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Blakumen or Blökumenn were a people mentioned in Scandinavian sources from the 11th-13th centuries. The name of their land, Blokumannaland has also been preserved. Viktor Spinei, Florin Curta, Florin Pintescu and many other historians identified them as Vlachs (Romanians), while Omeljan Pritsak argues that they were Cumans. Moreover, it is not impossible that these denominations simply refers to "black men".

Blakumen on runestone G134

The ethnonym "Blakumen" was only preserved by an inscription on a runestone of the Sjonheim cemetery in Gotland in Sweden. The forms of the runes on the memorial stone suggest that it was raised around 1050. According to its inscription, a Varangian couple named Hróðvísl and Hróðelfr set up the stone in memory of one of their sons Hróðfúss who had treacherously been killed by Blakumen on his journey abroad. Although the inscription does not contain more information on the crime, Spinei argues that Hróðfúss was murdered by Vlachs in the regions east of the Carpathian Mountains. Curta proposes that Hróðfúss was a merchant travelling towards Constantinople who was attacked and killed by Vlachs north of the Lower Danube. Jesch likewise suggests that Hróðfúss was a merchant, but she assumes that he was murdered by other merchants (either Vlachs or "black men") with whom he had earlier traded. Pritsak refuses the Blakumen's identification with Vlachs, and states that they were Cumans whose migration towards the westernmost regions of the Pontic steppes began around the time when the memorial stone was erected.

Hróðvísl and Hróðelfr, they had stones set up in memory of three sons. This one in memory of Hróðfúss. Blakumen betrayed him on an expedition. God help Hróðfúss' soul. God betray those who betrayed him.

— Runestone G134

Blökumenn in the Flatey Book

Blökumen are mentioned in the Flateyjarbók, an Icelandic manuscript from the late 14th century which preserved a 13th-century Life of King St Olaf of Norway. This Life also contains a separate chapter on the adventures of a Norwegian prince, Eymund at the court of prince Jarizleifr in Novgorod. This chapter narrates that Eymund informed Jarizleifr of the departure of his brother, Burizlaf to Tyrkland and added that Burizlaf was preparing to attack Jarizleifr with a huge army formed by Tyrkir, Blökumen and other peoples. Curta, Spinei and many other scholars identify Jarizleifr with Yaroslav the Wise, and his brother, Burizlaf with Sviatopolk I of Kiev. They argue that the reference to the Tyrkir and Blökumen proves that Sviatopolk I hired Pechenegs and Vlachs when decided to fight against his Yaroslav. Accordingly, they propose that the Blökumenn of the Flatey Book, similarly to the Blakumen of the runic inscription from Gottland, were Vlachs from Moldavia or Wallachia.

"It was easier for to lose his banner than his life," said Eymund, "and I understood that he escaped and has been in Tyrkland over the winter. Now he means to lead another army against . He's gathered an unbeatable army with Tyrkir, Blökumen, and a good many of other nasty people, and I've also heard that he's quite likely to give up his Christian faith and hand over both kingdoms to these unpleasant people should he manage to take Russia away from you ".

— Eymund's Saga

Blokumannaland

Blokumannaland is a territory mentioned in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla ("The Circle of the World") from the 13th century. He narrates that the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos who is mentioned under the name "Kirjalax" invaded Blokumannaland where fought against pagan tribes. Since these pagans can be identified either with Pechenegs or with Cumans, the Byzantine invasion has been dated to more than one years. For instance, Spinei identifies the events prescribed in the Heimskringla with the Battle of Levounion of 1091 which ended with the catastrophic defeat of the Pechenegs by the Byzantines. He argues that Blokumannaland refers to a territory inhabited by Vlachs south of the Lower Danube. On the other hand, Sandaaker proposes that the battle took place in 1040, while the latest date (1122) was proposed by Ellis Davidson and Blöndal. In the modern Icelandic language, the term Blokumannaland may refer either to Wallachia or to Africa.

The following happened in Greece, the time when King Kirjalax ruled there and was on an expedition against Blokumannaland. When he arrived at the Pézína Plains, a heathen king advanced against him with an irresistible host. They had with them a company of horsemen, and huge waggons with embrasures on top.

— Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla

See also

• Bolokhoveni
• Origin of the Romanians
• Romania in the Early Middle Ages

References

1. ^ Spinei 2009, p. 54.
2. ^ Pintescu 2001, p. 260.
3. ^ Curta 2006, p. 303.
4. ^ Pritsak 1981, p. 373.
5. ^ Jesch 2001, pp. 257–258.
6. Pritsak 1981, pp. 344, 373.
7. Pritsak 1981, p. 344.
8. Jesch 2001, p. 257.
9. ^ Spinei 2009, p. 105.
10. Spinei 2009, p. 104-105.
11. Spinei 2009, pp. 104–105.
12. Eymund's Saga (ch. 8.), pp. 79-80.
13. ^ Pintescu 2001, p. 261.
14. Spinei 2009, p. 120.
15. Spinei 2009, p. 106.
16. Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla (chapter 21.), p. 787.

Sources

Primary sources

• Snorri Sturluson: Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway (Translated by Lee M. Hollander) (2009). The American-Scandinavian Foundation. ISBN 978-0-292-73061-8.
• Eymund's Saga (1989). In Vikings in Russia: Yngvar's Saga and Eymund's Saga (Translated and Introduced by Hermann Palsson and Paul Edwards). Edingburgh University Press. pp. 69-89. ISBN 0-85224-623-4.

Secondary sources

• Curta, Florin (2006). Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500-1250. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-89452-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Jesch, Judith (2001). Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-0-85115-826-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Pintescu, Florin (2001). "Presences de l'element viking dans l'espace de la romanité orientale en contexte méditerranéen ". Studia Antiqua et Archaeologica. VIII. Centrul Interdisciplinar de Studii Arheoistorice: 257–272. ISSN 1224-2284. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Pritsak, Omeljan (1981). The Origin of Rus': Old Scandinavian Sources Other than the Sagas. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-64465-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Spinei, Victor (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century. Koninklijke Brill NV. ISBN 978-90-04-17536-5. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

Further reading

• Template:Hu icon Schütz, István (2002). Fehér foltok a Balkánon: Bevezetés az albanológiába és a balkanisztikába . Balassi Kiadó. ISBN 963-506-472-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
• Spinei, Victor (1986). Moldavia in the 11th–14th Centuries. Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste Româna. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

• Eastern Romance people
• Old Norse literature
• 11th century in Romania
• History of Romania