Misplaced Pages

Revision as of 14:18, 14 May 2013

Comfort women were women and girls forced into a prostitution corps created by the Empire of Japan. The name "comfort women" is a translation of a Japanese name ianfu (慰安婦). Ianfu is a euphemism for shōfu (娼婦) whose meaning is "prostitute(s)". The earliest reporting on the issue in South Korea stated it was not a voluntary force, and since 1989 a number of women have come forward testifying they were kidnapped by Imperial Japanese soldiers.

Historians such as Lee Yeong-Hun and Ikuhiko Hata stated the recruitment of comfort women was voluntary. Other historians, using the testimony of ex-comfort women and surviving Japanese soldiers have argued the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy were either directly or indirectly involved in coercing, deceiving, luring, and sometimes kidnapping young women throughout Japan's occupied territories.

Estimates vary as to how many women were involved, with numbers ranging from as low as 20,000 from some Japanese scholars to as high as 410,000 from some Chinese scholars, but the exact numbers are still being researched and debated. A majority of the women were from Korea, China, Japan and the Philippines, although women from Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan, Indonesia and other Japanese-occupied territories were used for military "comfort stations". Stations were located in Japan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, then Malaya, Thailand, Burma, New Guinea, Hong Kong, Macau, and French Indochina.

According to testimony, young women from countries under Japanese Imperial control were abducted from their homes. In many cases, women were also lured with promises of work in factories or restaurants. Once recruited, the women were incarcerated in "comfort stations" in foreign lands. A Dutch government study described how the Japanese military itself recruited women by force in the Dutch East Indies. It revealed that a total of 300 Dutch women had been coerced into Japanese military sex slavery

History of the issue

In 1944, a United States Army interrogator reported that "a 'comfort girl' is nothing more than a prostitute or "professional camp follower" attached to the Japanese Army for the benefit of the soldiers." The report continues, "They lived well because their food and material was not heavily rationed and they had plenty of money with which to purchase desired articles. They were able to buy cloth, shoes, cigarettes, and cosmetics to supplement the many gifts given to them by soldiers who had received "comfort bags" from home. While in Burma they amused themselves by participating in sports events with both officers and men, and attended picnics, entertainments, and social dinners. They had a phonograph and in the towns they were allowed to go shopping." When the United States conquered Korea in 1945, the "comfort girl" stations were maintained for American soldiers. The girls were called "Western princess" as well as "Comfort women" (Wianbu).

There was no discussion of the comfort women issue when the last stations closed down after the Korean War. It did not enter into Japan's discussions with South Korea when relations between the two of them were restored in 1965.

In 1973 a man named Kakou Senda wrote a book about the comfort women system but focused on Japanese participants. His book has been widely criticized as distorting the facts by both Japanese and Korean historians. This was the first postwar mention of the comfort women system and became an important source for 1990s activism on the issue.

In 1974 a South Korea film studio made an adult film called Chonggun Wianbu, "Women's Volunteer Corps", featuring comfort women and Japanese soldiers. The first book written by a Korean on the subject of comfort women appeared in 1981. It was a plagarism of a 1976 Japanese book by the zainichi author Kim Il-Myeon.

In 1989, the testimony of Seiji Yoshida was translated into Korean. His book was debunked as fraudulent by both Japanese and Korean journalists, but after its publication, a number of people came forward attesting to kidnapping by Japanese soldiers. In 1996, Yoshida finally admitted his memoir was fictional.

Following multiple testimonies the Kono Statement of 1993 was issued claiming that coercion was involved. However, in 2007, the Japanese government made a cabinet decision, "No evidence was found that the Japanese army or the military officials seized the women by force."

Establishment of the Comfort Women System

Japanese military prostitution

Military correspondence of the Japanese Imperial Army shows that the aim of facilitating comfort stations was the prevention of rape crimes committed by Japanese army personnel and thus preventing the rise of hostility among people in occupied areas.

Given the well-organized and open nature of prostitution in Japan, it was seen as logical that there should be organized prostitution to serve the Japanese Armed Forces. The Japanese Army established the comfort stations to prevent venereal diseases and rape by Japanese soldiers, to provide comfort to soldiers and head off espionage. The comfort stations were not actual solutions to the first two problems, however. According to Japanese historian Yoshiaki Yoshimi, they aggravated the problems. Yoshimi has asserted, "The Japanese Imperial Army feared most that the simmering discontentment of the soldiers could explode into a riot and revolt. That is why it provided women."

Outline

The first "comfort station" was established in the Japanese concession in Shanghai in 1932. Earlier comfort women were Japanese prostitutes who volunteered for such service. However, as Japan continued military expansion, the military found itself short of Japanese volunteers, and turned to the local population to coerce women into serving in these stations. Many women responded to calls for work as factory workers or nurses, and did not know that they were being pressed into sexual slavery.

In the early stages of the war, Japanese authorities recruited prostitutes through conventional means. In urban areas, conventional advertising through middlemen was used alongside kidnapping. Middlemen advertised in newspapers circulating in Japan and the Japanese colonies of Korea, Taiwan, Manchukuo, and China. These sources soon dried up, especially from Japan. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs resisted further issuance of travel visas for Japanese prostitutes, feeling it tarnished the image of the Japanese Empire. The military turned to acquiring comfort women outside mainland Japan, especially from Korea and occupied China. Many women were tricked or defrauded into joining the military brothels.

The situation became worse as the war progressed. Under the strain of the war effort, the military became unable to provide enough supplies to Japanese units; in response, the units made up the difference by demanding or looting supplies from the locals. Along the front lines, especially in the countryside where middlemen were rare, the military often directly demanded that local leaders procure women for the brothels. When the locals, especially Chinese, were considered hostile, Japanese soldiers carried out the "Three Alls Policy", which included indiscriminately kidnapping and raping local civilians.

The United States Office of War Information report of interviews with 20 comfort women in Burma found that the girls were induced by the offer of plenty of money, an opportunity to pay off family debts, easy work, and the prospect of a new life in a new land, Singapore. On the basis of these false representations many girls enlisted for overseas duty and were rewarded with an advance of a few hundred yen.

Late archives inquiries and trials

On April 17, 2007 Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Hirofumi Hayashi announced the discovery, in the archives of the Tokyo Trials, of seven official documents suggesting that Imperial military forces, such as the Tokkeitai (Naval military police), forced women whose fathers attacked the Kenpeitai (Army military police), to work in front line brothels in China, Indochina and Indonesia. These documents were initially made public at the war crimes trial. In one of these, a lieutenant is quoted as confessing to having organized a brothel and having used it himself. Another source refers to Tokkeitai members having arrested women on the streets, and after enforced medical examinations, putting them in brothels.

On 12 May 2007 journalist Taichiro Kajimura announced the discovery of 30 Dutch government documents submitted to the Tokyo tribunal as evidence of a forced mass prostitution incident in 1944 in Magelang.

The South Korean government designated Bae Jeong-ja as a pro-Japan collaborator (chinilpa) in September 2007 for recruiting comfort women.

Number of comfort women

Lack of official documentation has made estimates of the total number of comfort women difficult, as vast amounts of material pertaining to matters related to war crimes and the war responsibility of the nation's highest leaders were destroyed on the orders of the Japanese government at the end of the war. Historians have arrived at various estimates by looking at surviving documentation which indicate the ratio of the number of soldiers in a particular area to the number of women, as well as looking at replacement rates of the women. Historian Yoshiaki Yoshimi, who conducted the first academic study on the topic which brought the issue out into the open, estimated the number to be between 50,000 and 200,000.

Based on these estimates, most international media sources quote about 200,000 young women were recruited or kidnapped by soldiers to serve in Japanese military brothels. The BBC quotes "200,000 to 300,000" and the International Commission of Jurists quotes "estimates of historians of 100,000 to 200,000 women."

Country of origin

According to State University of New York at Buffalo professor Yoshiko Nozaki and other sources, the majority of the women were from Korea and China. Chuo University professor Yoshiaki Yoshimi states there were about 2,000 centers where as many as 200,000 Japanese, Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Taiwanese, Burmese, Indonesian, Dutch and Australian women were interned. Ikuhiko Hata, a professor of Nihon University, estimated the number of women working in the licensed pleasure quarter was fewer than 20,000 and that they were 40% Japanese, 20% Koreans, 10% Chinese, with others making up the remaining 30%. According to Hata, the total number of government-regulated prostitutes in Japan was only 170,000 during World War II. Others came from the Philippines, Taiwan, Dutch East Indies, and other Japanese-occupied countries and regions. Some Dutch women, captured in Dutch colonies in Asia, were also forced into sexual slavery.

In further analysis of the Imperial Army medical records for venereal disease treatment from 1940, Yoshimi concluded that if the percentages of women treated reflected the general makeup of the total comfort women population, Korean women comprised 51.8 percent, Chinese 36 percent and Japanese 12.2 percent.

To date, only one Japanese woman has published her testimony. This was done in 1971, when a former "comfort woman" forced to work for showa soldiers in Taiwan, published her memoirs under the pseudonym of Suzuko Shirota.

Treatment of comfort women

Approximately three quarters of comfort women died, and most survivors were left infertile due to sexual trauma or sexually transmitted disease. According to Japanese soldier Yasuji Kaneko. "The women cried out, but it didn't matter to us whether the women lived or died. We were the emperor's soldiers. Whether in military brothels or in the villages, we raped without reluctance." Beatings and physical torture were said to be common. Revisionist Japanese historian Ikuhiko Hata claims Kaneko's testimony is false since he testified about the 1937 Nanjing Massacre but he was not in the Army until 1940.

Ten Dutch women were taken by force from prison camps in Java by officers of the Japanese Imperial Army to become forced sex slaves in February 1944. They were systematically beaten and raped day and night in a so-called "Comfort Station". As a victim of the incident, in 1990, Jan Ruff-O'Herne testified to a U.S. House of Representatives committee:

"Many stories have been told about the horrors, brutalities, suffering and starvation of Dutch women in Japanese prison camps. But one story was never told, the most shameful story of the worst human rights abuse committed by the Japanese during World War II: The story of the “Comfort Women”, the jugun ianfu, and how these women were forcibly seized against their will, to provide sexual services for the Japanese Imperial Army. In the so-called “Comfort Station” I was systematically beaten and raped day and night. Even the Japanese doctor raped me each time he visited the brothel to examine us for venereal disease."

In their first morning at the brothel, photographs of Jan Ruff-O'Herne and the others were taken and placed on the veranda which was used as a reception area for the Japanese personnel who would choose from these photographs. Over the following four months the girls were raped and beaten day and night, with those who became pregnant forced to have abortions. After four harrowing months, the girls were moved to a camp at Bogor, in West Java, where they were reunited with their families. This camp was exclusively for women who had been put into military brothels, and the Japanese warned the inmates that if anyone told what had happened to them, they and their family members would be killed. Several months later the O'Hernes were transferred to a camp at Batavia, which was liberated on 15 August 1945.

The Japanese officers involved received some punishment by Japanese authorities at the end of the war. After the end of the war, 11 Japanese officers were found guilty with one soldier being sentenced to death by the Batavia War Criminal Court. The court decision found that the charges those who raped violated were the Army's order to hire only voluntary women. Victims from East Timor testified they were forced into slavery even when they were not old enough to have started menstruating. The court testimonies state that these prepubescent girls were repeatedly raped by Japanese soldiers while those who refused to comply were executed.

Hank Nelson, emeritus professor at the Australian National University's Asia Pacific Research Division, has written about the brothels run by the Japanese military in Rabaul, Papua New Guinea during WWII. He quotes from the diary of Gordon Thomas, a POW in Rabaul. Thomas writes that the women working at the brothels “most likely served 25 to 35 men a day” and that they were “victims of the yellow slave trade.”

Nelson also quotes from Kentaro Igusa, a Japanese naval surgeon who was stationed in Rabaul. Igusa wrote in his memoirs that the women continued to work through infection and severe discomfort, though they “cried and begged for help.”

Korea

During World War II, the Shōwa regime implemented in Korea, a prostitution system similar to the one established in other parts of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Korean agents, Korean Kempeitai (military police) and military auxiliaries were involved in the procurement and organization of comfort women, and made use of their services. Chong-song Pak found that "Koreans under Japanese rule became fully acculturated as main actors in the licensed prostitution system that was transplanted in their country by the colonial state".

After its defeat, the Japanese military destroyed many documents for fear of war crimes prosecution. Documents were found in 2007 by Yoshiaki Yoshimi and Hirofumi Hayashi.

Apologies and compensation

In 1965, the Japanese government awarded $364 million to the Korean government for all war damages, including the injury done to comfort women. In 1994, the Japanese government set up the Asian Women's Fund to distribute additional compensation to South Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, the Netherlands, and Indonesia. Each survivor was provided with a signed apology from the then prime minister Tomiichi Murayama, stating "As Prime Minister of Japan, I thus extend anew my most sincere apologies and remorse to all the women who underwent immeasurable and painful experiences and suffered incurable physical and psychological wounds as comfort women." The fund was dissolved on March 31, 2007.

Three Korean women filed suit in Japan in December, 1991, around the time of the 50th anniversary of the Pearl Harbor attack, demanding compensation for forced prostitution. They introduced documents found by history Professor Yoshiaki Yoshida that had been stored at the Japanese Defense Agency since their return to Japan by United States troops in 1958. Subsequently, on January 14, 1992, Japanese Chief Government Spokesman Koichi Kato issued an official apology saying "We cannot deny that the former Japanese army played a role" in abducting and detaining the "comfort girls, " and "We would like to express our apologies and contrition". Three days later on January 17, 1992 at a dinner given by South Korean President Roh Tae Woo, the Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa told his host: " We Japanese should first and foremost recall the truth of that tragic period when Japanese actions inflicted suffering and sorrow upon your people. We should never forget our feelings of remorse over this. As Prime Minister of Japan, I would like to declare anew my remorse at these deeds and tender my apology to the people of the Republic of Korea." and apologized again the following day in a speech before South Korea's National Assembly. On April 28, 1998, the Japanese court ruled that the Government must compensate the women and awarded them US$2,300 (equivalent to $4,299 in 2023) each.

In 2007 the surviving sex slaves wanted an apology from the Japanese government. Shinzō Abe, the prime minister at the time, stated on March 1, 2007, that there was no evidence that the Japanese government had kept sex slaves, even though the Japanese government had already admitted the use of brothels in 1993. On March 27 the Japanese parliament issued an official apology.

Criticism

Japanese historian and Nihon University professor, Ikuhiko Hata estimates the number of comfort women to be more likely between 10,000 and 20,000. Hata writes that none of the comfort women were forcibly recruited.

Some Japanese politicians have argued that the former comfort women's testimony is inconsistent and unreliable, making it invalid.

A comic book, Neo Gomanism Manifesto Special - On Taiwan by Japanese author Yoshinori Kobayashi, depicts kimono-clad women lining up to sign up for duty before a Japanese soldier. Kobayashi's book contains an interview with Taiwanese industrialist Shi Wen-long who stated that no women were forced to serve, and that they worked in more hygienic conditions compared to regular prostitutes because the use of condoms was mandatory.

There was a controversy involving NHK in early 2001. What was supposed to be coverage of the Women's International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan's Military Sexual Slavery was heavily edited to reflect revisionist views.

In December 2011 a statue of a young woman was erected to honor the comfort women. It was put up in front of the Japanese embassy in Seoul, under the leadership of the Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan (KCWDMSS), on the 1,000th of the weekly “Wednesday demonstrations” held in front of the embassy by comfort women survivors since January 1992. The Japanese government has repeatedly asked the South Korean government to have the statue taken down, but it has not been. In June 2012, two Japanese extremists tied a 90 cm (35 in) signpost to the statue. The signpost read "'Takeshima' is Japanese territory", referring to the Liancourt Rocks which are disputed islets known as Dokdo in South Korea. In October 2012, a Comfort Women memorial in New Jersey, USA was similarly vandalized.

Similar cases

United States

• Western princess is a term for the prostitutes in U.S. military camp town in South Korea.
• Recreation and Amusement Associations were the organizations established by the Japanese to provide organized prostitution and other leisure facilities for occupying Allied troops immediately following World War II.

Germany

• German military brothels were set up by the Third Reich during World War II throughout much of occupied Europe for the use of Wehrmacht and SS soldiers.

France

• Bordel militaire de campagne is the mobile brothels which were used during World War I, Second World War and First Indochina War to supply prostitution services to French soldiers who were facing combat in areas where brothels were unusual, such as at the front line or in isolated garrisons.

See also

• Anti-Japanese sentiment
  • Anti-Japanese sentiment in China
  • Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
• Historical revisionism (negationism)
• Japanese war crimes
• Joy Division (World War II)
• List of War Apology Statements Issued by Japan
• List of war crimes
• Liu Huang A-tao, first Taiwanese woman to sue the Japanese government for compensation
• Rape during the occupation of Japan
• Rosa Henson, a Filipina who told her story as a comfort woman
• Trafficking in human beings
• 1921 International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children
• United States House of Representatives House Resolution 121
• War rape
• Nora Okja Keller, author of the 1997 novel, Comfort Woman
• Lai Đại Hàn

Notes

1. C. Sarah Soh. The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan. p. 215.
2. McKellar, Robert (2011). Target of Opportunity & Other War Stories. AuthorHouse. p. 189. ISBN 1463416563. The "comfort women," which is a translation of the Japanese euphemism jugun ianfu (military "comfort women"), categorically refers to women of various ethnic and national backgrounds and social circumstances who became sexual laborers...
3. Soh, C. Sarah (2009). The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan. University of Chicago Press. p. 69. ISBN 0226767779. It referred to adult female (fu/bu) who provided sexual services to "comfort and entertain" (ian/wian) the worrior...
4. Fujioka, Nobukatsu (1996). 污辱の近現代史: いま、克服のとき (in Japanese). Tokuma Shoten. p. 39. 慰安婦は戦地で外征軍を相手とする娼婦を指す用語(婉曲用語)だった。 (Ianfu was a euphemism for the prostitutes who served for the Japanese expeditionary forces outside Japan) {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
5. C. Sarah Soh. The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan. p. 159: "In South Korea the first mention of a former comfort woman...in the mass media apparently took place in 1964...'Kim Chu'un-Hui was forcibly taken, during the period of Imperial Japan...'".
6. Gamble & Watanabe 2004, p. 310, listing women ranging in age when abducted from 11 to 22, citing Schellstede & Yu 2000 and Howard 1995.
7. 이영훈. 대한 민국 이야기: 《해방 전후사 의 재 인식 》강의. 2007.
8. Hata Ikuhiko, NO ORGANIZED OR FORCED RECRUITMENT: MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT COMFORT WOMEN AND THE JAPANESE MILITARY (PDF), hassin.sejp.net, retrieved 2008-12-15 (First published in Shokun May, 2007 issue in Japanese. Translated by Society for the Dissemination of Historical Fact).
9. ^ Onishi & 2007-03-08
10. ^ Asian Women'sFund, p. 10
11. Rose 2005, p. 88
12. "Women and World War II - Comfort Women". Womenshistory.about.com. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
13. Reuters & 2007-03-05.
14. Yoshimi 2000, pp. 100–101, 105–106, 110–111 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYoshimi2000 (help);
    Fackler & 2007-03-06;
    BBC & 2007-03-02;
    BBC & 2007-03-08.
15. Ministerie van Buitenlandse zaken 1994, pp. 6–9, 11, 13–14
16. "Dutch bill urges compensation for 'comfort women'"
17. U.S. Department of War. Report No. 49: Japanese Prisoners of War Interrogation on Prostitution
18. Clough, Patricia (2007). The Affective Turn: Theorizing the Social. Duke University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0822339250.
19. 韓国挺身隊問題対策協議会・挺身隊研究会 （編）『証言・強制連行された朝鮮人軍慰安婦たち』 明石書店 1993年
20. The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan p. 148.
21. C. Sarah Soh. The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan p. 160.
22. The comfort women(Yeojajeongsindae)(1974)
23. Kono 1993.
24. "衆議院議員辻元清美君提出安倍首相の「慰安婦」問題への認識に関する質問に対する答弁書". House of Representatives. March 16, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)
25. "軍の強制連行の証拠ない　河野談話で政府答弁書" (in Japanese). 47News. Kyodo News. March 16, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help) Archived at http://www.webcitation.org/6E1s3YLRV
26. Hicks 1995.
27. ^ korea.net & 2007-11-30.
28. Mitchell 1997.
29. " Pak (her surname) was about 17, living in Hamun, Korea, when local Korean officials, acting on orders from the Japanese, began recruiting women for factory work. Someone from Pak's house had to go. In April of 1942, turned Pak and other young women over to the Japanese, who took them into China, not into factories ", Horn 1997.
30. Yoshimi 2000, pp. 100–101, 105–106, 110–111 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYoshimi2000 (help)};
    Hicks 1997, pp. 66–67, 119, 131, 142–143;
    Ministerie van Buitenlandse zaken 1994, pp. 6–9, 11, 13–14
31. Yoshimi 2000, pp. 82–83 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYoshimi2000 (help);
    Hicks 1997, pp. 223–228.
32. Yoshimi 2000, pp. 101–105, 113, 116–117 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYoshimi2000 (help);
    Hicks 1997, pp. 8–9, 14;
    Clancey 1948, p. 1135.
33. Fujiwara 1998 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFujiwara1998 (help);
    Himeta 1996 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHimeta1996 (help);
    Bix 2000.
34. Yorichi 1944.
35. ^ Yoshida & 2007-04-18
36. Japan Times & 2007-05-12
37. Bae & 2007-09-17
38. Template:Ja icon "宋秉畯ら第２期親日反民族行為者２０２人を選定", JoongAng Ilbo, 2007.09.17. "日本軍慰安婦を募集したことで悪名高いベ・ジョンジャ"
39. Burning of Confidential Documents by Japanese Government, case no.43, serial 2, International Prosecution Section vol. 8;
    "When it became apparent that Japan would be forced to surrender, an organized effort was made to burn or otherwise destroy all documents and other evidence of ill-treatment of prisoners of war and civilian internees. The Japanese Minister of War issued an order on 14 August 1945 to all Army headquarters that confidential documents should be destroyed by fire immediately. On the same day, the Commandant of the Kempetai sent out instructions to the various Kempetai Headquarters detailing the methods of burning large quantities of documents efficiently.", Clancey 1948, p. 1135;
    " , the actual number of comfort women remains unclear because the Japanese army incinerated many crucial documents right after the defeat for fear of war crimes prosecution, ", Yoshimi 2000, p. 91 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYoshimi2000 (help);
    Bix 2000, p. 528;
    "Between the announcement of a ceasefire on August 15, 1945, and the arrival of small advance parties of American troops in Japan on August 28, Japanese military and civil authorities systematically destroyed military, naval, and government archives, much of which was from the period 1942–1945. Imperial General Headquarters in Tokyo dispatched enciphered messages to field commands throughout the Pacific and East Asia ordering units to burn incriminating evidence of war crimes, especially offenses against prisoners of war. The director of Japan's Military History Archives of the National Institute for Defense Studies estimated in 2003 that as much as 70 percent of the army's wartime records were burned or otherwise destroyed.", Drea 2006, p. 9.
40. Nakamura & 2007-03-20
41. "An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 women across Asia, predominantly Korean and Chinese, are believed to have been forced to work as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels", BBC & 2000-12-08;
    "Historians say thousands of women – as many as 200,000 by some accounts – mostly from Korea, China and Japan worked in the Japanese military brothels", Irish Examiner & 2007-03-08;
    AP & 2007-03-07;
    CNN & 2001-03-29.
42. Nozaki 2005;
    Dudden 2006.
43. "An estimated 200,000 to 300,000 women across Asia, predominantly Korean and Chinese, are believed to have been forced to work as sex slaves in Japanese military brothels", , BBC & 2000-12-08;
    "Estimates of the number of comfort women range between 50,000 and 200,000. It is believed that most were Korean", Soh 2001;
    "A majority of the 80,000 to 200,000 comfort women were from Korea, though others were recruited or recruited from China, the Philippines, Burma, and Indonesia. Some Japanese women who worked as prostitutes before the war also became comfort women.", Horn 1997;
    "Approximately 80 percent of the sex slaves were Korean; . By one approximation, 80 percent were between the ages of fourteen and eighteen.", Gamble & Watanabe 2004, p. 309;
    Soh 2001.
44. Yoshimi 1995, pp. 91, 93 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYoshimi1995 (help).
45. Hata 1999 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHata1999 (help);
    "Hata essentially equates the 'comfort women' system with prostitution and finds similar practices during the war in other countries. He has been criticized by other Japanese scholars for downplaying the hardship of the 'comfort women'.", Drea 2006, p. 41.
46. Soh 2001.
47. chosun.com & 2007-03-19;
    Moynihan & 2007-03-03
48. China Daily & 2007-07-06
49. de Brouwer, Anne-Marie (2005) , Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence, Intersentia, p. 8, ISBN 90-5095-533-9
50. Tabuchi & 2007-03-01
51. ^ O'Herne 2007.
52. 熊谷 伸一郎 (2005). 金子さんの戦争―中国戦線の現実. リトルモア. ISBN 978-4898151563.
53. Jan Ruff-O'Herne, "Talking Heads" transcriptabc.net.au
54. "Comfort women", Australian War Memorial
55. "Australian sex slave seeks apology", February 13, 2007, The Sydney Morning Herald
56. ^ 日本占領下インドネシアにおける慰安婦 (PDF) (in Japanese), archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28, retrieved 2007-03-23, archived from the original on 2007-01-28.
57. Hirano & 2007-04-28
58. Coop & 2006-12-23
59. 일본군 위안부 세계가 껴안다-1년간의 기록, February 25, 2006
60. ^ Nelson 2007.
61. Brook, Tim . Collaboration: Japanese Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2005), pp. 1-13, 240-48
62. Chong-song, Pak. 'Kwollok kwa maech'un ' Seoul: In'gansarang, 1996.
63. Yoshimi 1995, pp. 1135–1136 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFYoshimi1995 (help).
64. "Seoul Demanded $364 Million for Japan's Victims Updated," Chosun Ilbo January 17, 2005
65. Asian Women's Fund
66. Asian Women's Fund 1996.
67. Asian Women's Fund Online Museum Closing of the Asian Women's Fund Retrieved on August 17, 2012
68. ^ Sanger, David E. (1992-01-14). "Japan Admits Army Forced Koreans to Work in Brothels". The New York Times. Tokyo. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
69. "Japan Apologizes for Prostitution of Koreans in WWII". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. 1992-01-14. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
70. "Japan makes apology to comfort women". New Straits Times. Reuters. 1992-01-14. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
71. "Japanese Premier Begins Seoul Visit". The New York Times. 1992-01-17. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
72. "Japan Apologizes on Korea Sex Issue". The New York Times. 1992-01-18. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
73. "Japan Court Backs 3 Brothel Victims". The New York Times. 1998-04-28. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
74. Fastenberg, Dan (17 June 2010). "Top 10 National Apologies: Japanese Sex Slavery". Time. Retrieved 29 December 2011.
75. "None of them was forcibly recruited.", Hata & undated, p. 16 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHataundated (help).
76. "Their testimonies have undergone dramatic changes...", Assentors & 2007-06-14
77. Landler & 2001-03-02
78. "However, the second night's programming on January 30 was heavily censored through deletion, interpolations, alterations, dismemberment and even fabrication. This segment was originally supposed to cover the 'Women's International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan's Military Sexual Slavery' that had been held in Tokyo in December 2000.", Yoneyama 2002.
79. ^ Japan lashes out at comfort woman statue – Bikya News
80. Japanese stake heart of Korea - Korea Times.
81. Stake Claiming Dokdo as Japanese Territory Found at Comfort Women Memorial in New Jersey, U.S.A - The Kyunghyang Shinmun.

References

United Nations

• McDougall, Gay J. (June 22, 1998), CONTEMPORARY FORMS OF SLAVERY—Systematic rape, sexual slavery and slavery-like practices during armed conflict, retrieved 2007-11-12{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).

Japanese government

• Kono, Yohei (1993-08-04), Statement by the Chief Cabinet Secretary Yohei Kono on the result of the study on the issue of "comfort women", Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• "The Comfort Women Issue", us.emb-japan.go.jp, retrieved 2008-07-04.

The Netherlands government

• Ministerie van Buitenlandse zaken (January 24, 1994), "Gedwongen prostitutie van Nederlandse vrouwen in voormalig Nederlands-Indië ", Handelingen Tweede Kamer der Staten-Generaal , 23607 (1), ISSN 0921-7371, authored by the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs, laysummary by Nationaal Archief (Dutch), 2007-03-27.

U.S. government

• O'Herne, Jan Ruff (February 15, 2007), Statement of Jan Ruff O'Herne AO, Subcommittee on Asia, Pacific and the Global Environment, Committee on Foreign Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, retrieved 2007-03-23{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• Honda, Mike (February 15, 2007), Honda Testifies in Support of Comfort Women, U.S. House of Representatives, retrieved 2007-03-23{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• GovTrack.us (2007–2008), H. Res. 121: Expressing the sense of the House of Representatives that the Government of Japan should formally.., retrieved 2007-03-23

Books

• Bix, Herbert P. (2000), Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan, HarperCollins, ISBN 0-06-019314-X.
• Drea, Edward (2006), Researching Japanese War Crimes Records. Introductory Essays (PDF), Washington DC: Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group, ISBN 1-880875-28-4, retrieved 2008-07-01 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help).
• Gamble, Adam; Watanabe, Takesato (2004), A Public Betrayed, Regnery Publishing, ISBN 0-89526-046-8.
• Hayashi, Hirofumi. "Disputes in Japan over the Japanese Military 'Comfort Women' System and Its Perception in History," Annals of the American Academy of Political & Social Science, May 2008, Vol. 617, pp 123–132
• Hicks, George (1997), The Comfort Women, W W Norton & Company Incorporated, ISBN 978-0-393-31694-0
• Henson, Maria Rose (1999), Comfort Woman: A Filipina's Story of Prostitution and Slavery Under the Japanese Military, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, ISBN 0847691497.
• Howard, Keith (1995), True stories of the Korean comfort women: testimonies, Cassell, ISBN 978-0-304-33262-5 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Rose, Caroline (2005), Sino-Japanese relations: facing the past, looking to the future?, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-29722-6.
• Schellstede, Sangmie Choi; Yu, Soon Mi (2000), Comfort Women Speak: Testimony by Sex Slaves of the Japanese Military : Includes New United Nations Human Rights Report, Holmes & Meier Publishers, Incorporated, ISBN 978-0-8419-1413-1
• Soh, C. Sarah. The Comfort Women: Sexual Violence and Postcolonial Memory in Korea and Japan (2009)
• Tanaka, Yuki. Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the US Occupation (2009)
• Yoshimi, Yoshiaki (2002), Comfort Women. Sexual Slavery in the Japanese Military During World War II, Asia Perspectives, translation: Suzanne O'Brien, New York: Columbia University Press (published 2000), ISBN 0-231-12033-8 {{citation}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help).

Journal articles

• Mitchell, Richard H. (1997), "George Hicks. The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War", The American Historical Review, 102 (2): 503, doi:10.2307/2170934 {{citation}}: External link in |issue= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) (Review of Hicks 1997).
• Yoneyama, Lisa (2002), "NHK's Censorship of Japanese Crimes Against Humanity", Harvard Asia Quarterly, vol. VI, no. 1 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help).
• Levin, Mark, Case Comment: Nishimatsu Construction Co. v. Song Jixiao Et Al., Supreme Court of Japan (2d Petty Bench), April 27, 2007, and Ko Hanako Et Al. V. Japan, Supreme Court of Japan (1st Petty Bench), April 27, 2007 (January 1, 2008). American Journal of International Law, Vol. 102, No. 1, pp. 148–154, January 2008. Available at SSRN:
• Przystup, James (2007), Glosserman, Brad; Namkung, Sun (eds.), "Japan-China Relations: Wen in Japan: Ice Melting But.." (PDF), Comparative Connections, A Quarterly E-Journal on East Asian Bilateral Relations, 9 (2), Honolulu: Pacific Forum CSIS: 131–146, ISSN 1930-5370, retrieved 10-07-2010. {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

News articles

• Canada MPs demand Japan apologize to WWII 'comfort women', AFP, November 28, 2007, retrieved 2008-07-04.
• Sex slaves put Japan on trial, BBC News, December 8, 2000, retrieved 2008-07-01.
• Abe questions sex slave 'coercion', BBC News, 2007-03-02, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• Japan party probes sex slave use, BBC News, 2007-03-08, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• 'Comfort women' distortion stirs indignation, China Daily, July 13, 2005, retrieved 2008-05-20.
• Associated Press (6 July 2007), Memoir of comfort woman tells of 'hell for women', China Daily, retrieved 2007-08-29.
• Japan court rules against 'comfort women', CNN, 2001-03-29.
• "Comfort Women" Resolution Likely to Pass U.S. Congress, Digital Chosunibuto (English edition), February 2, 2007, archived from the original on March 13, 2007, retrieved 2007-03-30.
• Comfort Women Were 'Raped': U.S. Ambassador to Japan, Digital Chosunibuto (English edition), March 19, 2007, archived from the original on June 5, 2008, retrieved 2008-07-02.
• Human rights: Chad, women's rights in Saudi Arabia, Japan's wartime sex slaves (– ), Europees Parlement, December 13, 2007, retrieved 2008-07-04 {{citation}}: External link in |format= (help) .
• Jeff Davis (November 28, 2007), MPs Moved to Tears by Comfort Women, Hill Times, retrieved 2008-07-04.
• Japan refuses to apologise for WW2 brothel scandal, Irish Examiner, 2007-03-08, retrieved 2008-06-01.
• Japanese opposition calls on prime minister to acknowledge WWII sex slaves, International Herald Tribune, March 7, 2007, retrieved 2008-06-01.
• Coop, Stephanie (2006-12-23), Sex slave exhibition exposes darkness in East Timor, The Japan Times, retrieved 2006-12-23.
• Reiji Yoshida (March 11, 2007), Sex slave history erased from texts; '93 apology next?, The Japan Times, retrieved 2008-05-20.
• Nakamura, Akemi (2007-03-20), Were they teen-rape slaves or paid pros?, The Japan Times, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• Reiji Yoshida (April 18, 2007), Evidence documenting sex-slave coercion revealed, The Japan Times.
• Keiji Hirano (April 28, 2007), East Timor former sex slaves start speaking out, Japan Times, retrieved 2007-08-29.
• Files: Females forced into sexual servitude in wartime Indonesia, Japan Times, 12 May 2007, retrieved 2007-08-29.
• U.S. got Abe to drop denial over sex slaves, Japan Times, November 9, 2007, retrieved 2008-07-04.
• Masami Ito (October 18, 2011), 'Comfort women' issue resolved: Noda '65 treaty cited on eve of first Seoul trip; TPP, Hague on radar, The Japan Times, retrieved 2011-10-20.
• Bae Ji-sook (2007-09-17), 202 Pro-Japanese Collaborators Disclosed, The Korea Times, retrieved 2008-07-01.
• FOCUS: Amnesty's European 'comfort women' campaign makes steady progress, Kyodo News, November 24, 2007, retrieved 2008-07-04.
• Edward Epstein (2007-07-31), House wants Japan apology, San Francisco Chronicle, retrieved 2007-08-01.
• Mark Landler (2001-03-02), Cartoon of Wartime 'Comfort Women' Irks Taiwan, The New York Times, retrieved 2008-07-05.
• Fackler, Martin (2007-03-06), No Apology for Sex Slavery, Japan's Prime Minister Says, The New York Times, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• Onishi, Norimitsu (2007-03-08), Denial Reopens Wounds of Japan's Ex-Sex Slaves, The New York Times, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• EU passes resolution on Japanese-enslaved 'comfort women', The Parliament News magazine, December 14, 2007, retrieved 2008-07-04 {{citation}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help).
• FACTBOX-Disputes over Japan's wartime "comfort women" continue, Reuters, March 5, 2007, retrieved 2008-03-05.
• No Comfort, The New York Times, 2007-03-06, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• Stephen Moynihan (March 3, 2007), Abe ignores evidence, say Australia's 'comfort women', Australia: The Age, retrieved 2008-07-02.
• Irene Lin (December 18, 2000), WWII sex slaves want Japan to wake up], Taipei Times, retrieved 2008-07-04.
• Tabuchi, Hiroko (2007-03-01), Japan's Abe: No Proof of WWII Sex Slaves, The Washington Post, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• Coleman, Joseph (March 23, 2007), Ex-Japanese PM Denies Setting Up Brothel, The Washington Post, retrieved 2008-07-01.
• Assentors (June 14, 2007), The Facts, The Washington Post, retrieved 2008-07-04 (paid advertisement).
• Dutch parliament demands Japanese compensation for "comfort women", Xinhau, 2007-11-21, retrieved 2008-07-04.
• Comfort station originated in govt-regulated 'civilian prostitution', The Daily Yomiuri, 2007-03-31, p. 15, retrieved 2008-06-14.
• McCurry, Justin (2007-05-03), Japan rules out new apology to 'comfort women', The Guardian, retrieved 2008-08-17.
• 慰安婦問題、敗北主義に陥るな　外務省「韓国は確信犯的にやっている」(Comfort women issue - Do not be influenced by defeatism. Foreign Ministry Staff say "South Korea is doing a criminal conviction".), MSN Sankei News, 2012-06-09, p. 2, retrieved 2012-06-14.

Online sources

• European Parliament speaks out on sexual slavery during WWII, Amnesty international, December 13, 2007, retrieved 2008-07-04.
• Comfort women used to prevent military revolt during war: historian, Korea.net, November 30, 2007, retrieved 2008-07-02 .
• The "Comfort Women" Issue and the Asian Women's Fund (PDF), Asian Women's Fund, archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-28, archived from the original on 2007-06-28.
• Clancey, Patrick, ed. (1948-11-01), "Judgment, International Military Tribunal for the Far East", Hyperwar, a hypertext history of the Second World War {{citation}}: |chapter= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• Horn, Dottie (1997), Comfort Women, Endeavors Magazine, archived from the original on June 25, 2008, retrieved 2008-10-05 {{citation}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help).
• Soh, C.Sarah (2001), Japan's Responsibility Toward Comfort Women Survivors, Japan Policy Research Institute (JPRI), retrieved 2008-07-01 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help).
• WCCW (2004), Comfort-Women.org FAQ, Washington Coalition for Comfort Women Issues, archived from the original on 2007-06-15, retrieved 2007-06-20 (original page archived on 2007-06-15).
• Yorichi, Alex (October 1, 1944), Report No. 49: Japanese POW Interrogation on Prostitution, exordio.com, quoting the U.S. Office of War Information, retrieved 2008-07-01{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• Dudden, Alexis (April 25, 2006), US Congressional Resolution Calls on Japan to Accept Responsibility for Wartime Comfort Women, Znet, retrieved 2008-07-02{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• Nelson, Hank (17 May 2007), The Consolation Unit: Comfort Women at Rabaul (PDF), The Australian National University, retrieved 2007-11-26{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• Lawsuits against the Government of Japan filed by the survivors in Japanese Courts, retrieved 2007-03-23.
• History of Comfort Women by the Washington Coalition for Comfort Women Issues - History, retrieved 2008-05-28.
• Asian Women's Fund (1996), Letter from Prime Minister to the former comfort women, since 1996, archived from the original on 2007-05-16, retrieved 2007-03-23, archived from the original on 2007-05-16.
• Nozaki, Yoshiko (August 1, 2005), The Horrible History of the "Comfort Women" and the Fight to Suppress Their Story, History news Network, retrieved 2008-07-04{{citation}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link).
• Hata, Ikuhiko (undated), No Organized or Forced Recruitment: Misconceptions about Comfort Women and the Japanese Military (PDF), hassin.sejp.net, archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-04, retrieved 2007-11-10, None of them was forcibly recruited. {{citation}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link).

Further reading

• Barbara Drinck, Chung-noh Gross Forced Prostitution in Times of War and Peace, Kleine Verlag, 2007. ISBN 978-3-89370-436-1.
• Tanaka, Yuki Japan's Comfort Women: Sexual Slavery and Prostitution During World War II and the US Occupation, London, Routledge: 2002. ISBN 0-415-19401-6.
• Molasky, Michael S. American Occupation of Japan and Okinawa, Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0-415-19194-7, ISBN 0-415-26044-2.
• D. Kim-Gibson, Silence Broken: Korean Comfort Women, 1999. ISBN 0-931209-88-9.
• Schellstede, Sangmie Choi. Comfort Women Speak: Testimony by Sex Slaves of the Japanese Military, 2000. ISBN 0-8419-1413-3.
• Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashii "Comfort Women: Beyond Litigious Feminism"
• Nora Okja Keller "Comfort Woman", London, Penguin: 1998. ISBN 0-14-026335-7.
• Maria Rosa Henson "Comfort woman: Slave of destiny", Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism: 1996. ISBN 971-8686-11-8.

External links

Web

• Asian Women's Fund web site
• Comfort-Women.org
• Jugun Ianfu Indonesia
• Korea Dutch Indies Sex Slavery Translation Project
• 121 Coalition
• "The Victims" (from the South Korean Ministry of Gender and Family Equality)
• Japanese Military Sex Slaves, CBS Report featuring Mike Honda and Nariaki Nakayama's infamous comment comparing "comfort houses" and cafeterias
• Japan forced women to work as sex slaves during World War II
• Photo gallery at the Seoul Times.
• A Public Betrayed - How the Japanese Media Betrays its Own People
• "Comfort Women" (Web page). Australian War Memorial. 2006. Retrieved 2008-01-06. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help) - describes the experience of Jan O'Herne in Java
• Nakamura, Akemi (March 20, 2007). "Comfort Women: Were they teen-rape slaves or paid pros?". The Japan Times. Retrieved 2006-03-23. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Friends of “Comfort Women” Australia (FCWA) - not-for-profit organisation focusing on the plight of the Japanese military “Comfort Women” of World War II.
• Mourning, song about comfort women composed by Mu Ting Zhang and directed by Po En Lee

Academic research

• The Comfort Women project
• Hayashi Hirofumi's papers on comfort women
• Responsibility Toward Comfort Women Survivors: Japan Policy Research Institute Working Paper 77.
• Japan's Comfort Women, Theirs and Ours: Book review, Japan Policy Research Institute Critique 9:2.
• Journal of Asian American Studies 6:1, February 2003, issue on American studies of comfort women, Kandice Chuh, ed.
• No Organized or Forced Recruitment: Misconceptions about Comfort Women and the Japanese Military: Critical study on comfort women problem.

Japanese official statements

• Statement by Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama on the occasion of the establishment of the "Asian Women's Fund" (1995, Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs)
• Letter from Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi to the former comfort women (2001, Japan Ministry of Foreign Affairs)

United States historical documents

• House Concurrent Resolution 226 (June 23, 2003, 108th United States Congress), introduced by Rep. Lane Evans (Illinois 17), referred to House Committee on International Relations; not passed.
• Japanese Comfort Women (1944, United States Office of War Information)

v t e Empire of Japan
Overview	Agriculture Censorship Demographics Economy Economic history Education System Eugenics Foreign commerce and shipping Industrial production Militarism Nationalism Essentialism Politics Statism State Shinto Kazoku
Emperors	Meiji (Mutsuhito) Taishō (Yoshihito) Shōwa (Hirohito)
Symbols	Flag of Japan Rising Sun Flag National seals of Japan Imperial Seal Government Seal State Seal Privy Seal Kimigayo
Policies	Constitution Charter Oath Foreign relations Imperial Rescript on Education Imperial Rule Assistance Association Yokusan Sonendan Great Japan Youth Party Kokutai Mokusatsu National Spiritual Mobilization Movement Peace Preservation Law Political parties Supreme Court of Judicature Tokkō Tonarigumi Greater East Asia Conference Senbu Imperial Japanese Airways
Government	Administration (ministries) Imperial Household Home Ministry War Army Navy Treasury Foreign Affairs Agriculture and Commerce Commerce and Industry Munitions Colonial Affairs Greater East Asia East Asia Development Board (Kōain) Legislative and deliberative bodies Daijō-kan Privy Council Gozen Kaigi Imperial Diet Peers Representatives
Military	Armed Forces Imperial General Headquarters Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Office Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors Senjinkun military code Nuclear weapons program Kamikaze War crimes Supreme War Council Conscription Imperial Japanese Army General Staff Air Service Railways and Shipping Imperial Guard Imperial Way Faction (Kōdōha) Japanese holdout Taiwan Army of Japan Control Faction (Tōseiha) Kempeitai Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff Air Service Marines Tokkeitai Fleet Faction Treaty Faction
History	Meiji era Meiji Restoration Beipu uprising Boshin War Two Lords Incident Satsuma Rebellion First Sino-Japanese War Triple Intervention Boxer Rebellion Anglo–Japanese Alliance Russo-Japanese War Invasion of Taiwan (1874) Invasion of Taiwan (1895) Taishō era World War I Entry Siberian Intervention General Election Law Washington Naval Treaty Manchuria–Mongolia problem Taishō Democracy Taishō Roman Tapani incident Truku War Racial Equality Proposal Shōwa era Shōwa financial crisis Jinan incident London Naval Treaty Musha Incident Pacification of Manchukuo January 28 incident Motherland controversy Anti-Comintern Pact Second Sino-Japanese War Soviet–Japanese border conflicts Rape of Nanking Tripartite Pact Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact Japan during World War II Pacific War Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Soviet–Japanese War Surrender (Potsdam Declaration, Hirohito surrender broadcast) Occupation
Territories	Colonies Karafuto (naichi after 1943) Chōsen Kantō-shū Nan'yō Taiwan Puppet states Manchukuo Mengjiang Wang Jingwei regime Second Philippine Republic Empire of Vietnam State of Burma Azad Hind Occupied territories Borneo Burma Dutch East Indies French Indochina Hong Kong Malaya Philippines Singapore Thailand Ideology Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere Yen bloc
Other topics	Sonnō jōi Fukoku kyōhei Hakkō ichiu Japanese settlers in Manchuria Internment camps German pre–World War II industrial co-operation Shinmin no Michi Shōwa Modan Socialist thought Taiwanese Imperial Japan Serviceman Yasukuni Shrine International Military Tribunal for the Far East Political dissidence

Template:Link FA

• Articles with incomplete citations from May 2008
• Comfort women
• Euphemisms
• Types of prostitutes
• War rape