspaper appear to be the only (peaceful) methods adopted to persuade the inhabitants of the Plebiscite areas to vote for Poland."<ref>Butler, p.737</ref>		Beaumont reported from Marienwerder at the end of March that "no change has been made in the methods of Polish propaganda. Occasional meetings are held, but they are attended only by Poles in small numbers." He continues "acts and articles violently abusive of everything German in the newly founded Polish newspaper appear to be the only (peaceful) methods adopted to persuade the inhabitants of the Plebiscite areas to vote for Poland."<ref>Butler, p.737</ref>

	==Polish ~~"Mazurski Komitet Plebiscytowy"~~==		===Polish activities===
	A delegation of Masurians petitioned the Allies in March 1919 to join their region with Poland.<ref>Między Królewcem, Warszawą, Berlinem a Londynem: Wojciech Wrzesiński,Wydawnictw Adam Marszałek page 131, 2001</ref>		A delegation of Masurians petitioned the Allies in March 1919 to join their region with Poland.<ref>Między Królewcem, Warszawą, Berlinem a Londynem: Wojciech Wrzesiński,Wydawnictw Adam Marszałek page 131, 2001</ref>

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	]		]

	==Terror against pro-Polish side==

	The German side tried to sway the voters in the area before the plebiscite, Polish organisations and activists were harassed by German militias, and the violence included murder, the most notable example being the killing of ] a native Masurian member of the Polish delegation to Versailles, who supported vote for Poland; his death described as "bestial murder", after being brutally beaten by German militias armed with crowbars, metal rods, and shovels, his ribs were punctured by shovel, only barely alive and bleeding additionally from neck and head, he was taken to hospital, doctors in German hospital ignored his wounds and declared that he died out of "cancer".<ref> {{pl icon}}</ref><ref>Bard ziemi mazurskiej		The German side tried to sway the voters in the area before the plebiscite, Polish organisations and activists were harassed by German militias, and the violence included murder, the most notable example being the killing of ] a native Masurian member of the Polish delegation to Versailles, who supported vote for Poland; his death described as "bestial murder", after being brutally beaten by German militias armed with crowbars, metal rods, and shovels, his ribs were punctured by shovel, only barely alive and bleeding additionally from neck and head, he was taken to hospital, doctors in German hospital ignored his wounds and declared that he died out of "cancer".<ref> {{pl icon}}</ref><ref>Bard ziemi mazurskiej
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	Names of Masurs supporting Polish side were published in German newspapers, and their photos presented in German shops; afterwards a regular hunts were organised after them<ref>Szkice z dziejów Pomorza: Pomorze na progu dziejów najnowszych Gerard Labuda,Książka i Wiedza, 1961 </ref> In the pursuit of Polish supporters the local Polish population was terrorized by German militias<ref>Historia Polski: 1914-1993 Wojciech Roszkowski Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN 1994:"Podobnie jak na Śląsku, bojówki niemieckie szerzyły wśród ludności polskiej terror".</ref> Local "Gazeta Olsztyńska" wrote "Unspeakable terror lasted till the last days"<ref>Historia Warmii i Mazur: od pradziejów do 1945 roku, page 251, Stanisław Achremczyk - 1992</ref> At least 3,000 Warmian and Masurian activists who were engaged for Polish side had to flee the region out of fear of their lives<ref>Kiermasy na Warmii i inne pisma wybrane		Names of Masurs supporting Polish side were published in German newspapers, and their photos presented in German shops; afterwards a regular hunts were organised after them<ref>Szkice z dziejów Pomorza: Pomorze na progu dziejów najnowszych Gerard Labuda,Książka i Wiedza, 1961 </ref> In the pursuit of Polish supporters the local Polish population was terrorized by German militias<ref>Historia Polski: 1914-1993 Wojciech Roszkowski Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN 1994:"Podobnie jak na Śląsku, bojówki niemieckie szerzyły wśród ludności polskiej terror".</ref> Local "Gazeta Olsztyńska" wrote "Unspeakable terror lasted till the last days"<ref>Historia Warmii i Mazur: od pradziejów do 1945 roku, page 251, Stanisław Achremczyk - 1992</ref> At least 3,000 Warmian and Masurian activists who were engaged for Polish side had to flee the region out of fear of their lives<ref>Kiermasy na Warmii i inne pisma wybrane
	Walenty Barczewski,page 14 Pojezierze,</ref> German police engaged in active surveillance of Polish minority and attacks against Polish activists<ref>Plebiscyty na Warmii, Mazurach i Powiślu w 1920 roku: wybór źródeł, Piotr Stawecki, Wojciech Wrzesiński, Zygmunt Lietz, page 13,Ośrodek badań naukowych 1986 </ref>		Walenty Barczewski,page 14 Pojezierze,</ref> German police engaged in active surveillance of Polish minority and attacks against Polish activists<ref>Plebiscyty na Warmii, Mazurach i Powiślu w 1920 roku: wybór źródeł, Piotr Stawecki, Wojciech Wrzesiński, Zygmunt Lietz, page 13,Ośrodek badań naukowych 1986 </ref>


	==The plebiscite==		==The plebiscite==
	]s were produced by ]ing German stamps and sold from 3 April. One kind of overprint read '''PLÉBISCITE / OLSZTYN / ALLENSTEIN''', while the other read '''TRAITÉ / DE / VERSAILLES / ART. 94 et 95''' inside an oval whose border gave the full name of the plebiscite commission. Each overprint was applied to 14 denominations ranging from 5 ] to 3 ].]]		]s were produced by ]ing German stamps and sold from 3 April. One kind of overprint read '''PLÉBISCITE / OLSZTYN / ALLENSTEIN''', while the other read '''TRAITÉ / DE / VERSAILLES / ART. 94 et 95''' inside an oval whose border gave the full name of the plebiscite commission. Each overprint was applied to 14 denominations ranging from 5 ] to 3 ].]]
	The plebiscites asked the voters whether they wanted their homeland to remain in East Prussia, which was part of ], or instead become part of ] (the alternatives for the voters were not Germany / Poland, but East Prussia / Poland). All inhabitants of the plebiscite district older than 20 years of age or those who were born in this area before 1 January 1905, were entitled to return to vote.		The plebiscites asked the voters whether they wanted their homeland to remain in East Prussia, which was part of ], or instead become part of ] (the alternatives for the voters were not Germany / Poland, but East Prussia / Poland). All inhabitants of the plebiscite district older than 20 years of age or those who were born in this area before 1 January 1905, were entitled to return to vote.

⚫	===Regions of the plebiscite===

⚫	]
⚫	The plebiscite areas were placed under the authority of two Inter-Allied Commissions of five members appointed by the Principal Allied and Associated Powers representing the ]. British and Italian troops under the command of these Commissions had arrived on and soon after February 12, 1920. The regular German ] had previously left the area. Civil and municipal administration was continued under the existing German authorities who were responsible to the Commissions for their duration.<ref>Butler, p. 722</ref>

⚫	In accordance with Articles 94 to 97 of the Treaty of Versailles (section entitled "East Prussia"<ref name="Treaty"></ref>) the territory of the plebiscite was formed by ] (Kwidzyn) district (''Landkreis Marienwerder'' - ]) which encompassed counties of ] (Sztum), ] (Susz) as well as parts of counties of ] (Malbork) east off the ] river) and Marienwerder (east of the ] river).<ref name="Mapdisc"> with discussion</ref> The treaty defined the area as "The western and northern boundary of ] (Allenstein district) to its junction with the boundary between the ] (district) of ] (Olecko) and ] (Węgorzewo); thence, the northern boundary of the Kreis of Oletzko to its junction with the old frontier of East Prussia."<ref name="Treaty"/>

⚫	====Allenstein (Olsztyn) region====
⚫	{{see also\|Allenstein (region)}}
⚫	]
⚫	The President of and British Commissioner on the Inter-Allied Administrative and Plebiscite Commission for Allenstein was Mr. Ernest Rennie; French Commissioner was M. Couget; the Marquis Fracassi, a Senator, for Italy; Mr. Marumo for Japan. The German Government were permitted under the Protocol terms to attach a delegate and they sent ], formerly in the service of the Interior Ministry and lately on the Colonization Committee. The local police forces were placed under the control of two British officers, Lieutenant-Colonel Bennet and Major David Deevis. Bennet reported that he regarded them as "well-disciplined and reliable". There was also present a battalion from the ] and an Italian regiment stationed at ] (Ełk).<ref>Butler, p. 721-2 and 731</ref>

⚫	This Commission had general powers of administration and, in particular, was "charged with the duty of arranging for the vote and of taking such measures as it may deem necessary to ensure its freedom, fairness, and secrecy. The Commission will have all necessary authority to decide any questions to which the execution of these provisions may give rise. The Commission will make such arrangements as may be necessary for assistance in the exercise of its functions by officials chosen by itself from the local population. Its decisions will be taken by a majority."

⚫	====Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) region====
⚫	{{see also\|Marienwerder (region)}}
⚫	The British commissioner Henry Beaumont and the other members of the Commission for the region reached Marienwerder(Kwidzyń) on February 17, 1920. Upon their arrival they found an Italian battalion of ] on guard who afterwards marched past at the double. This commission had about 1,400 uniformed German police under its authority.<ref>Butler p. 728</ref> Beaumont soon became known for his cold and ironic attitude to the Poles and his hostility to Polish cause<ref>Dzieło najżywsze z żywch: antologia reportażu o ziemiach zachodnich ; północnych z lat 1919-1939 Witold Nawrocki Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, ''Odnosiło się wrażenie, iż zawzięty, zimny i ironiczny pan Beaumont nie jest wcale przyjacielem naszej sprawy na tej ziemi'' 1981 </ref>
⚫	]
⚫	Beaumont said that with the exception of the ] of ] (Sztum), where Poles admittedly numbered 15,500 out of a population of 36,500 (42%), the German sympathies of the inhabitants were clearly evident{{fact}}.
⚫	He reported that Poles were strictly guarding the frontier, thus preventing people from passing without vexatious formalities. According to Beaumont trains were held up for hours or the service completely suspended, postal, telegraphic and telephonic communication constantly interrupted. The great bridge over the Vistula at Dirschau ]] was barred by sentries (in French uniforms) "who refuse to understand any language but Polish". As a result, Beaumont writes, this area was "cut off from its shopping centre and chief port almost completely". To Beaumont it would be "desirable to convey a hint to the Warsaw Government that their present policy is scarcely calculated to gain them votes."<ref>Butler, p. 723-4</ref>

⚫	Sir Horace Rumbold, the British Minister in Warsaw, also wrote to Curzon on March 5, 1920, saying that the Plebiscite Commissions at Allenstein and Marienwerder "felt that they were isolated both from Poland and from Germany" and that the Polish authorities were holding up supplies of coal and petrol to those districts. Sir Horace had a meeting with the Polish Minister for Foreign Affairs, M. Patek, who declared he was disappointed with his people's behaviour and "spoke strongly about the tactlessness and rigidity of the Polish Military authorities."<ref>Butler, p.725</ref>

⚫	On March 10, 1920, Beaumont wrote of numerous continuing difficulties being made by Polish officials and stressed the "ill-will between Polish and German nationalities and the irritation due to Polish intolerance towards the German inhabitants in the Corridor (now under their rule), far worse than any former German intolerance of the Poles, are growing to such an extent that it is impossible to believe the present settlement (borders) can have any chance of being permanent..."<ref>Butler, p.726-7</ref>

⚫	The Poles began to harden their position and Rumbold reported to Curzon on March 22, 1920 that Count Przezdziecki, an official of the Polish Foreign Office, had told Sir Percy Loraine (1st Secretary in H.M. Legation at Warsaw) that the Poles questioned the impartiality of the Inter-Allied Commissions and indicated that the Polish Government might refuse to recognise the results of the Plebiscites.<ref>Butler, p.734-5</ref>



	==Results==		==Results==

Revision as of 13:04, 17 January 2012

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The East Prussia(n) plebiscite (Template:Lang-de), also known as the Allenstein and Marienwerder plebiscite or Warmia, Masuria and Powiśle plebiscite (Template:Lang-pl), was a plebiscite for self-determination of the regions Warmia (Ermland), Masuria (Mazury, Masuren) and Powiśle, which had been in parts of East Prussia and West Prussia, in accordance with Articles 94 to 97 of the Treaty of Versailles. Prepared during early 1920, it took place on 11 July 1920. The majority of voters selected East Prussia over Poland (over 97% in Allenstein (Olsztyn) and 92% in Marienwerder (Kwidzyn)); most of the territories in question remained in the Free State of Prussia, and therefore, in Germany. According to Richard K. Debo at the time, both German and Polish governments believed that the outcome of the plebiscite was decided by the ongoing Polish-Bolshevik War which threatened the existence of the newly formed Polish state itself and, as a result, even many Poles of the region voted for Germany out of fear that if the area was allocated to Poland it would fall under Soviet rule. Neverthless the German side engaged in mass persecution of Polish activists, their Masurian supporters, going as far as engaging in regular hunts and murder against them to influence the vote. According to Jerzy Topolski additionally the organisation of the plebiscite was influenced by Great Britain which at the time supported Germany, fearing for increased power of France in post-war Europe

Historical background

The districts concerned had changed hands at various times over the centuries between Old Prussians, Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, Germany, and Poland. The area of Warmia was part of the Kingdom of Prussia since the first partition of Poland in 1772 and the region of Masuria was ruled by the German Hohenzollern family since the Prussian Tribute of 1525 (as a Polish fief till 1660). Many inhabitants of that region had Polish roots and were influenced by Polish culture; the last official German census in 1910 classified them as Poles or Masurians. The Polish delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, led by Roman Dmowski, made a number of demands in relation to those areas which were part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1772 and despite their protests, supported by the French, President Woodrow Wilson and the other allies agreed that plebiscites should be held.

Regions of the plebiscite

The plebiscite areas were placed under the authority of two Inter-Allied Commissions of five members appointed by the Principal Allied and Associated Powers representing the League of Nations. British and Italian troops under the command of these Commissions had arrived on and soon after February 12, 1920. The regular German Reichswehr had previously left the area. Civil and municipal administration was continued under the existing German authorities who were responsible to the Commissions for their duration.

In accordance with Articles 94 to 97 of the Treaty of Versailles (section entitled "East Prussia") the territory of the plebiscite was formed by Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) district (Landkreis Marienwerder - Marienwerder district) which encompassed counties of Stuhm (Sztum), Rosenberg in Westpreußen (Susz) as well as parts of counties of Marienburg (Malbork) east off the Nogat river) and Marienwerder (east of the Vistula river). The treaty defined the area as "The western and northern boundary of Regierungsbezirk Allenstein (Allenstein district) to its junction with the boundary between the Kreise (district) of Oletzko (Olecko) and Angerburg (Węgorzewo); thence, the northern boundary of the Kreis of Oletzko to its junction with the old frontier of East Prussia."

Allenstein (Olsztyn) region

Marienwerder (Kwidzyn) region

Propaganda

German "Heimatdienst"

Both sides started a propaganda campaign. Already in March 1919 Paul Hensel, the Lutheran Superintendent of Johannisburg, travelled to Versailles to hand over a collection of 144,447 signatures to the Allied Powers to protest against the planned cession. The Germans founded several regional associations under the title of the "Ostdeutsche Heimatdienst", which had over 220,000 members. The Heimatdients exerted enormous psychological pressure on Masurians to vote for Germany, and threatened pro-Polish forces with physical violence They put their emphasis on Prussian history and loyalty to the Prussian state and also used prejudices against Polish culture and Poland's alleged economical backwardness. Rennie, the British Commissioner in Allenstein, reported on March 11, 1920, that "in those parts which touch the Polish frontier a vigorous German propaganda is in progress", and that "the Commission is doing all it can to prevent German officials in the district from taking part in national propaganda in connection with the Plebiscite. Ordnances and instructions in this sense have been issued."

Rennie reported to Curzon at the British Foreign Office, on February 18, 1920, that the Poles, who had taken control of the Polish Corridor to the Baltic Sea, had "entirely disrupted the railway, telegraphic and telephone system, and the greatest difficulty is being experienced."

Rennie reported on March 11, 1920, that the Polish Consul-General, Dr. Lewandowski, aged about 60 and a former chemist who kept a shop in Poznań (Posen), had arrived. Rennie describes Lewandowski as having "little experience of official life". Accoring to Rennie Lewandowski began to sent complaints to the Commission immediately after his arrival, in which he declared that the entire Polish population of this district had been terrorised for years and, as a result, was unable to express their sentiments. Rennie reports an incident as Lewandowski repeatedly hoisted the Polish flag at the consular office which caused protests of the population. Rennie "pointed out to Dr. Lewandowski that he ought to realise that his position here was a delicate one........and I added it was highly desirable that his office should not be situated in a building with the Bureau of Polish propaganda."

Undercover and illicit activities were also commenced and as early as March 11, 1920 the Earl of Derby reported a decision of the Allied Council of Ambassadors in Paris to make representations to the Polish government regarding violations of the frontiers of the Marienwerder district by Polish soldiers.

Beaumont reported from Marienwerder at the end of March that "no change has been made in the methods of Polish propaganda. Occasional meetings are held, but they are attended only by Poles in small numbers." He continues "acts and articles violently abusive of everything German in the newly founded Polish newspaper appear to be the only (peaceful) methods adopted to persuade the inhabitants of the Plebiscite areas to vote for Poland."

Polish activities

A delegation of Masurians petitioned the Allies in March 1919 to join their region with Poland.

The Poles established an unofficial Masurian Plebiscite Committee (Mazurski Komitet Plebiscytowy) on June 6, 1919 under the chairmanship of Juliusz Bursche, later Bishop of the Evangelical-Augsburg Church in Poland. There was also an unofficial Warmian Plebiscite Committee (Warmiński Komitet Plebiscytowy). They argued that the Masurians of Warmia and Masuria were victims of a long period of Germanization, but ethnic Poles, now had the opportunity to liberate themselves from Prussian rule.

The German side tried to sway the voters in the area before the plebiscite, Polish organisations and activists were harassed by German militias, and the violence included murder, the most notable example being the killing of Bogumił Linka a native Masurian member of the Polish delegation to Versailles, who supported vote for Poland; his death described as "bestial murder", after being brutally beaten by German militias armed with crowbars, metal rods, and shovels, his ribs were punctured by shovel, only barely alive and bleeding additionally from neck and head, he was taken to hospital, doctors in German hospital ignored his wounds and declared that he died out of "cancer". After his burial the grave of Linka was defiled. Masurs who supported voting for Poland were singled out and subjected to terror and repressions Names of Masurs supporting Polish side were published in German newspapers, and their photos presented in German shops; afterwards a regular hunts were organised after them In the pursuit of Polish supporters the local Polish population was terrorized by German militias Local "Gazeta Olsztyńska" wrote "Unspeakable terror lasted till the last days" At least 3,000 Warmian and Masurian activists who were engaged for Polish side had to flee the region out of fear of their lives German police engaged in active surveillance of Polish minority and attacks against Polish activists

The plebiscite

The plebiscites asked the voters whether they wanted their homeland to remain in East Prussia, which was part of Weimar Germany, or instead become part of Poland (the alternatives for the voters were not Germany / Poland, but East Prussia / Poland). All inhabitants of the plebiscite district older than 20 years of age or those who were born in this area before 1 January 1905, were entitled to return to vote.

Results

The plebiscite took place on 11 July 1920; at the time Poland appeared on the verge of defeat in the Polish-Soviet War (see Miracle at the Vistula). German Prussia was able to organize a very successful propaganda campaign, building on the long campaign of Germanization; notably the plebiscite masked the German choice under the regional name of Prussia. The activity of German organizations, and the Allied support for the participation of Masurians who were born in Masuria but did not live there any longer, further aided the German cause. Hence the plebiscite ended with a majority of the voters voting for Prussia, only a small part of the territory affected by the plebiscite was awarded to Poland, with the majority going to Germany.

After the vote, the Poles felt disadvantaged by the Versailles Treaty stipulation which enabled those who were born in the plebiscite area but not living there any more to return to vote. Approximately 152,000 such individuals participated in the plebiscite. There is confusion on whether this was a Polish or German condition at Versailles as it might have been expected that many Ruhrpolen would vote for Poland,. While it is reported, that the Polish delegation planned to bring Polish émigrés not only from other parts of Germany but also from America to the plebiscite area to strengthen their position, the Polish delegation claimed that it was a German condition.

After the plebiscite in German areas of Masuria attacks on Polish population commenced by German mobs and Polish priests and politicians were driven from their homes

Results as published by Poland thus with Polish name first.

Olsztyn/Allenstein

The results for Olsztyn/Allenstein region were:

County	votes for East Prussia (in total)	votes for Poland (in total)
Olecko/ Oletzko	99.99% (28,625)	0.01% (2)
Gizycko/ Lötzen	99.97% (29,349)	0.03% (10)
Mragowo/ Sensburg	99.93% (34,332)	0.07% (25)
Ełk/ Lyck	99.88% (36,573)	0.12% (44)
Pisz/ Johannisburg	99.96% (33,817)	0.04% (14)
Szczytno/ Ortelsburg	98.51% (48,207)	1.49% (497)
Nidzica/ Neidenburg	98.54% (22,235)	1.46% (330)
Ostróda/ Osterode	97.81% (46,368)	2.19% (1,031)
Olsztyn/ Allenstein	86.53% (48,449)	13.47% (5,213)
Reszel/ Rößel	97.9% (35,248)	2.1% (758)
total %	97.89%	2.11%
total votes	363,209	7,980

registered voters: 425,305, valid: 371,189, turnout: 87.31%

To honour the exceptionally high percentage of pro-German votes in the district of Oletzko (de:Landkreis Oletzko), with 2 votes for Poland compared to 28,625 for Germany, the main town Marggrabowa (Margrave town) was renamed "Treuburg" (Treue = "faithfulness") in 1928, with the district following this example in 1933.

In the villages of Lubstynek (Klein Lobenstein), Czerlin (Klein Nappern) and Groszki (Groschken) in the Kreis Osterode/district of Osterode (Ostróda), situated directly at the border, a majority voted for Poland. These villages became a part of Poland after the plebiscite.

Due to the Prussian Eastern Railway line Danzig-Warsaw passing there, the area of Soldau in Landkreis Neidenburg was transferred to Poland without plebiscite, and renamed Działdowo.

Marienwerder / Kwidzyn

The results for Kwidzyn/Marienwerder region were:

County	votes for Prussia	votes for Poland
Marienwerder (Kwidzyn)	93.73%	6.27%
Marienburg (Malbork)	98.94%	1.06%
Rosenberg (Susz)	96.9%	3.1%
Stuhm (Sztum)	80.3%	19.7%
total %	92.36%	7.64%
total votes	96,923	8,018

registered voters: 125,090 valid: 104,941 turnout: 84.00%

The plebiscite district remained with German East Prussia as the Regierungsbezirk Westpreussen.

Notes

Keynes, Google Print, p.11 (full view - text is in PD)
Tooley, Google Print, p.176
Butler, pps: 720 - 828
Williamson, pps: 93-101
Wambaugh
Topolski, p. 31
^ Results of a plebiscite in three Polish districts conducted between July 1920 and March 1921. Rocznik statystyki Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej link(pdf, 623 KB). Główny Urząd Statystyczny Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej GUS, Annual (Main Statistical Office of the Republic of Poland) (1920/1922, part II). Retrieved on 2008-01-23.
Debo, Richard K. , "Survival and consolidation: the foreign policy of Soviet Russia, 1918-1921", McGill-Queen's Press, 1992, pg. 335
Zarys dzíejów Polski Jerzy Topolski Interpress,page 204, 1986
Mayer, vol.8, p. 3357-8
Mayer, vol.8, p. 3357
Butler, p. 722
^ The Versailles Treaty
A map of counties of Marienburg and Marienwerder with marked results of the plebiscite with discussion
Butler, p. 721-2 and 731
Butler p. 728
Dzieło najżywsze z żywch: antologia reportażu o ziemiach zachodnich ; północnych z lat 1919-1939 Witold Nawrocki Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Odnosiło się wrażenie, iż zawzięty, zimny i ironiczny pan Beaumont nie jest wcale przyjacielem naszej sprawy na tej ziemi 1981
Butler, p. 723-4
Butler, p.725
Butler, p.726-7
Butler, p.734-5
^ Andreas Kossert: Ostpreußen. Geschichte und Mythos. München 2005, S. 219
The many faces of Clio: cross-cultural approaches to historiography, essays in honor of Georg G. Iggers Edward Wang, Franz L. Fillafer "Border regions,hybridity and national identity-the cases of Alsace and Masuria" Stefan Berger, page 378, Berghahn Books, 2007
Kossert, p.249
Butler, p.732 and 743
Butler, p.723
Butler, p.730-1
Butler, p.729
Butler, p.737
Między Królewcem, Warszawą, Berlinem a Londynem: Wojciech Wrzesiński,Wydawnictw Adam Marszałek page 131, 2001
^ Kossert, p. 247
Kurek Mazurski Template:Pl icon
Bard ziemi mazurskiej Jerzy Oleksiński Nasza Księgarnia, 1976
Najnowsza historia Polski 1914-1993 Andrzej Albert, Wojciech Roszkowski Puls, page 95, 1994
Problemy narodowościowe w Kościele ewangelickim na Mazurach w latach 1918-1945,page 43 Ryszard Otello, Ośrodek Badań Naukowych im. Wojciecha Kętrzyńskiego w Olsztynie, 2003
Szkice z dziejów Pomorza: Pomorze na progu dziejów najnowszych Gerard Labuda,Książka i Wiedza, 1961
Historia Polski: 1914-1993 Wojciech Roszkowski Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN 1994:"Podobnie jak na Śląsku, bojówki niemieckie szerzyły wśród ludności polskiej terror".
Historia Warmii i Mazur: od pradziejów do 1945 roku, page 251, Stanisław Achremczyk - 1992
Kiermasy na Warmii i inne pisma wybrane Walenty Barczewski,page 14 Pojezierze,
Plebiscyty na Warmii, Mazurach i Powiślu w 1920 roku: wybór źródeł, Piotr Stawecki, Wojciech Wrzesiński, Zygmunt Lietz, page 13,Ośrodek badań naukowych 1986
Cezary Bazydlo (www.jugendzeit-ostpreussen.de): Plebiscyt 1920 Template:Pl icon, Volksabstimmung 1920 Template:De icon, 2006
Rhode, p. 122
T. Hunt Tooley (1997). National identity and Weimar Germany. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
Kazimierz Jaroszyk, 1878-1941: o narodowy kształt Warmii i Mazur. Wydawnictwo Pojezierze,page 89, 1986
Butler, p. 826
Suchmaschine für direkte Demokratie: Allenstein / Olszyn (Ostpreussen), 11. Juli 1920
Adrian Room, Place-name Changes Since 1900: A World Gazetteer
Kossert, p.247
Butler, p. 806
Suchmaschine für direkte Demokratie: Marienwerder / Kwidzyn (Westpreussen), 11. Juli 1920

References

Butler, Rohan, MA., Bury, J.P.T.,MA., & Lambert M.E., MA., editors, Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919-1939, 1st Series, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London, 1960, vol.x, Chapter VIII, "The Plebiscites in Allenstein and Marienwerder January 21 - September 29, 1920"
Keynes, John Maynard. A Revision of the Treaty: Being a Sequel to The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Harcourt, Brace, 1922
Kossert, Andreas. Masuren: Ostpreussens vergessener Süden, ISBN 10-3-57055006-0 Template:De icon
Mayer, S. L., MA. History of the First World War – Plebiscites:Self Determination in Action, Peter Young, MA., editor, BPC Publishing Ltd., UK., 1971.
Rhode, Gotthold. Die Ostgebiete des Deutschen Reiches, Holzner-Verlag Würzburg, 1956.
Tooley, T. Hunt. National Identity and Weimar Germany: Upper Silesia and the Eastern Border, 1918-1922, U of Nebraska Press, 1997, ISBN 0803244290
Topolski, Jerzy. An Outline History of Poland, Interpress, 1986, ISBN 832232118X
Wambaugh, Sarah. Plebiscites since the World War, Washington DC, 1933. I p 99 – 141; II p 48 - 107
Williamson, David G. The British in Germany 1918-1930, Oxford, 1991, ISBN 0-85496-584-X

External links

1920 map showing German territory's changes, including marked area for the East Prussia plebiscite
Mapa powiatów malborskiego i kwidzynskiego z naniesionymi przedstawieniami wyników plebiscytu sporządzona 11 VII 1920 roku (Map of the Malbork and Kwidzyn counties with resulsts of the plebiscite; 11 VII 1920]
Map of interwar Poland; shows plebiscite areas
Map of interwar Poland; shows plebiscite areas (in color) Template:Pl icon
Małe ząbkowane - czyli rzecz o kwidzynskich znaczkach plebiscytowych i nie tylko Template:Pl icon

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