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Ukrainian Jews

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Regions with significant populations
Ukraine	71,500 (in 2010)
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Jewish communities have existed in the territory of Ukraine from the time of Kievan Rus' and developed many of the most distinctive modern Jewish theological and cultural traditions. While at times they flourished, at other times they faced periods of persecution and antisemitic discriminatory policies. Before World War II, a little under one-third of Ukraine's urban population consisted of Jews.

Kievan Rus'

By the 11th century, Byzantine Jews of Constantinople had familial, cultural, and theological ties with the Jews of Kiev. For instance, some 11th-century Jews from Kievan Rus participated in an anti-Karaite assembly held in either Thessalonica or Constantinople. One of the three Kievan city gates in the times of Yaroslav the Wise were called Zhydovski.

Galicia-Volhynia

In Halychyna (Galicia), the westernmost area of Ukraine, Jews were mentioned for the first time in 1030. From the second part of the 14th century, they were subjects of the Polish kings, and magnates. The Jewish population of Halychyna and Bukovyna, part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, was extremely large; it made up 5% of the global Jewish population.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in the 10th century through the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, Poland was considered one of the most diverse countries in Europe. It became home to one of the world's largest and most vibrant Jewish communities. The Jewish community in the territory of Ukraine-proper during the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth became one of the largest and most important ethnic minority groups in Ukraine.

Cossack Uprising and the Deluge

The Ukrainian Cossack hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a Cossack revolt under the premise that the Poles had sold them as slaves "into the hands of the accursed Jews." At that time it is estimated that the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325. In the name of Orthodox Christianity the army of Cossacks and Crimean Tatars massacred and took into captivity a large number of Jews, Roman Catholics and Uniates during the years 1648–1649.

Recent estimates range from fifteen thousand to thirty thousand Jews killed or taken captive, and 300 Jewish communities totally destroyed.

Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles

The Cossack Uprising and the following the Swedish war (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression on the Jewish social and spiritual life.

In this time of mysticism and overly formal rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, or BeShT, (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Eastern Europe. His disciples taught and encouraged a new fervent brand of Judaism, related to Kabbalah, known as Hasidism. The rise of Hasidic Judaism had a great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties.

A radically different movement was started by Jacob Frank in the middle of the 18th century. Frank's teachings were extremely unorthodox (such as purification through transgression, as well as adoption of elements of Christianity), and he was excommunicated along with his numerous followers. They eventually converted to Catholicism.

Imperial Russian and Austrian rule

The traditional measures of keeping Imperial Russia free of Jews were hindered when the main territory of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was annexed during the partitions of Poland. During the second (1793) and the third (1795) partitions, large populations of Jews were taken over by Russia, and Catherine II of Russia established the Pale of Settlement that included Congress Poland and the Crimea.

During the 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odessa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. Some sources claim this episode as the first pogrom, while according to others (such as the Jewish Encyclopedia, 1911 ed.) say the first pogrom was the 1859 riot in Odessa. The term became common after a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish violence swept southern Imperial Russia, including Ukraine, in 1881-1884, after Jews were blamed for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II.

In May 1882, Alexander III of Russia introduced temporary regulations called May Laws that stayed in effect for more than thirty years, until 1917. Systematic policies of discrimination, strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed to obtain education and professions caused widespread poverty and mass emigration. In 1886, an Edict of Expulsion was applied to Jews of Kiev. In 1893-1894, some areas of the Crimean peninsula were cut out of the Pale.

When Alexander III died in Crimea on October 20, 1894, according to Simon Dubnow: "as the body of the deceased was carried by railway to St. Petersburg, the same rails were carrying the Jewish exiles from Yalta to the Pale. The reign of Alexander III ended symbolically. It began with pogroms and concluded with expulsions."

Odessa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to comprise some 37% of the population.

Political activism and emigration

Counterrevolutionary groups, including the Black Hundreds, opposed the Revolution with violent attacks on socialists and pogroms against Jews. There was also a backlash from the conservative elements of society, notably in spasmodic anti-Jewish attacks — around five hundred were killed in a single day in Odessa. Nicholas II of Russia himself claimed that 90% of revolutionaries were Jews.

Persons of Jewish origin were over-represented in the Russian revolutionary leadership. However, most of them were hostile to traditional Jewish culture and Jewish political parties, and were loyal to the Communist Party's atheism and proletarian internationalism, and committed to stamp out any sign of "Jewish cultural particularism".

Ukrainian People's Republic

At the start of 20th century, the Anti-Jewish pogroms continued to occur in cities and towns across the Russian Empire such as Kishinev (1905), Kiev (1911), and many others. Numerous Jewish self-defense groups were organized to prevent the outbreak of pogroms among which the most notorious one was under the leadership of Mishka Yaponchik in Odessa. During the Revolution of 1917 and the ensuing Russian Civil War an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed in the atrocities throughout the former Russian Empire in this period.

During the establishment of the Ukrainian People's Republic (1919–20), pogroms continued to be perpetrated on Ukrainian territory. Only in Ukraine, the number of civilian Jews killed during the period was estimated to be between 35 and 50 thousand. Archives declassified after 1991 provide evidence of a higher number; in the period from 1918 to 1921, "according to incomplete data, at least 100,000 Jews were killed in Ukraine in the pogroms."

Disputes among scholars continue over Symon Petlura's association with these pogroms. He is often considered to be the perpetrator of pogroms due to his lack of action to stop the anti-Semitic events. Eventually Petliura was killed by Sholom Schwartzbard, who was acquitted in the Schwartzbard trial in Paris.

Among prominent Ukrainian statesmen of this period were Moisei Rafes, Pinkhas Krasny, Abram Revutsky, Moishe Zilberfarb, and many others. (see General Secretariat of Ukraine) The autonomy of Ukraine was openly greeted by the Ukrainian Jewish Volodymyr Zhabotinsky.

Jewish Settlement of Crimea

In 1921, Crimea became an autonomous republic. In 1923, the All-Union Central Committee passed a motion to resettle a large number of the Jewish population from Ukrainian and Belorusian cities to Crimea. 50400 families were moved. The plan to further resettle Jewish families was again confirmed by the Central Committee of the USSR on July 15, 1926 assigning 124 million roubles to the task and also receiving 67 million from foreign sources.

The Soviet initiative of Jewish settlement in the Crimea was opposed by Symon Petlura which he regarded as a provocation. This train of thought was supported by Arnold Margolin who stated that it would be dangerous to set up Jewish colonies there.

The actions of the Soviet government for the supported settlement in the Crimea with Jewish families by 1927 led to a growing anti-semitism in the area.

In 1944, it was suggested to Stalin to form a Jewish Soviet Socialist Republic in Crimea however the idea was not materialised.

For names and maps of Jewish settlements Jewish Agricultural Colonies of South Ukraine and Crimea

Early 20th Century

In 1905, a series of pogroms erupted (see Kiev Pogrom) at the same time as the 1905 Revolution against the government of Tsar Nicholas II. The chief organizers of the pogroms were the members of the Union of the Russian People (commonly known as the "Black Hundreds").

From 1911-1913, the anti-Semitic tenor of the period was characterized by a number of blood libel cases (accusations of Jews murdering Christians for ritual purposes). One of the most famous was the two-year trial of Mendel Beilis, who was charged with the murder of a Christian boy (Lowe 1993, 284-90). The trial was showcased by the authorities to illustrate the perfidy of the Jewish population.

From March–May 1915, in the face of the German army, the government expelled thousands of Jews from the Empire's border areas, which coincide with the Pale of Settlement

The February 1917 revolution brought a liberal Provisional Government to power in the Russian Empire. On 21 March/3 April, the government removed all "discrimination based upon ethnic religious or social grounds". The Pale was officially abolished. The removal of the restrictions on Jews' geographical mobility and educational opportunities led to a migration to the country's major cities.

One week after the 25 October/7 November 1917 Bolshevik Revolution, the new government proclaimed the "Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia," promising all nationalities the rights of equality, self-determination and secession. Jews were not specifically mentioned in the declaration, reflecting Lenin's view that Jews did not constitute a nation.

In 1918, the RSFSR Council of Ministers issued a decree "On the Separation of Church from State and School from Church", depriving religious communities of the status of juridical persons, the right to own property and the right to enter into contracts. The decree nationalized the property of religious communities and banned their assessment of religious tuition. As a result, religion could be taught or studied only in private.

1 February 1918

The Commissariat for Jewish National Affairs is established as a subsection of the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. It is mandated to establish the "dictatorship of the proletariat in the Jewish streets" and attract the Jewish masses to the regime while advising local and central institutions on Jewish issues. The Commissariat is also expected to fight the influence of Zionist and Jewish-Socialist Parties.

27 July 1918

The Council of People's Commissars issues a decree stating that anti-Semitism is "fatal to the cause of the ... revolution". Pogroms are officially outlawed.

20 October 1918

The Jewish section of the CPSU (Yevsektsia) is established for the Party's Jewish members; its goals are similar to those of the Jewish Commissariat.

Pogroms in western Ukraine

The pogroms which erupted in January 1919 in the northwest province of Volhynia spread during February and March to the cities, towns, and villages of many other regions of Ukraine. After Sarny it was the turn of Ovruc, northwest of Kiev. In Tetiev on March 25, approximately 4,000 Jews were murdered, half in a synagogue set ablaze by Cossack troops under Colonels Kurovsky, Cherkowsy, and Shliatoshenko. Then Vashilkov (April 6 and 7). In Dubovo (June 17) 800 Jews were decapitated in assembly-line fashion. According to David A. Chapin, the town of Proskurov (later Khmelnitsky), near the city of Sudilkov, "was the site of the worst atrocity committed against Jews this century before the Nazis." Massive pogroms continued until 1921.

Pogroms across Podolia

On the February 15, 1919, during the Ukrainian-Soviet war, Otaman Semesenko initiated a pogrom Proskurov in which a large number of Jews were massacred on Shabbat (parashah Tesaveh) from three p.m. until next Sunday (?Saturday). Semesenko claimed that the pogrom was in retaliation for a previous Bolshevik Uprising, which he believed was led by Jews.

According to the "pinqasim" record books the murdered in the pogrom included 390 men, 309 women and 76 children. The number of wounded exceeded 500. Two weeks later the Order 131 was published in the central newspaper by the head of Directorate of Ukraine. In it Symon Petliura denounced such actions and eventually executed otaman Semesenko by firing-squad in November 1919. The Semesenko's brigade was disarmed and dissolved. This event is especially remarkable for being used to justify Schwartzbard for assassination of the Ukrainian leader in 1926. Although no facts of Petliura's direct involvement was ever proven, Schwartzbard was acquitted in light of revenge. The series of Jewish pogroms in various places around Ukraine culminated in the Kiev pogroms of 1919 between June and October of that year.

Bolsheviks consolidation of power

In July 1919, the Central Jewish Commissariat dissolves the kehillot (Jewish Communal Councils). The kehillot had provided a number of social services to the Jewish community.

From 1919-1920, Jewish parties and Zionist organizations are driven underground as the Communist government seeks to abolish all potential opposition. The Yevsektsiya Jewish section of the Soviet Communist party is at the forefront of the anti-religious campaigns of the 1920s that lead to the closing of religious institutions, the break-up of religious communities and the further restriction of access to religious education. To that end a series of "community trials" against the Jewish religion are held. The last known such trial, on the subject of circumcision, was held in 1928 in Kharkiv. At the same time, the body also works to establish a secular identity for the Jewish community.

In 1921, a large number of Russian Jews emigrated to Poland, as they were entitled by a peace treaty in Riga to choose the country they preferred. Several hundred thousand joined the already numerous Jewish minority of the Polish Second Republic (see History of the Jews in Russia).

31 January 1924

The Constitution of the USSR is confirmed. The USSR consists of the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), Ukrainian SSR, Belorussian SSR and Transcaucasian SSR. The Commissariat for Nationalities' Affairs is disbanded.

29 August 1924

An official agency for Jewish resettlement, the Commission for the Settlement of Jewish Toilers on the Land (KOMZET), is established. KOMZET studies, manages and funds projects for Jewish resettlement in rural areas.

January 1925

A public organization, the Society for the Agricultural Organization of Working Class Jews in the USSR (OZET), is created to help recruit colonists and support the colonization work of KOMZET. For the first few years, the government encourages Jewish settlements, particularly in Ukraine. Support for the project dwindles throughout the next decade.

In 1928, in an effort to establish a Jewish territorial region (see Jewish Autonomous Region), KOMZET sends a number of Jews to the confluence of the Bira and Bidzhan Rivers in the Far East. Colonization of this area will help to create a buffer between the Soviet Union and the Far Eastern countries, and to stimulate development in the remote region.

8 April 1929

The new Law on Religious Associations codifies all previous religious legislation. All meetings of religious associations are to have their agenda approved in advance; lists of members of religious associations must be provided to the authorities.

In 1930, the Yevsektsia is dissolved, and there is now no central Soviet-Jewish organization. Although the body had served to undermine Jewish religious life, its dissolution leads to the disintegration of Jewish secular life as well; Jewish cultural and educational organizations gradually disappear.

When the Soviet government reintroduced the use of internal passports in 1933, "Jewish" is considered an ethnicity for these purposes.

7 May 1934

Birobidzhan Province, the Far Eastern area where Jews are being encouraged to settle, is granted the status of an Autonomous Region in an effort to revitalize the settlement program. Between 1928 and 1934, fewer than 20,000 Jews migrate there; approximately 60 percent return in the same period.

In 1938, OZET is disbanded, following years of declining activities.

The cities with the largest populations of Jews in 1926 were Odessa, 154,000 or 36.5% of the total population; Kiev, 140,500 or 27.3%; Kharkiv, 81,500 or 19.5%; and Dnipropetrovsk, 62,000 or 26.7%. In 1931 Lviv's Jewish population numbered 98,000 or 31.9%, and in Chernivtsi, 42,600 or 37.9%.

As the Soviet government annexes territory in Poland, Romania and the Baltic states, roughly two million Jews become Soviet citizens. Restrictions on Jews that had existed in the formerly independent countries are now lifted. At the same time, Jewish organizations in the newly-acquired territories are shut down and their leaders arrested and exiled. Approximately 250,000 Jews escape or are evacuated from the annexed territories to the Soviet interior prior to the Nazi invasion.

World War II

Total civilian losses during the war and German occupation in Ukraine are estimated at seven million, including over a million Jews shot and killed by the Einsatzgruppen and by many local Ukrainians supporters in the western part of Ukraine.

Post-war

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (July 2010)

Independent Ukraine

In 1989, a Soviet census counted 487,000 Jews living in Ukraine. Although discrimination by the state quickly all but halted after Ukrainian independence in 1991, Jews were still discriminated against in Ukraine during the 1990s. For instance, Jews were not allowed to attend some educational institutions. Anti-semitism has declined since.

During the 1990s, some 266,300 Ukrainian Jews emigrated to Israel. The 2001 Ukrainian Census counted 106,600 Jews living in Ukraine (the number of Jews also dropped due to a negative birthrate).

In November 2007, an estimated 700 Torah scrolls previously confiscated from Jewish communities during the Soviet Union's Communist rule were returned to Jewish communes in Ukraine by the state authorities.

The Ukrainian Jewish Committee was established in 2008 in Kiev with the aim to concentrate the efforts of Jewish leaders in Ukraine on resolving strategic problems of the community and addressing socially significant issues. The Committee declared its intention to become one of the world's most influential organizations protecting the rights of Jews and "the most important and powerful structure protecting human rights in Ukraine".

In Ukraine violence against Jews and anti-semitic graffiti remains as of 2010.

Jewish communities

At present, Ukraine contains the fifth-largest Jewish community in Europe and the tenth-largest Jewish community in the world. The majority of Ukrainian Jews live in four large cities: Kiev, Dnipropetrovsk, Kharkiv, and Odessa. Rabbis Yaakov Dov Bleich of Kiev and Shmuel Kaminetzky of Dnipropetrovsk are considered to be among the most influential foreigners in the country.

There is a growing trend among some Israelis to visit Ukraine on a "roots trip" to follow the footsteps of Jewish life there. Among the place of interest are usually mentioned Kiev, where it is possible to trace the paths of Sholem Aleichem and Golda Meir; Zhytomyr and Korostyshiv, where one can follow the steps of Haim Nahman Bialik; Berdychiv, where one can trace the life of Mendele Mocher Sforim; Rivne, where one can follow the course of Amos Oz; Buchach - the path of S.Y. Agnon; Drohobych - the place of Maurycy Gottlieb and Bruno Schulz.

Notable Ukrainian Jews

• Shmuel Yosef Agnon
• Isaak Babel
• Eduard Bagritsky
• Hayim Nahman Bialik
• Moysey Fishbein
• Golda Meir
• Semion Mogilevich
• Nachman of Breslov
• Leon Trotsky
• Mikhail Turovsky
• Bruno Schulz

Notable Ukrainian-born American Jews

• Mila Kunis
• Dmitry Salita
• Isaac Stern

Notable Ukrainian-descended American Jews

• Roseanne Barr
• Noam Chomsky
• Mickey Cohen
• Erving Goffman
• Leonard Nimoy
• Carl Sagan
• William Shatner
• Peter Yarrow

Gallery

• A Jewish father teaching a child in 19th century Podolia.
• Sholom Aleichem, a Yiddish writer who portrayed life in the Pale
• Krymchak, Turkic speaking Crimean Jew
• The victims of a 1905 pogrom in Yekaterinoslav
• Jews of Galicia in western Ukraine, 1821.
• Religious Jews of Khorostkiv in western Ukraine, 1917.
• Jewish musicians from Rohatyn, 1912.
• Jew from the vicinity of Kamianets-Podilskyi, 1870-1880.
• Boris Sidis, one of the many Ukrainian Jews who fled to America
• Hayim Nahman Bialik, poet
• Leo Ornstein, Ukrainian composer
• Ihor Kolomoyskyi, business oligarch and Jewish community activist Ihor Kolomoyskyi, business oligarch and Jewish community activist
• Viktor Vekselberg, the Ukrainian-born industrialist

See also

• List of Ukrainian Jews
• List of Galician Jews
• Antisemitism in Ukraine
• Beilis trial
• Cantonist
• History of the Jews in Galicia (Central Europe)
• History of the Jews in Carpathian Ruthenia
• History of the Jews in the Soviet Union
• Jewish gauchos
• Jewish-Ukrainian relations in Eastern Galicia
• Reichskommissariat Ukraine
• Babi Yar
• Dnipropetrovsk
• Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee
• Lwów Ghetto
• Lwów Uprising
• Odessa massacre
• Ierusalimka
• Three Hares
• Wooden synagogue

References

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6. "The newest history of the Jewish people, 1789-1914" by Simon Dubnow, vol.3, Russian ed., p.153
7. Odessa: A City Born Again and Again, By Katherine Avgerinos and Josh Wilson
8. Kiev District Commission of the Jewish Public Committee for Relief to Victims of Pogroms. State Archive of the Kiev Oblast. Fond FR-3050 by Vladimir Danilenko, Director of the State Archive of the Kiev Oblast.
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External links

• Chabad-Lubavitch Centers in Ukraine
• Federation of Jewish Communities of Ukraine
• Jewish Agricultural Colonization in the Ukraine
• Jewish Renaissance in Odessa

• Jewish Ukrainian history
• History of religion in Ukraine
• History of Judaism in Ukraine