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1. Kvens (alternate spellings: Cwen, Kven, Kvæn, Kveeni, Quen) were a Finnish/Finnic group mentioned in early Norse literature, Viking Age sagas and other historical writings of the Medieval time.

According to these documents, the Kvens inhabitated and/or ruled an area historically referred to as Kvenland (Kainuu or Kainuunmaa in Finnish), which - according to most historians - included the coastal and nearby areas around the Gulf of Bothnia, a sea separating today's Sweden and Finland, but also - based on historical writings and archaeological findings - perhaps the entire Northern Scandinavian area north from the Gulf of Bothnia to the Arctic Ocean, and - on the west-east dimension - from the Norwegian mountain chain to the White Sea (in today's Northwestern Russia).

2. The modern-day Kvens are the descendants of the Kvens who have inhabited the northernmost coastal areas of the Scandinavian peninsula by the Arctic Ocean and its Barents Sea (in today's Northern Norway and in the extreme Northwestern Russia) - or who have settled there from the more southern parts of the historic Kvenland - any time prior to the 20th century.

It is known that a vast majority of the pre 20th century migration to Northern Norway from the 16th century AD onwards has originated from the historic Kvenland territories of the modern-day Northern Sweden and Northern Finland. The later Finnish migration to Northern Norway has incuded also settlers from elsewhere in Finland, and thus the more recent Finnish migrants are not considered Kvens in Norway, but Finns instead.

The Kvens share a distinct language known as Kven language - or Kainu by its official name -, closely related to Finnish, and in particular Meänkieli (spoken in Northern Sweden). The Kven minority in Norway was subject to discrimination in modern times, particularly in the early 20th century; but Kven culture and language is recently gaining interest and popularity.

Historical origin

The first known written mentioning of the Kvens appeared in 98 AD, when the Roman historian Gaius Cornelius Tacitus wrote in his book, Germania, about the Sithons who were ruled by a woman (Kvenland, 1986, page 51, Emeritus Professor Kyösti Julku).

In his 98 AD book, Tacitus also discusses the Fennos of the Northernmost Scandinavia. Previously it was depated whether Fennos in this context was a reference to the Finno-Ugric Sami population or the Finns. According to the Emeritus Professor Kyösti Julku, in recent times an increasing number of scientist believe Taticus to have referred to the Finns/Kvens by this reference. In his 1986 book, Professor Julku brings up new evidence, such as historic maps that before have not been properly included it the main studies published. Among other evidence, Julku also discusses prehistoric Kven place names in today's Northern Norway, at least 12 such names in the area of Tromsa alone.

According to the Norwegian 9th century leader and explorer "Othar, Kvenland was the Northern Scandinavian territory east from the Norwegian mountains (in south by the same side of the mountain chain lived the Sweos, according to Othar). Othar - and later King Alfred the Great in the end of the 9th century - described the life of the Kvens and the structure of their society. Nevertheless, it is not clear as to how early on the Kvens can be seen having inhabited the Northern Scandinavian coastal shores of the Arctic Ocean "all-year-round", where Othar described having come in contact with the Kvens (Suomen historia, "History of Finland", 2003, page 27, Professor Jouko Vahtola).

It is not clear as to when the historic Kven society can be seen to have began. Whereas the oldest archaeological findings from the modern-day Northern Finland date traces of human life from approximately 8 000 BC onwards, when the ice masses of the last Ice Age were still melting away, there are no written mentionings of the Kvens available from the time before the first century AD.

Historically, the Finnic Kvens are referred to as a separate group from the Finnic Karelians or the Finno-Ugric Samis. According to History Professors Seppo Zetterberg and Allan Tiitta (Suomi kautta aikojen, 1997 - "Finland Through All Times" - page 31) the Karelians began calling the Kvens by the Finnish language term kainulainen, based on the area the Kvens lived on, Kainuu, which - according to the same Professors - included the coastal areas of the Gulf of Bothnia. Both groups are discussed widely in the Finnish national epic Kalevala.

In the epic Finnish Kalevala legend - as in Finnish language in general - Kvenland has always been known as Kainuu, Kainu or Kainuunmaa. Compared with the modern-day Finnish province of Kainuu, the historic and traditional territories of Kainuu - i.e. Kvenland - reached much further up northwest, north and northeast than at the present time.

According to Jouko Vahtola (Suomen historia, 2003 - "History of Finland" - page 27), a Professor of Finnish and Scandinavian history in the unversity of Oulu in Finland, by the term Kven the 9th century Norwegian explorer "Othar" propably referred to Finns in general.

Archeologically the Kvens are still somewhat obscure. Many prehistoric burials are known from the Finnish side of Gulf Of Bothnia to the 8th century, but afterwards only a handful of burials are known. It is so far unclear if the area had a permanent inhabitation of farmers until the 12th century, when settlers from Southwestern Finland were present in the northern riverine valleys.

If the pre-8th century farming population vanished, as some Finnish historians and archaeologists believe, "Kvenland" was thereafter inhabitated mainly by hunter-gatherers (possibly of Sami affiliation), whose archeological remains are notoriously elusive, and whose possible connection with the Kvens is unclear. Even in this case, Kvenland was visited by traders and hunters from the southern farmer settlements. Possibly the later were called the Kvens at that time.

Recent archeological findings have, however, brought new findings to be examined. For instance, in 2005 a kilogram of silver, and some silver jewlery dating to the 12th century AD were discovered from the northernmost area of Finland, in Inari. Recent prehistoric findings from Utsjoki (in colose vicinity to the Arctic Ocean), Enontekiö and Suomussalmi, Finland, are currently also being investicated.

Details of old sources

Whereas the oldest known written reference to the Kvens can be found from the 98 AD Roman historian Gaius Cornelius Tacitus' book, Germania (Kvenland, 1986, page 51, Emeritus Professor Kyösti Julku), the oldest known written use of the term Kven - by that spelling - can be found from the Account of the Viking Othere by the Northern Norwegian Viking leader and explorer "Othar" from Björkoy in Hålogaland (Haalogaland), near Troms (Tromsa) (a.k.a. Ottar from Hålogaland).

The information given in the Account of the Viking Othere is based on Othar's voyages to Northern Scandinavia and the Arctic Ocean in the latter part of the 9th century.

Ottar met the English King Alfred the Great in England in the end of the 9th century and made a thorough account to him of the life in the Northernmost part of Scandinavia and in today's Northern Norway, and the Kvens, and about his exploration trip to the White Sea area.

This account of Ottar's was included to the omissions and additions included to the Universal History of Orosius republished by Alfred the Great (the book is partially work of Orosius and partially of Alfred the Great). This was the first genuine and comprenensive account of the North, and thus it is a principle source in the exploration of the Nordic history.

According to this source as well as some Russian sources, the Norwegians and the Kvens united their forces on the 9th century against the attacks by the (Finnish) Karelians who - with the assistance of Novgorod - made advances up North, particularly coming to the 11th century.

The later Egils Saga mention an alliance between the Norse and the Kvens against the Karelian raiders from the south-east during the 12th century, when the Karelians were expanding their influence towards Kvenland.

In the book Suomi kautta aikojen (Finland Through All Times), page 31, History Professors Allan Tiitta and Seppo Zetterberg explain that whereas still on the 12th century the Norse and the Kvens cooperated in the taxing of Lapland (Egil's saga, for instance, talks about this cooperation), coming to the 13th century the Norwegians had to give up this taxing for the benefit of the Kvens.

Alfred the Great's chronicle and Egil Skallgrimsson's saga also discuss the Kvens and Kvenland. Adam of Bremen mentions the Kvens in the 11th century. He called Kvenland Terra Feminica, perhaps because the word "Kven" resembles the Old Norse word Qvinna, which means "woman".

In his 1906 book, "Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race", Thomas William Shore - on the other hand - draws connections between the term Kven (the spelling Quen is used in Latin texts) and the English term Queen. F.N. Flinck (1899) and Julius Pokorny (1936) also have suggested similar type of Finnish impact on Germanic languages, and visa versa. The following spellings for the Viking Age Kvens are those most commonly found in the English historical writings referring to Kvens: "Cwen", "Quen" and "Fin".

According to the chronicle of Alfred the Great, Scandinavia was inhabited by Suiones of Svealand, the Lapps in Lapland, the Norse in Norway and the Kvens in Kvenland. It is mentioned that Kvenland was located around big bodies of waters, such as the Gulf of Bothnia, and by large fjords such as the Varanger Fjord, and by large lakes such as the Lake Inari, and by large rivers such as Kainuunjoki - the "River Kvenland" -, today better known as theRiver Kalix in the modern-day Sweden.

Together with other Finnic groups, the Viking Age Kvens are believed to have participated in the Varangian/Viking conquests abroad.

A further investication to the following collection of selected sources and references (each somehow relating to the Kvens) can - perhaps - give more understanding as to how the Kvens (and/or Finns in general) were viewed in historic texts during the Viking Age (800-1200 AD) and the Medieval period:

In 870 AD, the Norwegian explorer and leader Ottar from Hålogaland writes a thorough account about his Northern Scandinavian and White Sea exploration trip, where he discusses the Kvens. According to Othar, the Kvens ruled the territories of the Northern Scandinavia - east from the Norwegian mountain chain - which he travelled throug.

In 890 AD, the English King Alfred the Great writes in the Universal History of Orosius about the Kvens and the land they rule.

In 1075 AD, Adam of Bremen, one of the most important German medieval chroniclers, discusses Kvens in Gesta (a history of Bremen/Hamburg and of the northern lands). He calls Kvenland Terra Feminica. Comparisons to Tacitus' (98 AD) similar Sithons' (i.e. Kvens') female leadership reference and the historic Nordic references to the female leader "Gygr" and/or "Pohjan akka" have drawn ever since.

In 1154 AD, the Arab historian and scientist, Muhammad al-Idrisi tells that the King of FMRK has possessions in Norway. "Fmrk" is believed to refer to Finnmark, which area - according to the Norwegian leader "Othar" and according to the Universal History of Orosius (republished by King Alfred the Great in 890 AD) - was "ruled" by the Kvens.

In 1157 AD, in his geographical chronicle, Nikolaos, the abbot of the monastery at Thingeyrar in Northern Iceland, talks about "two Kvenlands" that reach the areas "north from Bjarmia".

In 1170 AD, the Historia Norvegiae tells about the whereabouts of Kvenland. According to the text, the Kvens served pagan gods.

In 1187 AD, according to a Swedish chronicle, the main Swedish center, Sigtuna, is conquered and destroyed by an attack from easterly direction. Later medieval Swedish sources explain the Karelians to have been behind this attack. However, around this time the Kvens and the Karelians are known to have began their cooperation. Historians believe the River Kemijoki (part of the historic Kvenland) settlement name of Sihtuuna to derive from the name Sigtuna.

In 1200 AD, the Danish historian, Saxo Grammaticus, tells about Finnish kings.

In 1220 AD, the Icelandic bishop, poet, and historian, Snorri Sturluson, writes the Ynglinga Saga, in which marriages and wars of Finnish and Swedish royal families are mentioned.

In 1230 AD, in the introduction to the Orkneyinga Saga, Fundinn Noregr discusses the kings of Finland and Kvenland and their conquest of Norway. Based on the informantion given in this saga, the ruling families of Sweden, Norway, the Orkney Islands, Normandy, and England descend from these Finnish and/or Kven kings.

In 1230 - 1240 AD, in Egils saga - possibly by Snorri Sturluson (1179-1241 A.D.) - Kvens are discussed.

In 1251 AD, the Karelians fought against the Norwegians.

In 1271 AD, the Kvens and the Karelians cooperated in battles against the Norwegians in Haalogaland. These battles had a lasting effect in life in the entire Northern Scandinavia.

During several following centuries, a gradual and slow process of a Swedish expansion in today's Finland and the formation of Sweden-Finland took place. Rather than wars between the Swedes and the Finns, the scirmishes between various Finnish groups helped the progression of the process: Those Finns in the west symphatized with the catholic Swedes and those in the east symphatized with the orthodox Russians. This period saw many tendencies and attempts to autonomy for the eastern half of Sweden-Finland, that came to form the borders of Finland of today.

Once King Karl IX had strengthened his hold on the crown of Sweden, he appended to it the title "King of the Kainulaiset" (Kvens), apparently using it the first time on March 16, 1607. Kainu (Kvenland) occupied a separate position from the rest of Finland for a long time to come (Kvenland, Julku, 1986, 187).

Since the Viking Age the historic Kvenland territories have played an important role in many wars having to do with Finns. For instance, in the Swedish-Russian peace treaty of 1809, the border of the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland was about to be drawn to the River Kalix, also known as Kainuunjoki ("River Kvenland") in Finnish, in the modern-day Northern Sweden. The surrounding Finnish speaking historic Kvenland territories were, however, left a part of Sweden.

Norwegian settlements

Today's Kvens are the descendants of the Kvens/Finns who inhabited the northernmost coastal areas of the Scandinavian peninsula - by the Arctic Ocean and its Barents Sea, in today's Northern Norway and in the extreme Northeastern Russia -, or who settled there, any time prior to the 20th century.

Such places by the Varanger Fjord (a vast bay of water, connected to the Arctic Ocean - Varangerfjorden in Norwegian - in Northeastern Norway) as Bugoynes (Pykeija in Finnish), Vadso (Vesisaari in Finnish), Kirkenes (Kirkkoniemi in Finnish) and Vardo (Vuoreija in Finnish) are perfect examples of today's remaining Kven centers in north-eastern Norway.

Due to the mixing and assimilation of populations and cultures in the historical Kvenland territories, the descendants of Kvens e.g. in the Gulf of Bothnia and the White Sea areas are usually no longer referred to as Kvens by the local residents. Only the Kvens of Northern Norway by the Arctic Ocean and particularly its Barents Sea in Northeastern Scandinavia - who up till the latter part of the twentieth century have been rather isolated of the rest of the society around them - still today continue carrying on the Kven title, traditions, heritage and language.

In 1996 the Kvens of Norway were granted a legal minority peoples' status in Norway. Their language, the Kven language, or officially Kainu, was granted an official and legalized minority language status in 2005.

Kven migrations

According to researchers (Professor Jouko Vahtola and others), the Tornedalians who migrated in what is today the Torne Valley region in Sweden originated from the Tavastland area in Finland.

After the Middle Ages and the migration of the so called Tornedalians, the next larger migration wave up north - this time again reaching the coastal areas of today's Norway - happened in the early 18th century. A number of Northern Norwegian Kven communities then received a migration wave from the historic areas of Kvenland, including the Torne Valley region, the Northern Bothnian areas and Lapland (the Northern Swedish area also was known as Lapland). On the receiving end were then the following Northern Norwegian Kven communities (Norwegian names given first):

Lyngen (Yykeä), Nordreisa (Raisi), Kvaenangen (Naavuono), Porsanger (Porsanki), Karasjok (Kaarasjoki), Polmak (Pulmanki), Bonakas (Punakakkanen), Borselva (Pyssyjoki), Alta (Alattio) and Lakselv (Lemmijoki - a Kven name in use since at least 1595 in Northern Norway).

The following Kven migration to Northern Norway - and to the areas that were a part of the Republic of Finland up till 1944 - took place in the beginning of the 19th century, reaching a peak during the famine in Finland in the 1860s.

The Kven communities of Northern Norway again received the large majority of the migration from the historic Kvenland - or Kainuu/Kainu - territories. Now, the Northern Norwegian communities of Bygounes (Pykeija), Neiden (Näätämö), Pasvik (Paatsjoki), Vestre Jakobselv (Annijoki), Skalelv (Kallijoki) and Vadso (Vesisaari) reveived a majority of their incoming migration from the Torne River Valley region, as well as from Oulu, Kemi, Kemijärvi, Sodankylä and Kuusamo.

The Kven immigrants were often poor farmers looking for land in the Norwegian provinces of Troms and Finnmark. Whereas the first immigrants arrived to parishes such as Alta, Balsfjord, Børselv, Lyngen, Nordreisa, Skibotn and Tana, the later arrivers settled in the eastern parts of Finnmark, along the Varanger Fjord.

The Norwegian government attempted to integrate the Kvens to the Norwegian main stream society by costum made policies and laws from the 1860s on. The use of the Kven language became forbidden and punishable in schools and government officies. Land purchace became prohibited from those who did not use Norwegian family names. Eventually the sales of land for non-speakers of the Norwegian language became prohibited. On national level, the Kvens even became to be considered a national "security risk" ("Finske fare"). Among others, the Norwegian Defence Ministry in 1870 demanded for all Kven names ("foreign names") to be removed from maps. Kven town names were replaced by Norwegian names.

Thus, despite of what their own preferences might have been, the Kven population of Norway largely became integrated into the Norwegian main stream society during that period. For instance, in Kven communities such as Vesisaari (Vadsø in Norwegian) - where the Kvens had been the vast majority of the population - they soon considered the Norwegian cultural identity as a standard.

However, the last few decades have brought a significant change in this respect. The Kven language received a legal minority language status in 2005, and the original Kven communities have been granted their old place names back. Such Kven names include the following Northern Norwegian community place names:

Alattio (Alta in Norwegian), Annijoki (Vestre Jakobselv), Kaarasjoki (Karasjok), Kallijoki (Skalvelv), Kirkkoniemi (Kirkenes), Lemmijoki - a Kven name in use at least since 1595 - (Lakselv), Naavuono (Kvænangen), Näätämö (Neiden), Paatsjoki (Pasvik), Porsanki (Porsanger), Pulmanki (Polmak), Punakakkanen (Bonakas), Pykeija (Bugoynes), Pyssyjoki (Børselva), Raisi (Nordreisa), Vesisaari (Vadsø), Vuoreija (Vardø), Yekeä (Lyngen), etc.

Outside the boundaries of the modern-day Norway, in the historic and traditional Kvenland territories of Northern Scandinavia and today's Northwestern Russia, the descendants of the Kvens no longer are referred to as Kvens.

See also

• Bjarmaland
• Ingrian Finns
• Karelians
• Kola Norwegians
• Tornedalians

Notes

• Ethnologue report: Finnish, Kven

References

• Anttonen, Marjut - Finnish migrants to North Norway - supporting or threatening the Kven identifications of today ?. 2000.
• Anttonen, Marjut - The politicization of Kven identities in Northern Norway. 2001.
• Julku, Kyösti - Kvenland - Kainuunmaa. 1986.
• Jutikkala, Eino, with Kauko Pirinen - A History of Finland. Amer-Yhtymä Oy, Espoo, 1979.
• Kuussaari, Eero - Suomen suvun tiet. F. Tilgmann Oy, Helsinki, 1935.
• Patoharju, Taavi - Suomi tahtoi elää. Sanoma, Pitäjänmäki, 1958.
• Shore, Thomas William - Origin of the Anglo-Saxon Race. 1906. Reissued in 1971 by Kennikat Press.
• Pokorny, Julius - 1936.
• Vahtola, Jouko - Suomen historia / Jääkaudesta Euroopan unioniin. 2003.
• Wessel, A.B. – Optegnelser fra Sør-Varanger. 1938, reprinted 1979.
• Zetterberg, Seppo / Tiita, Allan - Suomi kautta aikojen. Otava, 1997.

Further reading

• Anttonen, Marjut - Cultural adaption an ethnic identity of finnish immigrants in Nothern Norway. 1993.
• Anttonen, Marjut - Nord-Norges nya finska immigranter. 1986.
• Anttonen, Marjut - Suomalaissiirtolaisten akkulturoituminen Pohjois-Norjassa. 1984.
• Anttonen, Marjut - The dilemma of some present-day Norwegians with Finnish-speaking ancestry. 1998.
• Carpelan, Christian - Käännekohtia Suomen esihistoriassa aikavälillä 5100-1000 eKr. Pohjan Poluilla. 1999.
• Edgren, Torsten - Den förhistoriska tiden. Finland's historia 1. Andra upplagan. 1993.
• Edgren, Torsten - Kivikausi. Suomen historia 1. 1984.
• Hallencreutz, C.F. - Adam, Sverige och trosskiftet. 1984.
• Huurre, Matti - 9000 vuotta Suomen esihistoriaa. Viides, uudistettu painos. 1995.
• Huurre, Matti - Kivikauden Suomi. 1998.
• Lönnrot, Elias - Kalevala. 1835.
• Nunez, Milton - Okkonen, Jari - Environmental Background for the Rise and Fall of Villages and Megastructures in North Ostrobotnia 4000-2000 cal B.C. Dig it all. Papers dedicated to Ari Siiriäinen. 1999.
• Schulz, Hans-Peter - De tog skydd i Varggrottan. Popular arkeologi 3/1998.
• Schulz, Hans-Peter - Pioneerit pohjoisessa. Suomen varhaismesoliittinen asutus arkeologisen aineiston valossa. Suomen museo 1996.

Primary sources

• Tacitus, Gaius Cornelius - Germania. 98 AD.
• Ottar from Hålogaland - the Norwegian leader and explorer. 870 AD.
• Alfred the Great - The World History of Orosius. 890 AD.
• Al-Idrisi, Muhammad. 1154 AD.
• Grammaticus, Saxo - the Danish historian. 1200 AD.
• Sturluson, Snorri - the Icelandic chieftain and historian - Egil's saga. 1179-1241 AD.

• Finnic peoples
• History of Finland
• Scandinavian history
• History of Norway
• Viking Age