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|place=], ] |place=], ]
|date=], ] — ], ] |date=], ] — ], ]
|result=Soviet Victory |result=Soviet victory
|combatant1=]<br>] |combatant1=], ]
|combatant2=]<br>] |combatant2=], ]
|commander1=] |commander1=]
|commander2=]<br>]<br> |commander2=],<br> ]
|strength1=180,000 |strength1=180,000 (90,000 for city defense)
|strength2=500,000+ |strength2=500,000+ (170,000 for city assault)
|casualties1=99,000-150,000 killed and captured, 40,000 civilian dead |casualties1='''Low estimate:'''<br> ~ 48,000 killed,<br> ~ 51,000 captured, <br>'''High estimate:'''<br> ~ 150,000 killed or captured,<br> Est. 40,000 civilians killed
|casualties2=70,000-160,000 killed |casualties2='''Low estimate:'''<br> ~ 70,000 killed,<br> '''High estimate:'''<br> ~ 160,000 killed
|}} |}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}} {{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
{{Campaignbox Hungary 1944-1945}}


The '''Battle of Budapest''' was a siege that lasted from ], ] to ], ] in which ] captured the city of ] from ] ] and ] forces during ]. It was one of the bloodiest sieges of the war. The '''Battle of Budapest''' was a siege lasting from ], ] to ], ] in which ] captured the city of ] from ] ] and ] forces in ]. It was one of the bloodiest sieges of the war, being comparable, in terms of casualties, to the sieges of Berlin and Stalingrad.


== General Situation == == General Situation ==
At the end of ], Hungary was one of Germany's last Allies in ], and because of this it was necessary both in a political and economical sense (Germany needed Hungarian ]s located around the lake ]) to keep the country as one. On ], ], the Hungarian leader ] and his goverment were replaced by nationalist party ], after attempt to negotiate peace with ]. Any hope of a peaceful outcome for Hungary was lost - Hungary would fight until the end. At the end of ], Hungary remained Germany's only ], and was therefore necessary both in a political and economical sense - German industry needed Hungarian ]s located around the lake ].

On ], ], Hungarian leader ] was destitute by the local nationalist party, ''Crossed arrows''. Any hope of a peaceful outcome for Hungary was lost - the battle would be a fight for death.


== The Siege == == The Siege ==
=== Encirclement of Budapest === === Encircling Budapest ===
On ], ], the Red Army started its offensive towards Budapest. More than 1,000,000 men split into two large groups rushed towards the city, planning to cut it from other German and Hungarian troops. On ], ], ] troops entered the eastern suburbs of Budaåest, 20 kilometers from the old town. Interestingly, very few inhabitants wanted to leave the city. On ], after a necessary break, the ] resumed its offensive. On ], a road linking Budapest to ] was seized by the Soviet Troops, therefore encircling the city. On ], ], the Red Army started its offensive on Budapest. More than 1,000,000 men split into two operating ] groups rushing towards the city, planning to cut it off from the rest of the German and Hungarian troops.


On ], ], ] troops entered Budapest's eastern suburbs, 20 kilometers from the city's old town. Curiously, very few inhabitants wanted to leave the city.
⚫ Budapest was a major target for ]. Indeed, the ] was appoaching and ] wanted to display his full strength to ] and ]. Therefore, he ordered General ] to seize the city as quickly as possible.


On ], after a necessary break, the ] resumed its offensive. On ], the road linking Budapest to ] was seized by the Soviet Troops, therefore encircling the city.
⚫ On ], ], Malinovsky sent two ] in order to negociate the city's ]. The emissaries never came back. This particular point is widely disputed by the ], with some German and Hungarian historians arguing that the emissaries were deliberately shot. Others believe that they were in fact shot by mistake on their way back. In any case, ] commanders considered this act as a refusal and ordered the start of the siege.


⚫ Budapest was a major target for ]. Indeed, the ] was approaching and ] wanted to display his full strength to ] and ]. Therefore, he issued a directive to General ], ordering him to seize the city as quickly as possible.
=== The first German offensive ===
⚫ The Soviet offensive started from the eastern suburbs, advancing through the town of ], using large central avenues to speed up the progress. The German and Hungarian defenders, overwhelmed, tried to trade space for time to slow down the Soviet's advance to a crawl. They ultimately withdrew to shorten their lines, hoping for better chances in the hilly areas of ].


⚫ The ], ], ] sent two ] in order to negotiate the city's ]. The emissaries never came back. This particular point is widely disputed by the ], with some German and Hungarian historians arguing that the emissaries were deliberately shot down. Others believe that they were in fact shot by mistake on their way back. In any case, ] commanders considered this act as a refusal and ordered the start of the siege.
⚫ On ], ], the Germans lauched ], trying to advance through the hilly terrain north of Budapest and break the siege. Simultaneously, ] forces struck west of Budapest, trying to gain tactical advantage. On ], ], the Soviet command sent four more divisions to meet the threat, stopping the offensive less than 20 kilometers north of Budapest. On ], ], the German forces were forced to withdraw - Operation Konrad had failed.


=== Combat in the city === === The start and first German offensive ===
⚫ The offensive started in the eastern suburbs, advancing through the town of ], making good use of the large central avenues to speed up their progress. The defenders, overwhelmed, tried to trade space for time to slow the Soviet's advance to a crawl. They ultimately withdrew to shorten their lines, hoping to take advantage of the hilly nature of ].
⚫ Meanwhile, ] in Budapest had become intense. Supplies became a decisive factor because of the loss of the ] airport just before the start of the siege, on ], ]. Until ], ], German troops were able to use some of the main avenues as well as the park next to ] as landing zones for ]s and ]s, under constant Soviet fire. Before the ] froze, some supplies could be passed on ]s, under the cover of ] and ].


On ], ], the ] launched ], trying to launch an offensive through hilly terrain north of Budapest and break the ]. Simultaneously, ] forces struck west of Budapest, trying to gain tactical advantage.
⚫ Nevertheless, food shortage became more and more common and soldiers needed find new sources of food.


⚫ On ], ], the Soviet command sent four more divisions to meet the threat, stopping the offensive less than 20 kilometers north of Budapest. On ], ], Wermacht and Waffen-SS forces were forced to withdraw - Operation Konrad had failed.
⚫ Soon, the Soviet troops found themselves in the same situation as in ] - but on the wrong side. Still, their troops were far more experienced in urban warfare, heavily relying on snipers and sappers to advance. Extreme temperatures effected German and Hungarian troops. Fights broke out even in the ]s, as both Axis and Soviet troops used them for troops movement. Six Soviet ]s even managed to get to the Castle Hill and capture a German officer before returning to their own lines - still underground. But such prowesses were rare because of ambushes set up by the Axis troops using local inhabitants as guides in the sewers.


=== Combat intensification ===
⚫ In mid-January, ] was taken, along with its military factories that were still producing ]s and ]. Meanwhile in Pest, the situation had become dangerous, with the Axis ] facing the risk of being cut in half by the advancing Soviet troops.
⚫ Meanwhile, ] in Budapest gained in intensity. Supplies became a decisive factor because of the loss of the ] airport just before the start of the siege, on ], ]. Up until ], ], the German forces were able to use some of the main avenues as well as the park next to ] as landing zones for ]s and ]s, although they were under constant artillery fire from the Soviets. Before the ] froze, some supplies could be transported on ]s, under cover of ] and ].


⚫ Nevertheless, food shortages were more and more common and soldiers had to rely on finding their own sources of food, some even resorting to eating their own ]s.
⚫ On ], ], ] agreed to withdraw all of the remaining troops from Pest to defend Buda. All of the five bridges spanning the ] were clogged with traffic, evacuating troops and civilians. On ], ], German troops destroyed the five beautiful bridges, despite protests from Hungarian officers.


⚫ Quite quickly, Soviet troops found themselves in the same situation as the Germans had in ]. Still, their troops were able to take advantage of the urban terrain by relying heavily on snipers and sappers to advance. Extreme temperatures strongly affected German and especially Hungarian troops, who started to desert in considerable numbers. Fighting even spread to the city's ]s, as both German and Soviet troops used them for moving troops. Six Soviet ]s even managed to get to Castle Hill, remaining there for several hours and capturing a German officer before returning to their own lines - still underground. Although such mobility was rare due to the use of the sewers by German and Hungarian troops, who were helped by local people acting as guides.
=== The second German offensive ===
⚫ On ], ], German troops launched their second major offensive, this time south of the city, blasting a 20-km hole in Soviet lines and advancing to the ], threatening the Soviet supply lines.


⚫ In mid-January, ] was taken, along with its military factories which were still producing ]s and ]s, even under Soviet fire. Meanwhile in Pest, the situation deteriorated, with the ] facing the risk of being cut in half by the advancing Soviet troops.
⚫ Stalin ordered his troops to hold their ground at all costs, and two ] that were dispatched to assault Budapest were hastily moved south of the city to counter the German offensive. Nevertheless, the German troops advanced roughly 20 kilometres to the city in total and could not maintain their offensive due to supply problemss. German commanders asked permission to withdraw - Hitler refused.


⚫ On ], ], ] agreed withdraw all of the remaining troops from Pest to try to defend Buda. All of the five bridges spanning the ] were clogged with traffic, evacuating troops, wounded men and civilians. On ], ], German troops destroyed the five beautiful bridges, despite protests from Hungarian officers.
⚫ On ], ], German troops could no longer hold their ground and were forced to withdraw. The fate of the defenders of Budapest was sealed.


=== The Battle of Buda === === Second German offensive ===
⚫ On ], ], Wehrmacht and ] troops launched their second major offensive, this time south of the city, blasting a 20-km hole in Soviet lines and advancing to the ], threatening Soviet traffic.
⚫ ] Gunners during the battle]]


⚫ Stalin ordered his troops to hold their ground at all costs, and two ] that were dispatched to assault Budapest were hastily rerouted south of the city to counter the German offensive. Nevertheless, Waffen-SS troops who got to less than 20 kilometres from the city, were unable to maintain their offensive due to fatigue and supply issues. Budapest's defenders asked permission to leave the city and escape the encirclement. Hitler refused.
⚫ Contrary to ], built on flat terrain, the city of ] was built on hills. This allowed the defenders to place artillery and fortifications above the attackers, gaining a considerable advantage. The main citadel, ] was defended by elite Waffen-SS troops that succesfully repelled several Soviet assaults. Nearby, Soviet and German forces were fighting for the city cemetery. Fights on the shell-opened tombs would last for several days.

⚫ On ], ], German troops could no longer stand their ground and were forced to withdraw. The raid constituted the Wehrmacht's last attempt to execute a strategic maneuver. For the rest of the war, they would be constantly on the defensive. The fate of the Budapest defenders was sealed.

=== The battle of Buda ===
⚫ ] Gunners during the battle]]

⚫ Contrary to ], built on flat terrain, the city of ] is built on hills. This allowed the defenders to place artillery and fortifications above the attackers, greatly slowing Soviet progression. The main citadel, ] was defended by elite SS troops that succesfully repelled several Soviet assaults. Nearby, Soviet and German soldiers fought for the city cemetery, often fighting amongst tombs that had been ripped open by shell fire.


Fighting on ], in the middle of the ], was particularly merciless. The island was still attached to the rest of the city by the remaining half of the Margaret Bridge and was used as parachuting area as well as for covering improvised airstrips set up in the downtown. Fighting on ], in the middle of the ], was particularly merciless. The island was still attached to the rest of the city by the remaining half of the Margaret Bridge and was used as parachuting area as well as for covering improvised airstrips set up in the downtown.


On ], ], the ] finally faell after a vicous Soviet attack launched from three directions simultaneously, after six weeks of fighting. Soviet artillery was finally able to dominate the entire city and to shell the remaining ] defenders, concentrated on less than two square kilometres and suffering from cold, lack of supplies and diseases. Daily rations were reduced to 150 grams of bread and meat from slaughtered horses. Nevertheless, the defenders refused to surrender and defended every street and house, fighting Soviet troops and tanks. On ], ], the ] finally fell after a vicous Soviet attack launched from three points of compass simultaneously, after six weeks of fighting. Soviet artillery was finally able to dominate the entire city and to shell the remaining ] defenders, concentrated on less than two square kilometres and suffering from malnutrition and diseases (daily rations were reduced to 150 grams of bread and meat from slaughtered horses). Nevertheless, the defenders refused to surrender and defended every street and house, fighting Soviet troops and tanks.


After capturing the southern railway station during a two-day bloodbath, Soviet troops advanced to the Castle hill. On ], ], after a violent assault, Soviet marines establish a bridgehead on the Castle hill, almost cutting the remaining garrison in half. After capturing the southern railway station during a two-day bloodbath, Soviet troops advanced to the Castle hill. On ], ], after a violent assault, Soviet marines establish a bridgehead on the Castle hill, while almost cutting the remaining garrison in half.


=== The third offensive === === The Defenders' Sortie ===
In front of such a hopeless situation, General ] decided, against Hitler's orders, to attempt to break out of the encirclement. ] In front of such a hopeless situation, General ] decided, against Hitler's orders, to attempt to break out of the ]. ]


German and Hungarian troops used fog to their advantage and advanced in three waves. The first wave managed to surprise the Soviet soldiers and artillery, and its sheer number allowed them to escape. The second and third waves were less fortunate, as Soviet artillery had time to bracket the area and shell the escaping troops. Despite Soviet fire and heavy losses, 10,000 men managed to reach the wooded hills north-west of Budapest and escape towards Vienna. German and Hungarian troops along with several civilians used ] to their advantage and went in three waves. The first wave managed to surprise the Soviet soldiers and artillery, and its sheer number allowed them to escape. The second and third waves were less fortunate, as Soviet artillery had time to bracket the area and shell the escaping troops. Despite Soviet fire and heavy losses, 10,000 men managed to gain wooded hills north-west of Budapest and escape towards Vienna.


== Aftermath == == Aftermath ==
On ], ], the remaining defenders finally surrendered. Budapest laid in ruins, with more than 80 percent of its buildings destroyed or damaged, and historical buildings like the ] and the Castle in ruins. All five bridges spanning the ] were destroyed. Some 40,000 ]s died as a result of fighting and unknown number had died starvation and diseases. On ], ], the remaining defenders finally surrendered. Budapest lay in ruins, with more than 80 percent of its buildings destroyed or damaged, and historical buildings like the ] and the Castle in ruins. All five bridges spanning the ] were destroyed. Some 40,000 ]s were killed, with an unknown number dying from starvation and diseases. Mass rapes of women between 10 and 70 were common.<ref>"The worst suffering of the Hungarian population is due to the rape of women. Rapes - affecting all age groups from ten to seventy are so common that very few women in Hungary have been spared." Swiss embassy report cited in Ungváry 2005, p.350.</ref><ref>, James Mark, Past & Present 188 (2005) 133-161</ref>

For the Wehrmacht, the siege of Budapest was their last major operation on the southern front, further depleting the ] and especially the ].


For the Germans, the Siege of Budapest one of their last major operation on the southern front, depleting the ] and especially the ]. For the Soviet troops, the Siege of Budapest was a final rehearsal before the ]. It also allowed them to race toward Vienna, which would fall less than a month later. For the Soviet troops, the Budapest siege was a final rehearsal before the ]. It also allowed them to race toward Vienna, which would fall less than a month later.


== References == == References ==
Line 79: Line 90:
*''The Siege of Budapest'' by ] *''The Siege of Budapest'' by ]
*Ungvary, Krisztian, ''The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II'', Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0300104685 *Ungvary, Krisztian, ''The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II'', Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0300104685
<references />


] ]
]
]
] ]
]


] ]

Revision as of 00:32, 28 May 2006

Battle Of Budapest
Part of World War II

A Soviet soldier writing "Budapest" in Russian on a signpost after the siege.
Date29 December, 1944 — 13 February, 1945
LocationBudapest, Hungary
Result Soviet victory
Belligerents
Nazi Germany, Hungary Soviet Union, Romania
Commanders and leaders
Pfeffer-Wildenbruch Rodion Malinovsky,
Fyodor Tolbukhin
Strength
180,000 (90,000 for city defense) 500,000+ (170,000 for city assault)
Casualties and losses
Low estimate:
~ 48,000 killed,
~ 51,000 captured,
High estimate:
~ 150,000 killed or captured,
Est. 40,000 civilians killed		 Low estimate:
~ 70,000 killed,
High estimate:
~ 160,000 killed
Eastern Front
Naval warfare
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
Battle for Hungary

The Battle of Budapest was a siege lasting from 29 December, 1944 to 13 February, 1945 in which Soviet forces captured the city of Budapest from German SS and Hungarian forces in World War II. It was one of the bloodiest sieges of the war, being comparable, in terms of casualties, to the sieges of Berlin and Stalingrad.

General Situation

At the end of 1944, Hungary remained Germany's only satellite state, and was therefore necessary both in a political and economical sense - German industry needed Hungarian oil wells located around the lake Balaton.

On 16 October, 1944, Hungarian leader Miklos Horthy was destitute by the local nationalist party, Crossed arrows. Any hope of a peaceful outcome for Hungary was lost - the battle would be a fight for death.

The Siege

Encircling Budapest

On 29 October, 1944, the Red Army started its offensive on Budapest. More than 1,000,000 men split into two operating maneuver groups rushing towards the city, planning to cut it off from the rest of the German and Hungarian troops.

On 7 November, 1944, Soviet troops entered Budapest's eastern suburbs, 20 kilometers from the city's old town. Curiously, very few inhabitants wanted to leave the city.

On 19 December, after a necessary break, the Red Army resumed its offensive. On 26 December, the road linking Budapest to Vienna was seized by the Soviet Troops, therefore encircling the city.

Budapest was a major target for Stalin. Indeed, the Yalta Conference was approaching and Stalin wanted to display his full strength to Churchill and Roosevelt. Therefore, he issued a directive to General Rodion Malinovsky, ordering him to seize the city as quickly as possible.

The 29 December, 1944, Rodion Malinovsky sent two emissaries in order to negotiate the city's capitulation. The emissaries never came back. This particular point is widely disputed by the Soviet Union, with some German and Hungarian historians arguing that the emissaries were deliberately shot down. Others believe that they were in fact shot by mistake on their way back. In any case, Soviet commanders considered this act as a refusal and ordered the start of the siege.

The start and first German offensive

The offensive started in the eastern suburbs, advancing through the town of Pest, making good use of the large central avenues to speed up their progress. The defenders, overwhelmed, tried to trade space for time to slow the Soviet's advance to a crawl. They ultimately withdrew to shorten their lines, hoping to take advantage of the hilly nature of Buda.

On 1 January, 1945, the Wehrmacht launched Operation Konrad, trying to launch an offensive through hilly terrain north of Budapest and break the siege. Simultaneously, Waffen-SS forces struck west of Budapest, trying to gain tactical advantage.

On 3 January, 1945, the Soviet command sent four more divisions to meet the threat, stopping the offensive less than 20 kilometers north of Budapest. On 12 January, 1945, Wermacht and Waffen-SS forces were forced to withdraw - Operation Konrad had failed.

Combat intensification

Meanwhile, urban warfare in Budapest gained in intensity. Supplies became a decisive factor because of the loss of the Ferihegy airport just before the start of the siege, on 27 December, 1944. Up until 9 January, 1945, the German forces were able to use some of the main avenues as well as the park next to Buda Castle as landing zones for planes and gliders, although they were under constant artillery fire from the Soviets. Before the Danube froze, some supplies could be transported on barges, under cover of darkness and fog.

Nevertheless, food shortages were more and more common and soldiers had to rely on finding their own sources of food, some even resorting to eating their own horses.

Quite quickly, Soviet troops found themselves in the same situation as the Germans had in Stalingrad. Still, their troops were able to take advantage of the urban terrain by relying heavily on snipers and sappers to advance. Extreme temperatures strongly affected German and especially Hungarian troops, who started to desert in considerable numbers. Fighting even spread to the city's sewers, as both German and Soviet troops used them for moving troops. Six Soviet marines even managed to get to Castle Hill, remaining there for several hours and capturing a German officer before returning to their own lines - still underground. Although such mobility was rare due to the use of the sewers by German and Hungarian troops, who were helped by local people acting as guides.

In mid-January, Csepel Island was taken, along with its military factories which were still producing Panzerfausts and shells, even under Soviet fire. Meanwhile in Pest, the situation deteriorated, with the garrison facing the risk of being cut in half by the advancing Soviet troops.

On 17 January, 1945, Hitler agreed withdraw all of the remaining troops from Pest to try to defend Buda. All of the five bridges spanning the Danube were clogged with traffic, evacuating troops, wounded men and civilians. On 18 January, 1945, German troops destroyed the five beautiful bridges, despite protests from Hungarian officers.

Second German offensive

On 20 January, 1945, Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS troops launched their second major offensive, this time south of the city, blasting a 20-km hole in Soviet lines and advancing to the Danube, threatening Soviet traffic.

Stalin ordered his troops to hold their ground at all costs, and two Army Corps that were dispatched to assault Budapest were hastily rerouted south of the city to counter the German offensive. Nevertheless, Waffen-SS troops who got to less than 20 kilometres from the city, were unable to maintain their offensive due to fatigue and supply issues. Budapest's defenders asked permission to leave the city and escape the encirclement. Hitler refused.

On 28 January, 1945, German troops could no longer stand their ground and were forced to withdraw. The raid constituted the Wehrmacht's last attempt to execute a strategic maneuver. For the rest of the war, they would be constantly on the defensive. The fate of the Budapest defenders was sealed.

The battle of Buda

File:Russian AA Gunners in Budapest.jpg
Russian AA Gunners during the battle

Contrary to Pest, built on flat terrain, the city of Buda is built on hills. This allowed the defenders to place artillery and fortifications above the attackers, greatly slowing Soviet progression. The main citadel, Gellért Hill was defended by elite SS troops that succesfully repelled several Soviet assaults. Nearby, Soviet and German soldiers fought for the city cemetery, often fighting amongst tombs that had been ripped open by shell fire.

Fighting on Margaret Island, in the middle of the Danube, was particularly merciless. The island was still attached to the rest of the city by the remaining half of the Margaret Bridge and was used as parachuting area as well as for covering improvised airstrips set up in the downtown.

On 6 February, 1945, the Gellért Hill finally fell after a vicous Soviet attack launched from three points of compass simultaneously, after six weeks of fighting. Soviet artillery was finally able to dominate the entire city and to shell the remaining Axis defenders, concentrated on less than two square kilometres and suffering from malnutrition and diseases (daily rations were reduced to 150 grams of bread and meat from slaughtered horses). Nevertheless, the defenders refused to surrender and defended every street and house, fighting Soviet troops and tanks.

After capturing the southern railway station during a two-day bloodbath, Soviet troops advanced to the Castle hill. On 10 February, 1945, after a violent assault, Soviet marines establish a bridgehead on the Castle hill, while almost cutting the remaining garrison in half.

The Defenders' Sortie

In front of such a hopeless situation, General Karl Pfeffer-Wildenbruch decided, against Hitler's orders, to attempt to break out of the encirclement.

File:Budamarch1945.jpg
One the streets of Budapest after the battle.

German and Hungarian troops along with several civilians used fog to their advantage and went in three waves. The first wave managed to surprise the Soviet soldiers and artillery, and its sheer number allowed them to escape. The second and third waves were less fortunate, as Soviet artillery had time to bracket the area and shell the escaping troops. Despite Soviet fire and heavy losses, 10,000 men managed to gain wooded hills north-west of Budapest and escape towards Vienna.

Aftermath

On 13 February, 1945, the remaining defenders finally surrendered. Budapest lay in ruins, with more than 80 percent of its buildings destroyed or damaged, and historical buildings like the Hungarian Parliament Building and the Castle in ruins. All five bridges spanning the Danube were destroyed. Some 40,000 civilians were killed, with an unknown number dying from starvation and diseases. Mass rapes of women between 10 and 70 were common.

For the Wehrmacht, the siege of Budapest was their last major operation on the southern front, further depleting the Regular army and especially the Waffen-SS.

For the Soviet troops, the Budapest siege was a final rehearsal before the Battle of Berlin. It also allowed them to race toward Vienna, which would fall less than a month later.

References

  • Nikolai Shefov, Russian fights, Lib. Military History, M. 2002
  • The Siege of Budapest by Peter Zwack
  • Ungvary, Krisztian, The Siege of Budapest: One Hundred Days in World War II, Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0300104685
  1. "The worst suffering of the Hungarian population is due to the rape of women. Rapes - affecting all age groups from ten to seventy are so common that very few women in Hungary have been spared." Swiss embassy report cited in Ungváry 2005, p.350.
  2. Remembering Rape: Divided Social Memory and the Red Army in Hungary 1944–1945, James Mark, Past & Present 188 (2005) 133-161
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