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{{About|the 11th–13th century religious military campaigns|other uses|Crusade (disambiguation)|and|Crusader (disambiguation)}}
] and the ] before the ]}}]]
{{Campaignbox Crusades}}
{{Campaignbox People's Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox First Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Seljuk-Crusader War}}
{{Campaignbox Second Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Third Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Fifth Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Seventh Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}}

The '''Crusades''' were religious conflicts during the ] through the end of the ], conducted under the sanction of the Latin ]. ] proclaimed the first crusade in 1095 with the stated goal of restoring Christian access to the ] in and near ]. There followed a further six major Crusades against Muslim territories in the east, and numerous minor ones as part of an intermittent 200-year struggle for control of the ] that ended in failure. After the fall of ], the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land, in 1291, Catholic Europe mounted no further coherent response in the east. Many historians and medieval contemporaries, such as Saint ], give equal precedence to comparable, Papal-blessed military campaigns against ], ], and people under the ban of ], undertaken for a variety of religious, economic, and political reasons, such as the ], the ], the ], and the ].<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|pp=362-364}}</ref>

While some historians see the Crusades as part of a purely defensive war against the expansion of ] in the near east, many see them as part of long-running conflicts at the frontiers of Europe, including the ], the ], and the loss of ] by the ]s after their defeat by the ]s at the ] in 1071. Urban II sought to reunite the Christian church under his leadership by providing Emperor ] with military support. Several hundred thousand soldiers became Crusaders by taking vows and by receiving ].<ref name=Nelson40>Nelson ''Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade'' p. 40</ref><ref name=Asbridge1>Asbridge ''Crusades'' p. 1</ref> These crusaders were Christians from all over Western Europe under ] rather than unified command, and the politics were often complicated to the point of intra-faith competition leading to alliances between combatants of different faiths against their coreligionists, such as the Christian alliance with the Islamic ] during the ].

The impact of the Crusades was profound. ] identifies the ] and the ] as the first experiments in “Europe Overseas”. These ventures reopened the ] to trade and travel, enabling ] and ] to flourish. The collective identity of the ] was consolidated under the Pope’s leadership. The Crusades were the source of heroism, ], and medieval piety that spawned medieval romance, philosophy, and literature.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|p=359}}</ref> However, they reinforced the nexus between Western Christendom, ], and ] that ran counter to the ] that Urban had promoted. The chance of ending the ] and reuniting the church was ended by the conflict between the Latin Crusaders and the Orthodox Christians, leading to the ultimate weakening and fall of the ] to the Ottomans.

The conduct of the Crusaders was shocking not only to modern sensibilities but also to a contemporary of the First Crusade, ]. The Crusaders pillaged the countries in transit, living off the land, as did all transiting armies of the time. The First Crusade resulted in the massacre of 8,000 Jews in the ] in the first of Europe's ]s. It also resulted in the slaughter of a purported 70,000 citizens in the fall of ]. The nobles carved up the territory that they had gained rather than return it to the Byzantines, as they had vowed to do.<ref>{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|p=358}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hillenbrand|1999|pp=64–66}}</ref> The Fourth Crusade resulted in the sacking of ]. The majority of crusaders, however, were poor people trying to escape the hardships of medieval life in an armed pilgrimage leading to ] at Jerusalem.<ref name="Cohn 1970 61,64">{{Harvnb|Cohn|1970|p=61,64}}</ref>

==Terminology==
"]" is a modern term, from the French ''croisade'' and Spanish ''cruzada'', that was applied to the medieval military expeditions only in retrospect. The French form of the word first appears in the ''L'Histoire des Croisades'' written by A. de Clermont and published in 1638. By 1750, the various forms of the word "crusade" had established themselves in English, French, and German.<ref name=Lock258>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 258</ref> The '']'' records its first use in English as occurring in 1757 by William Shenstone.<ref name=Hindley2>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp. 2–3</ref> The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including ''fideles Sancti Petri'' (the faithful of ]) or ''{{lang|la|milites Christi}}'' (knights of Christ).

Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a ''votus'') to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (''crux'') to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the ''crux'', eventually became associated with the entire journey.<ref>''American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2009</ref> They saw themselves as undertaking an ''iter'', a journey, or a ''peregrinatio'', an armed ]. The inspiration for this “messianism of the poor “was the expected mass ] at Jerusalem.<ref name="Cohn 1970 61,64"/>

==Historiography==
{{Main|Historiography of the Crusades}}
{{Quote box
| quote =...&nbsp; The lives and labours of millions who were buried in the East, would have been more profitably employed in the improvement of their native country
| source =] in '']'' <ref name="Davies1997">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|p=358}}</ref>
| width =20%
| align =right}}

During the ] and ] of the 16th century, historians saw the Crusades through the prism of their own religious beliefs. ] saw them as a manifestation of the evils of the ], while ] viewed the movement as a force for good.<ref name=Lock257>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 257</ref> During the ], historians tended to view both the Crusades and the entire ] as the efforts of barbarian cultures driven by fanaticism.<ref name=Lock259>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 259</ref> By the 19th century, with the dawning of ], this harsh view of the Crusades and its time period was mitigated somewhat,<ref name=Lock261>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 261</ref> with later 19th-century crusade scholarship focusing on increasing specialization of study and more detailed works on subjects.<ref name=Lock266>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 266</ref>

Enlightenment scholars in the 18th century and modern historians in the West have expressed moral outrage at the conduct of the crusaders. In the 1950s, Sir ] wrote that "High ideals were besmirched by cruelty and greed&nbsp;... the Holy War was nothing more than a long act of intolerance in the name of God".<ref name=Runicman480>Runciman ''History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre'' p. 480</ref>

In the 20th century, three important works covering the entire history of the crusades have been published, those of ], ], and the multi-author work edited by K. M. Stetton.<ref name=Lock269>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 269</ref> A pluralist view of the Crusades has developed in the 20th century inclusive of all papal-led efforts, whether in the Middle East or in Europe.<ref name=Lock270>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 270</ref> Historian ] has made the contrary argument that "he crusade, first and foremost, was a war against Muslims for the defense of the Christian faith.... They began as a result of a Muslim conquest of Christian territories." Madden says the goal of Pope Urban was that "he Christians of the East must be free from the brutal and humiliating conditions of Muslim rule."<ref>{{cite book|author=Thomas F. Madden|title=The New Concise History of the Crusades|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fKYxKsgVpmMC&pg=PR12|year=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|pages=xii, 4, 8}}</ref>

==Background==
=== Byzantium & The Near East ===
{{main|Muslim conquests|Great Seljuq Empire|Byzantine–Seljuq wars|Arab–Byzantine wars}}
{{Quote box
| quote =...&nbsp; Arguably, the only fruit of the Crusades kept by the Christians was the Apricot
| source =] in ''La Civilisation medieval de l’Occident'' <ref name="Davies1997" /> | width =20%
| align =right}}

After 636, when Muslim forces defeated the Eastern Roman/Byzantines at the ], the control of Palestine passed through the ],<ref name=Wickham280>Wickham ''Inheritance of Rome'' p. 280</ref> the ],<ref name=Lock4>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 4</ref> and the ].<ref name=Hindley14>Hindley ''Crusades'' p. 14</ref> Toleration, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe ebbed and flowed until 1072 when the Fatimids lost control of Palestine to the rapidly expanding ].<ref name=Hindley15>Hindley ''Crusades'' p. 15</ref> For example, the ] Caliph ] ordered the destruction of the ], only to have his successor allow the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it.<ref name=Pringle157>Pringle "Architecture in Latin East" ''Oxford History of the Crusades'' p. 157</ref> The Muslim rulers allowed pilgrimages by Christians to the holy sites. Resident Christians were considered ] and so were tolerated as ], and inter-marriage was not uncommon.<ref name = Findley2005p73>{{harvnb|Findley|2005|p=73}}</ref> Cultures and creeds coexisted as much as competed, but the frontier conditions were not conducive to Latin Christian pilgrims and merchants.<ref name=Hindley16>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;15–16</ref> The disruption of pilgrimages prompted support for the Crusades in Western Europe. Exaggerated propaganda prompted resentment toward Muslims, and negative and defamatory information made this a key justification.<ref name="Europe and the Islamic World: A History ">{{cite book|author= Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles and Henry Laurens |title="Europe and the Islamic World: A History".|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14705-5|page=37}}</ref>

The ] was resurgent from the end of the 10th century, with ] spending most of his 50-year reign on campaign, conquering a massive amount of territory. He left a burgeoning treasury, at the expense of neglecting domestic affairs and ignoring the cost of incorporating his conquests into the Byzantine ]. None of Basil’s successors had any particular military or political talent, and governing the Empire increasingly fell into the hands of the civil service. Their efforts to spend the Byzantine economy back into prosperity only resulted in burgeoning inflation. To balance the increasingly unstable budget, Basil’s large standing army was dismissed as unnecessary, and native ] troops were cashiered and replaced by ]. Following the defeat at the ] in 1071, the Seljuq Turks had taken over almost all of ], and the Empire descended into frequent civil wars.<ref name=Asbridge97>Asbridge, ''First Crusade'' p. 97</ref>

=== The Latin Church ===
] at its greatest extent, in 1092.]]

In the West an aggressive and reformist ] came into conflict with both the Eastern Empire and Western secular monarchs, leading to the ] in 1054<ref name=Mayer2>Mayer ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;2–3</ref> and the ], which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. The papacy began to assert its independence from secular rulers, marshaling arguments for the proper use of armed force by Christians. The result was intense Christian piety, interest in religious affairs, and religious propaganda advocating "]" in order to retake Palestine from the Muslims. Taking part in such a war was seen as a form of ], which could remit sins.<ref name=Smith8>Riley-Smith ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;8–10</ref> Meanwhile in Europe, the Germans were expanding at the expense of the ],<ref name=Contest31>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' p. 31</ref> while ] was conquered by the ] adventurer ] in 1072.<ref name=Mayer17>Mayer ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;17–18</ref>

===Council of Clermont===
{{Main|Council of Clermont}}
In 1074, Emperor ] sent a request for military aid to Pope ], but while Gregory appears to have considered leading an expedition to aid Michael, nothing reached the planning stage.<ref name=Lock306>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp.&nbsp;306–308</ref> The Eastern Empire faced difficulties in the Danube river area, as the ] had allied with the ] and threatened the Empire until 1091, when they were defeated by ] ].

In 1095 Alexius sent envoys to the west requesting military assistance against the Seljuks. Alexios needed to reinforce his tagmata, so the embassy likely sought to recruit mercenaries and may have exaggerated the dangers facing the Eastern Empire in order to secure the needed troops.<ref name=Mayer6>Mayer ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;6–7</ref> The message was received by ] at the ]. In November Urban called the ] to discuss the matter, further urging the ]s and ]s whom he addressed directly to bring with them the prominent lords in their provinces. The Council lasted from 19 to 28 November, attended by nearly 300 clerics from throughout ]. Urban discussed ] of the Church and extended the ] of ]. Urban spoke for the first time on 27 November about the problems in the east, promoting the struggle of western Christians against the ] who had occupied the ] and were attacking the ]. There are six main sources of information on the Council: the anonymous '']'' ("The Deeds of the Franks" dated c. 1100/1101),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html#gesta |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Urban II: Speech at Council of Clermont, 1095, according to Fulcherof Chartres |publisher=Fordham.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-06-12}}</ref> which influenced all versions of the speech, except that by ] who was present at the council; ], who may have been present; as well as ], and ], who were not present at the council. All the accounts were written much later following different literary traditions and differing widely.<ref>Georg Strack, The sermon of Urban II in Clermont 1095 and the Tradition of Papal Oratory, in: Medieval Sermon Studies 56 (2012), S. 30-45.<http://www.mag.geschichte.uni-muenchen.de/downloads/strack_urban.pdf>.</ref> More important than these five sources, coloured by authors' views of crusading, is a letter that was written by Urban himself in December 1095 referring to the council.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

] setting in this illumination from the ''Livre des Passages d'Outre-mer'', c. 1490 (])]]

Robert the Monk, in ''Historia Iherosolimitana'', written in 1106/7, reports that Urban called for ], reform, and submission to the Church. Robert records that the pope asked western Christians, poor and rich, to come to the aid of the Byzantine Empire because "'']''," ("God wills it"). Robert records that Urban promised ] for those who went to the east, although the 'Liber Lamberti', a source based on the notes of Bishop Lambert of Arras, who attended the Council, indicates that Urban offered the remission of all penance due from sins, what later came to be called an ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://falcon.arts.cornell.edu/prh3/259/texts/clermont.html |title=Decrees of Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, 1095 |publisher=Falcon.arts.cornell.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-06-12}}</ref> Robert makes Urban deliver a classical battle speech: he emphasizes reconquering the ] more than aiding the Greeks; the intervening decades and the events of the ] had certainly shifted the emphasis. According to Robert, Urban listed various gruesome offenses of the Muslims,<ref name="ford">{{cite web|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Urban II: Speech at Council of Clermont, 1095, according to Fulcherof Chartres |publisher=Fordham.edu |date= |accessdate=2013-06-12}}</ref> and more alleged atrocities were expressed in inflammatory images derived from ]. Perhaps with the wisdom of hindsight, Robert has Urban advise that none but ]s should go, not the old and feeble, nor ]s without the permission of their bishops, "for such are more of a hindrance than aid, more of a burden than advantage&nbsp;... nor ought women to set out at all, without their husbands or brothers or legal guardians". A later version by Baldric, archbishop of Dol, reported the sermon as focusing on the offenses of the Muslims and the reconquest of the ], and that Urban deplored the violence of the Christian knights of ]. He wanted the violence of knights to be ennobled in the service of Christ, defending the churches of the East as if defending a mother. Guibert, abbot of Nogent, also has Urban emphasize the reconquest of the Holy Land more than providing aid to the Greeks or other Christians there. This may, as in the case of Robert and Baldric, be due to the influence of the Gesta Francorum's account of the reconquest of Jerusalem. In Guibert's version, Urban's speech emphasized the sanctity of the Holy Land, which must be in Christian possession so that ] about the ] could be fulfilled.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}

A general call was sent out to the knights and nobles of France. Urban apparently knew in advance of the day that ] was prepared to take up arms. Urban himself spent a few months preaching the Crusade in France, while ]s spread the word in the south of Italy, during which time the focus presumably turned from helping Alexios to taking Jerusalem. The general population probably understood this to be the point of the Crusade in the first place.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} Urban's letter to the faithful "waiting in ]" laments that Turks, in addition to ravaging the "churches of God in the eastern regions," have seized "the Holy City of Christ, embellished by his passion and resurrection—and blasphemy to say it—have sold her and her churches into abominable slavery." Yet he does not explicitly call for the reconquest of Jerusulem. Rather he explicitly calls for the military "liberation" of the ] and appoints ] to lead the Crusade, to set out on the day of the ], 15 August.<ref>Quotes from Urban's letter in {{Cite book |title=The Crusades: Idea and Reality, 1095–1274 |editor1-first=Louise |editor1-last=Riley-Smith |editor2-first=Johnathan |editor2-last=Riley-Smith |series=Documents of Medieval History |volume=4 |location=London |publisher=E. Arnold |year=1981 |page=38 |isbn=0-7131-6348-8 }}</ref> Pope Urban's speech ranks as one of the most influential speeches ever, launching holy wars that occupied the minds and forces of western Europe for 200 years before their ultimate failure.<ref name=Munro>Munro "Speech of Pope Urban II" ''American Historical Review''</ref>

==Role of women, children, and class==
{{Main|Children's Crusade|Shepherds' Crusade}}

Women were intricately connected with the crusades, aiding the recruitment of crusading men, taking on responsibility in their absence, and providing financial and moral support.<ref name=Hodgson39>Hodgson ''Women, Crusading and the Holy Land'' pp. 39–44</ref><ref>C.T. Maier, "The roles of women in the crusade movement: a survey" ''Journal of medieval history'' (2004). 30#1 pp&nbsp;61–82</ref> Historians argue that the most significant role played by women in the West was maintaining the status quo.<ref>Susan B. Edgington and Sarah Lambert, eds., ''Gendering the Crusades'' (2002)</ref> Landholders left for the Holy Land, leaving control of their estates with regents, often wives or mothers.<ref name=First99>Riley-Smith ''First Crusaders'' p. 99</ref> The Church recognised that risk to families and estates might discourage crusaders, so special papal protection formed part of the crusading privilege.<ref name=Hodgson110>Hodgson ''Women, Crusading and the Holy Land'' pp. 110–112</ref> A few women took up the cross themselves to go on the crusade.<ref name=Owen22>Owen ''Eleanor of Aquitaine'' p. 22</ref> For example, ] joined her husband, ],<ref name="Owen22" /> and some non-aristocratic women were involved in tasks considered feminine like washerwoman.<ref name=Gendering98>Edington and Lambert ''Gendering the Crusades'' p. 98</ref> More controversial was women taking an active part, which threatened their femininity, with accounts of women fighting coming mostly from Muslim historians with the aim of portraying Christian women as barbaric and ungodly due to their acts of killing.<ref name=nicholson337>Nicholson "Women on the Third Crusade" ''Journal of Medieval History'' p. 337</ref> Christian accounts portray women fighting only in emergency situations for the preservation of their camps and lives.<ref name="nicholson337" />

Less historically certain was a ] movement in France and Germany in 1212 that attracted large numbers of peasant teenagers and young people, with some under the age of 15. They were convinced that they could succeed where older and more sinful crusaders had failed: the miraculous power of their faith would triumph where the force of arms had not. Many parish priests and parents encouraged such religious fervor and urged them on. The pope and bishops opposed the attempt but failed to stop it entirely. A band of several thousand youth and young men, led by a German named Nicholas, set out for ]. About a third survived the march over the Alps and got as far as Genoa; another group went to ]. The luckier ones eventually managed to return home, but many others were sold as lifetime slaves on the auction blocks of Marseilles slave dealers.<ref name=Zacour330>Zacour "Children's Crusade" ''Later Crusades'' pp. 330–337</ref>

Three crusading efforts among the peasants occurred in the middle 1250s and again in the early 1300s. The first, the ], was preached in northern France. After meeting with ], however, it became disorganized and had to be disbanded by the government.<ref name=Lock179/> The second, in 1309, occurred in ], northeastern France, and Germany, and had as many as 30,000 peasants arriving at ] before being disbanded.<ref name=Lock187>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 187–188</ref> The last one, in ], had similar origins as the first shepherds' crusade but quickly turned into a series of attacks on clergy and Jews, and was forcibly dispersed.<ref name=Lock190>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 190</ref>

==Legacy==
===Politics and culture===
]]]

Crusades continued to take place against the Christian Greeks who had been expelled from Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade. With their recapture of the city in 1261, crusades were called by the papacy from 1262 through 1281 to drive the Greeks back out of Constantinople, with little result.<ref name=Lock181>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 181–182</ref>
The Crusades influenced the attitude of the western Church and people towards warfare. The frequent calling of crusades habituated the clergy to the use of violence. The crusades also sparked debate about the legitimacy of taking lands and possessions from pagans on purely religious grounds that would arise again in the 15th and 16th centuries with the ].<ref name=Contest146>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' pp. 146–147</ref> The needs of crusading warfare also stimulated secular governmental developments, although this was not always a totally positive development. The resources collected for crusading could have been used by the developing states for local and regional needs instead of in far away lands.<ref name=Contest149>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' p. 149</ref> The crusades impacted the papacy in a number of ways. Although they did raise the prestige of the papacy, the sheer effort required to support the crusaders took away resources that might have been better employed elsewhere. The crusades did increase the control of the papal ] over the entire western Church, by extending the system of papal taxation throughout the whole ecclesiastical structure of the west. The crusades also stimulated the development of the ] system that grew greatly in extent in late medieval Europe, later to spark the ] in the early 1500s.<ref name=Contest147>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' pp. 147–149</ref>

The military experiences of the crusades had a limited degree of influence on European castle design; for example, ], in Wales, begun in 1283, directly reflects the style of fortresses Edward I had observed while fighting in the Crusades.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://uktv.co.uk/blighty/listing/aid/582330 |title=Caernarfon Castle |publisher=Uktv.co.uk |date=2007-03-12 |accessdate=2010-04-18}}</ref> The crusades otherwise seem to have had little effect on military tactics or organization, mainly because it was difficult to transfer the lessons that were learned in the Holy Land to the different terrain and fighting styles of Europe.<ref name=Contest155>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' p. 155</ref> The Northern Crusades caused great loss of life among the pagan ], and they consequently offered little opposition to German colonization (known as ]) of the Elbe-Oder region and were gradually assimilated by the ], with the exception of ].{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} The ] ignited a long tradition of organized violence against ] in European culture.<ref name=Contest>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' pp. 161–163</ref> The Albigensian Crusade was initiated by the Catholic Church to eliminate the ] in Languedoc. The violence led to France's acquisition of lands with closer cultural and linguistic ties to ]. The Albigensian Crusade also had a role in the creation and institutionalization of both the ] and the ].<ref name=AlbCrusades143>Strayer ''Albigensian Crusades'' p. 143</ref>

The Crusades were criticised by some contemporaries such as ] who felt the Crusades were not effective because, "those who survive, together with their children, are more and more embittered against the Christian faith."<ref name=BaconQuote>Quoted in Rose ''Order of the Knights Templar'' p. 72</ref> Nevertheless the movement was widely supported in Europe long after the fall of Acre in 1291.<ref name=Rose72>Rose "Order of the Knights Templar'' p. 72</ref>

One aspect of the crusades that shocked some easterners{{who|date=September 2013}} was the formation in the west of military religious orders.<ref name=Kolbaba49>Kolbaba ''Byzantine Lists'' p. 49</ref>

The Orthodox Christian Byzantine Greeks complained that the Crusaders broke their promise to return lands that had once belonged to Byzantium.<ref name=Vasil408>Vasilʹev ''History of the Byzantine Empire'' p. 408</ref>

===Trade===
The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of ] between Europe and the ]. ] and ] flourished through profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the ] and later in captured ] territory.<ref name=Contest152>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' pp. 152–154</ref>

==Middle Eastern Crusades==
===People's Crusade (1096)===
{{Main|People's Crusade}}
Urban inspired the preaching of ] who eventually led perhaps as many as 20,000 people, mostly peasants, towards the Holy Land just after Easter 1096.<ref name=Hindley20>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;20–21</ref> When they reached the Byzantine Empire, Alexios urged them to wait for the western nobles, but the "army" insisted on proceeding and was ambushed outside Nicaea by the Turks, with only about 3000 people escaping the ambush.<ref name=Hindley23>Hindley ''Crusades'' p. 23</ref> This crusade is considered a part of the First Crusade.

=== First Crusade (1095–1099) and immediate aftermath ===
{{Main|First Crusade| Siege of Jerusalem (1099)|Crusade of 1101|Norwegian Crusade|Bohemond I of Antioch#Wars between Antioch and the Byzantine Empire}} {{see also| Persecution of Jews in the First Crusade}}

]

The official crusader armies set off from France and Italy at different times in August and September 1096, with Hugh of Vermandois departing first, and the bulk of the army dividing into four parts travelling separately to Constantinople.<ref name=Hindley27>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;27–30</ref><ref name=Lock20>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 20–21</ref> In all, the western forces may have totaled as many as 100,000 persons, counting both combatants and non-combatants.<ref name=Hindley31>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;30–31</ref> The armies journeyed eastward by land toward Constantinople, where they received a wary welcome from the Byzantine Emperor.<ref name=GodsWar106>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 106–110</ref> Pledging to restore lost territories to the empire,<ref name=Ashbridge50>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' pp. 50–52</ref> the main army, mostly French and Norman knights under baronial leadership, marched south through Anatolia.<ref name=Ashbridge46>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' p. 46</ref><ref name=RileySmith32>Riley-Smith ''Crusades'' pp. 32–36</ref> The leaders of the First Crusade included ], ], ], ], ], Raymond of Toulouse, ], and ], and ]. The King of France and ], were both in conflict with the Papacy and did not take part.<ref name=Hindley25>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;25–26</ref>

] after the First Crusade]]

The Crusader armies initially fought the Turks at the lengthy ] that began in October 1097 and lasted until June 1098. Once inside the city the Crusaders massacred the Muslim inhabitants and pillaged the city.<ref name=Nicholle56>Nicholle ''First Crusade'' p. 56</ref> However, a large Muslim relief army under ] immediately besieged the victorious Crusaders within Antioch. Bohemond of Taranto led a successful rally of the crusader army and defeated Kerbogha's army on 28 June.<ref name=Tyerman143>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp.&nbsp;143–146</ref> Bohemond and his men retained control of Antioch,<ref name=Tyerman146/> in spite of his pledge to the Byzantine emperor.<ref name=Mayer60>Mayer ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;60–61</ref> Most of the surviving crusader army marched south, moving from town to town along the coast, finally reaching the walls of Jerusalem on 7 June 1099 with only a fraction of their original forces.<ref name=Tyerman146>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 146–153</ref>

Jews and Muslims fought together to defend Jerusalem against the invading Franks. On 15 July 1099 the crusaders entered the city. They proceeded to massacre the remaining Jewish and Muslim civilians and pillaged or destroyed mosques and the city itself.<ref name=GodsWar156>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 156–158</ref> As a result of the First Crusade, four main ] were created: the ], the ], the ], and the ].<ref name=RileySmith50>Riley-Smith ''Crusades'' pp. 50–51</ref>

{{Quote box
| quote =...&nbsp; Wonderful sights were to be seen. Some of our men (and this was more merciful) cut off the heads of their enemies; others shot them with arrows, so that they fell from the towers; others tortured them longer by casting them into the flames. Piles of heads, hands and feet were to be seen in the streets of the city. It was necessary to pick one's way over the bodies of men and horses. But these were small matters compared to what happened at the Temple of Solomon, a place where religious services are normally chanted ... in the temple and the porch of Solomon, men rode in blood up to their knees and bridle reins. Indeed it was a just and splendid judgement of God that this place should be filled with the blood of unbelievers since it had suffered so long from their blasphemies
| source =] in Historia Francorum qui ceperunt Iherusalem <ref name="Sinclair">{{Harvnb|Sinclair|1995|pp=55–56}}</ref>
| width =20%
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On a popular level, the preaching of the First Crusade unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious Christian fury that was expressed in the ] that accompanied and preceded the movement of the crusaders through Europe,<ref name=Smith23>Riley-Smith ''Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;23–24</ref> as well as the violent treatment of the "]" Orthodox Christians of the east.<ref name=GodsWar192>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 192–194</ref>

Following this crusade was a second, less successful wave of crusaders, known as the ], in which Turks led by ] defeated the crusaders in three separate battles in a response to the First Crusade.<ref name=Housley42>Housley ''Contesting the Crusades'' p. 42</ref> ] was the first European king to visit the crusading states, as well as the first European king to take part in a crusading campaign, although his expedition was as much pilgrimage as crusade. His fleet helped at the ]. Also in 1107, Bohemond I of Antioch attacked the Byzantines at Avlona and Dyrrachium, in what is occasionally called ], which ended in September 1108 with a defeat for Bohemond and his retiring to Italy.

Further efforts in the 1120s included a crusade preached by Pope ] around 1120, which became the ] of 1122–1124;<ref name=Lock144>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 144–145</ref> a pilgrimage of Count ] in 1120; an effort by ] in 1124, of which few details are known; and the ] of 1129 by Fulk V, which resulted in the recognition of the ] by Pope ] in January 1129. Some historians have seen ]'s grant in 1135 of the same crusading indulgences to those who opposed papal enemies as the first of the politically motivated crusades against papal opponents, but other historians do not agree.<ref name=Lock146>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 146–147</ref>

Initially, Muslims did very little about the Crusader states due to internal conflicts.{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} Eventually the Muslims began to reunite under the leadership of ], who was appointed governor of ] in 1127. He began to retake territory from the Christians, beginning with Aleppo in 1128; he retook Edessa in 1144.<ref name=RileySmith104>Riley-Smith ''Crusades'' pp. 104–105</ref> These defeats led Pope ] to call for another crusade on 1 March 1145.<ref name=Lock144/>

===Second Crusade (1147–1149)===
{{Main|Second Crusade}}

The new crusade was called for by various preachers, most notably by ].<ref name=Hindley71>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp. 71–74</ref> French and South German armies, under the Kings ] and ] respectively, marched to Jerusalem in 1147 but failed to win any major victories, launching a failed pre-emptive siege of Damascus.<ref name=Hindley77>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp. 77–85</ref> On the other side of the Mediterranean, however, the Second Crusade met with great success as a group of Northern European Crusaders stopped in Portugal, allied with the ], ], and ] from the Muslims in 1147.<ref name=Hindley75>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp. 75–77</ref> A detachment from this group of crusaders helped Count ] conquer the city of ] the following year.<ref name=Villegas>Villegas-Aristizábal "Anglo-Norman involvement" ''Crusades''</ref>{{page needed|date=April 2013}} In the Holy Land by 1150, both the kings of France and Germany had returned to their countries without any result. Bernard of Clairvaux, who in his preachings had encouraged the Second Crusade, was upset with the amount of misdirected violence and slaughter of the Jewish population of the Rhineland.<ref name=Hindley77/> A followup to this crusade was the pilgrimage of ], ], in 1172 that is sometimes labeled a crusade.<ref name=Lock151>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 151</ref>

===Third Crusade (1187–1192)===
{{Main|Third Crusade}}
] (Richard the Lionheart), outside the ] in London.]]

The Muslims had long fought among themselves, but they were finally united by ], who created a single powerful state.<ref name=Holt235>Holt "Saladin and His Admirers" ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'' pp.&nbsp;235–239</ref> Following his victory at the ] he easily overwhelmed the disunited crusaders in 1187 and retook Jerusalem on 29 September 1187. Terms were arranged and the city surrendered, with Saladin entering the city on 2 October 1187.<ref name=Ashbridge343>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' pp. 343–357</ref>

Saladin's victories shocked Europe. On hearing news of the ], Pope ] died of a heart attack on 19 October 1187.<ref name=Ashbridge367>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' p. 367</ref> On 29 October Pope ] issued a ] '']'', proposing the ]. To reverse this disaster Emperor ] (r. 1152–1190) of Germany, King ] of France, (r. 1180–1223), and King ] (r. 1189–1199) of England all organized forces for the crusade. Frederick died en route and few of his men reached the Holy Land. The other two armies arrived but were beset by political quarrels. Philip returned to France, but left most of his forces behind. Richard captured the island of Cyprus from the Byzantines in 1191. After ], Richard recaptured the city of ]. The Crusader army headed south along the Mediterranean coast. They defeated the Muslims near ], recaptured the port city of ], and were in sight of Jerusalem, but supply problems prevented them from taking the city and the crusade ended without the taking of Jerusalem.<ref name=Lock151>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 151–154</ref> Richard left the following year after negotiating a treaty with Saladin. The treaty allowed trade for merchants and unarmed Christian pilgrims to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem, while it remained under Muslim control.<ref name=Ashbridge512>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' pp. 512–513</ref>

===German Crusade (1195–1198)===
{{Main|German Crusade}}

Emperor ] took the cross in 1195. Henry's health did not allow him to lead the forces in person, and leadership devolved on ], the ]. The forces landed at Acre in September 1197 and captured some towns, including Sidon and Beirut, but Henry's death in late 1197 meant that most of the crusaders returned to Germany in the middle of 1198.<ref name=Lock155/>

===Fourth Crusade (1202–1204)===
{{Main|Fourth Crusade|Latin Empire|Frankokratia|Siege of Constantinople (1203)|Siege of Constantinople (1204)| Battle of Adrianople (1205)|Siege of Zara }}
]. (c. 1204)]]

The Fourth Crusade never reached the Holy Land. Instead, it became a vehicle for the political ambitions of Doge ] and the German King ] who was married to Irene of Byzantium. Dandelo saw an opportunity to expand Venice's possessions in the near east while Philip saw the crusade as a chance to restore his exiled nephew, ] to the throne on Byzantium.<ref name="Davies1997359">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|pp=359–360}}</ref> Pope ] initiated recruitment for the crusade in 1200 with preaching taking place in France, England, and Germany, although the bulk of the efforts were in France.<ref name=GodsWar502>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 502–508</ref> The Crusaders lacked the funds to pay for the fleet and provisions from the ] so agreed in payment to share what could be looted and restore Alexius. As collateral for this the crusade seized the Christian city of ] on 24 November 1202. Innocent was appalled and excommunicated the crusaders.<ref name=Lock158>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 158–159</ref> The crusaders met with limited resistance in their initial siege of Constantinople, sailing down the Dardanelles and breaching the sea walls. However, Alexius was strangled after a palace coup robbing them of their success and they had to repeat the siege in April 1204. This time the city was ransacked, churches pillaged and large numbers of the citizens butchered. The crusaders took their rewards; dividing the Empire into Latin fiefs and Venetian colonies. The crusade was halted by the Bulgars and remaining Greeks at Adrianople where the army was largely annililated.<ref name=Lock159>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 159–161</ref><ref name=GodsWar554>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 554–561</ref> While deploring the means, the papacy initially supported this apparent forced reunion between the Eastern and Western churches.<ref name=Ashbridge531>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' pp. 531–532</ref> The Fourth Crusade effectively left two Roman Empires in the East, one Latin "Empire of the Straits" until 1261 and a Byzantine rump ruled from Nicea which later regained control in the absence of the Venetian fleet. Venice was the sole beneficiary in the long run.<ref name="Davies1997360">{{Harvnb|Davies|1997|p=360}}</ref>

In the Enlightenment, historians criticized the misdirection of the crusading movement. In particular they pointed to the Fourth Crusade which instead of attacking Islam attacked another Christian power&nbsp;– the (Eastern) Roman Empire. David Nicolle says the Fourth Crusade has always been controversial in terms of the "betrayal" of Byzantium.<ref name=Fourth5>Nicolle ''Fourth Crusade'' p. 5</ref>

Eight hundred years after the Fourth Crusade, ] twice expressed sorrow for the events of the Fourth Crusade. In 2001, he wrote to ], ], saying, "It is tragic that the assailants, who set out to secure free access for Christians to the Holy Land, turned against their brothers in the faith. The fact that they were Latin Christians fills Catholics with deep regret."<ref>. EWTN.</ref> In 2004, while ], ], was visiting the ], John Paul II asked, "How can we not share, at a distance of eight centuries, the pain and disgust."<ref>"". ]. June 29, 2004.</ref> This has been regarded as an apology to the Greek Orthodox Church for the terrible slaughter perpetrated by the warriors of the Fourth Crusade.<ref>Phillips. ''The Fourth Crusade'', p. xiii.</ref>

In April 2004, in a speech on the 800th anniversary of the city's capture, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I formally accepted the apology. "The spirit of reconciliation is stronger than hatred," he said during a liturgy attended by Roman Catholic Archbishop ] of Lyon, France. "We receive with gratitude and respect your cordial gesture for the tragic events of the Fourth Crusade. It is a fact that a crime was committed here in the city 800 years ago." Bartholomew said his acceptance came in the spirit of ]. "The spirit of reconciliation of the resurrection... incites us toward reconciliation of our churches."<ref></ref>

===Fifth Crusade (1217–1221)===
{{Main|Fifth Crusade}}

] struck by Christians between 1216 and 1241 with Arabic inscriptions.]] Pope Innocent III declared a new crusade to commence in 1217, along with his summoning of the ] in 1215. The majority of the crusaders came from Germany, ], and ], along with a large army from Hungary led by King ] and other forces led by Duke ]. The forces of Andrew and Leopold arrived in Acre in October 1217 but little was accomplished and Andrew returned to Hungary in January 1218. After the arrival of more crusaders, Leopold and the king of Jerusalem, ], laid siege to ] in Egypt,<ref name=Lock168>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 168–169</ref> which they captured finally in November 1219. Further efforts by the ], ], to invade further into Egypt led to no gains.<ref name=RileySmith179>Riley-Smith ''Crusades'' pp. 179–180</ref> Blocked by forces of the ] ] ], the crusaders were forced to surrender. Al-Kamil forced the return of Damietta and agreed to an eight-year truce and the crusaders left Egypt.<ref name=Hindley561>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp. 561–562</ref>

===Sixth Crusade (1228–1229)===
{{Main|Sixth Crusade}}
] (left) meets ] (right), from a manuscript of the '']'' by ]]]

Emperor ] had repeatedly vowed a crusade but failed to live up to his words,<ref name=Lock169>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 169</ref> for which he was excommunicated by Gregory IX in 1228. He nonetheless set sail from ] in June 1228 and landed at ] in September 1228, after a stopover in Cyprus.<ref name=Ashbridge566>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' pp. 566–568</ref> There were no battles as Frederick made a peace treaty with ], the ruler of Egypt. This treaty allowed Christians to rule over most of Jerusalem and a strip of territory from Acre to Jerusalem, while the Muslims were given control of their sacred areas in Jerusalem. In return, Frederick pledged to protect Al-Kamil against all his enemies, even if they were Christian.<ref name=Ashbridge569>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' p. 569</ref>

A followup to this crusade was the effort by King ] in 1239 and 1240 that had originally been called in 1234 by Pope ] to assemble in July 1239 at the end of a truce. Besides Theobald, ] and ] and other French nobles took part. They arrived in Acre in September 1239 and after a defeat in November, Theobald arranged a treaty with the Muslims that returned territory to the crusading states, but caused much disaffection within the crusaders. Theobald returned to Europe in September 1240. Also in 1240, ], younger brother of King ], took the cross and arrived in Acre in October. He then secured the ratification of Theobald's treaty and left the Holy Land in May 1241 for Europe.<ref name=Lock173>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 173–174</ref>

===Seventh Crusade (1248–1254)===
{{Main|Seventh Crusade}}

In the summer of 1244 a ] force summoned by the son of al-Kamil, ], stormed Jerusalem and took it. The Franks allied with Ayyub's uncle ] and the ] and the combined forces were drawn into battle at ] in ]. The crusader army and its allies were completely defeated within forty-eight hours by the Khwarezmian tribesmen.<ref name=Ashbridge574>Ashbridge ''Crusades'' pp. 574–576</ref>

King ] organized a crusade after taking the cross in December 1244, with preaching and recruitment taking up the time between 1245 and 1248.<ref name=GodsWar770>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 770–775</ref> Louis' forces set sail from France in May 1249 and landed near Damietta in Egypt on 5 June 1249. Waiting until the end of the Nile flood, the army marched into the interior in November and by February were near El Manusra. But they were defeated near there and King Louis was captured on the retreat towards Damietta that resulted.<ref name=Hindley194>Hindley ''Crusades'' pp. 194–195</ref> Louis was ransomed for 800,000 ]s and a ten-year truce was agreed. Louis then went to Syria where he remained until 1254, working to solidify the kingdom of Jerusalem and constructing fortifications.<ref name=Lock178>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 178</ref>

===Eighth and Ninth Crusade (1270–1272) and aftermath===
{{Main|Eighth Crusade|Ninth Crusade}}

]]]
Ignoring his advisers, in 1270 Louis IX again attacked the Arabs in Tunis in North Africa. He picked the hottest season of the year for campaigning and his army was devastated by disease. The king himself died, ending the last major attempt to take the Holy Land.<ref name=Strayer487>Strayer "Crusades of Louis IX" ''Later Crusades'' p. 487</ref>
The Mamluks, led by Baibars, eventually drove the Franks from the Holy Land. During 1265 through 1271, he had driven the Franks to a few small coastal outposts.<ref name=GodsWar816>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 816–817</ref> The future ] undertook to crusade with Louis IX, but was delayed and did not arrive in North Africa until November 1270. After the death of Louis, Edward went to Sicily, but then went on to Acre in May 1271. His forces were too small to make much difference, and he was upset at the conclusion of a truce between the king of Jerusalem, ], and ]. Although Edward learned of his father's death and his succession to the throne in December 1272, he did not return to England until 1274, although he accomplished little in the Holy Land.<ref name=Lock164>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 164</ref> With the fall of ] in 1289,<ref name=Lock122>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 122</ref> and ] in 1291, the mainland Crusading states disappeared.<ref name=GodsWar820>Tyerman ''God's War'' pp. 820–822</ref>

Further crusading efforts lingered into the 14th century. The ] of October 1365 was a minor seaborne crusade against Muslim ] led by ]. His motivation for launching the crusade was as much commercial as it was religious. It succeeded in capturing and sacking Alexandria, although the crusaders did not stay in Alexandria.<ref name=Lock195>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 195–196</ref> The ] of Summer 1390 was a French-Genoese enterprise against Muslim ]s in North Africa and their main base at ] led by ]. After a ten week siege, the crusaders lifted their siege with the signing of a ten-year truce.<ref name=Lock199>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 199</ref>

==European Crusades==
{{main|Crusade (disambiguation)}}
{{split-section|date=September 2013}}

=== Political Crusades ===
{{Campaignbox Crusades}}
{{Campaignbox Reconquista}}
{{Campaignbox Norwegian Crusade}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Sicilian Vespers}}
{{Campaignbox Ottoman-Hungarian War}}
{{Campaignbox Ottoman-Habsburg Wars}}

Popes called frequent crusades for political reasons and crusades were also declared as a means of conflict resolution amongst fellow Christians. Pope Innocent III declared a crusade against his political opponent ] in Sicily. Only a few people took part, and the need for the crusade ended in 1202 when Markward died. This is generally considered the first "political crusade"<ref name=Lock155>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 155–156</ref> Between 1232 and 1234 there was a crusade against the ], peasants who refused to pay tithes to the ]. The archbishop excommunicated them, and Pope Gregory IX declared a crusade in 1232. The peasants lost the Battle with Altenesch on 27 May 1234 and were destroyed.<ref name=Lock172>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 172</ref> Emperor Frederick II was the object of several political crusades called by a number of popes. In 1240 Pope Gregory IX deposed and preached a crusade against him for his opposition in Italy.<ref name=Lock173/> In 1248 Pope ]'s <ref name=Lock176>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 176</ref> crusade against him was transferred in 1250 to his son, ] when he died to little effect. Crusades were called against Frederick's illegitimate son ], from 1255 through 1266,<ref name=Lock179>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 179</ref> and Conrad's son, ], in 1268 with the urging of ].<ref name=Lock180>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 180</ref> Two crusades appear to have been called against opponents of King ]&nbsp;– one from 1215 to 1217 and the other from 1263 to 1265 with the first enjoying the same privileges as those given to crusaders on the Fifth Crusade. The second got as far as having papal legates being dispatched to England with the power to declare a crusade against ], but Montfort's death in 1265 ended this.<ref name=Lock167>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 167</ref> The ] of 1383, also called the ], which was a military expedition that aimed to assist the city of ] in its struggle against the supporters of Antipope ] was really an extension of the ], rather than a purely religious enterprise.<ref name=England336>Tyerman ''England and the Crusades'' p. 336</ref>

=== Reconquista (718–1492) ===
{{main|Reconquista}}
]

Although the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from Muslims began in the 8th century and reached its turning point around 100 years before the preaching of the First Crusade in 1095,<ref name=Barber341>Barber ''Two Cities'' pp.&nbsp;341–345</ref> with the recapture of Toledo in 1085,<ref name=Bull18>Bull "Origins" ''Oxford History of the Crusades'' pp.&nbsp;18–19</ref> Urban II also tied the ongoing wars in Iberia to his preaching of the First Crusade and the crusading effort.<ref name="Barber341" /><ref name="Bull18" /> It was through a papal encyclical of 1123 by Pope ] that these wars attained the status of crusades.<ref name=Lock205>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 205–209</ref> After this, the papacy declared Iberian crusades in 1147, 1193, 1197, 1210, 1212, 1221 and 1229. Crusading privileges were also given to those people who were helping the military orders&nbsp;– both the traditional Templars and Hospitallers as well as the specifically Iberian orders that were founded and eventually merged into two main orders&nbsp;– that of the ] and the ]. From 1212 to 1265, the Iberian kingdoms drove the Muslims into the far south of the Iberian Peninsula, confining them to a small ]. In 1492, this remnant was conquered and Muslims and Jews were expelled from the peninsula.<ref name=Lock211>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 211–212</ref>

===Wendish (1147–1162)===
{{Main|Wendish Crusade}}
Contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, ] and ] fought against ] in the ] or ]. The Wends defeated the Danes and the Saxons did not contribute much to the crusade.<ref name=Lock48>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 48</ref> The Wends did acknowledge the overlordship of the Saxon ruler, ]. Further crusading actions continued although no papal bulls were issued calling new crusades.<ref name=Lock213>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 213–214</ref> Efforts to conquer the Wends began again in 1160 under Henry the Lion,<ref name=Lock55>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 55</ref> continuing until 1162, when the Wends were defeated at the ].<ref name=Lock56>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 56</ref>

=== Northern crusades (1193–1290) ===
{{Main|Northern Crusades|Livonian Crusade|Prussian Crusade}}
]]]

] called for a crusade against ] in ] in 1193. Bishop ] arrived with a large contingent of crusaders in 1198 but was killed in battle and his forces were defeated. To avenge Berthold's defeat, ] issued a bull declaring a crusade against the Livonians. ], consecrated as bishop in 1199, arrived the following year with a large force, and established Riga as the seat of his ] in 1201. In 1202 he formed the ] to aid in the conversion of the pagans to Christianity and, more importantly, to protect German trade and secure German control over commerce.<ref name=Lock84>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 84</ref>

The ] was proclaimed by Pope Innocent III against the ] who were mostly still pagan.<ref name=Lock82>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 82</ref> The Livonians were conquered and converted between 1202 and 1209.<ref name=Lock84/> A crusade against the Prussians was called by Pope ] in 1217.<ref name=Lock92>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 92</ref> ] gave ] to the Teutonic Knights in 1226 to serve the knights as a base for crusades against the Prussians,<ref name=Lock96>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 96</ref> In 1236 the Livonian Sword Brothers were defeated by the Lithuanians at Saule, and in 1237 Pope ] merged the remaining Sword Brothers into the Teutonic Knights.<ref name=Lock103>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 103</ref> In 1240 the ] was fought, where the Swedes, attempting to extend the northern crusades to the Russians, were defeated.<ref name=Lock104>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 104</ref> By 1249, the Teutonic Knights had completed their conquest of the Prussians, which they ruled as a fief of the German emperor. The Knights then moved on to conquer and convert the pagan Lithuanians, a process that lasted into the 1380s.<ref name=Lock221>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 221–222</ref> The Teutonic Order's attempts to conquer ] Russia (particularly the Republics of ] and ]), an enterprise endorsed by Pope Gregory IX, can also be considered as a part of the Northern Crusades. One of the major blows for the idea of the conquest of Russia was the ] in 1242.<ref name=Lock221/>

=== Albigensian Crusade (1208–1241) ===
{{Main|Albigensian Crusade}}
] excommunicating the Albigensians (left), Massacre against the Albigensians by the crusaders (right)]]

The ] was launched in 1208 in order to eliminate the ] ] of ] (modern-day southern France). It was a decades-long struggle that had as much to do with northern France's desire to extend its control southwards as it did with Northern France's desire to eliminate heresy. In the end, the Cathars were driven underground and the independence of southern France was eliminated.<ref name=Lock163>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 163–165</ref> Pope ] called a crusade against supposed Cathar heretics in Bosnia. There were rumors that there was an ] of the Cathars named Nicetas, although whether such a figure ever existed is unclear. Hungarian forces responded to the papal calls in two efforts in 1234 and 1241, with the second one ending because of the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241. The ] was Catholic in theology{{dubious|date=November 2013}} but continued to be in schism with the Roman Catholic Church well past the end of the Middle Ages.<ref name=Lock172a>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 172–173</ref>

=== Aragonese Crusade (1284-1285) ===
{{main|Aragonese Crusade}}
The Crusade of Aragón, was declared by Pope ] against King ], in 1284 and 1285. Peter was supporting the anti-Angevin forces in Sicily following the ], and the papacy supported Charles of Anjou. Pope ] proclaimed a crusade against ], the younger brother of Peter, in 1298, but was unable to prevent Frederick's crowning and recognition as King of Sicily.<ref name=Lock186>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 186</ref>

===Crusades of the 15th century===
{{main|Ottoman Wars in Europe}}
{{see|Crusade of Nicopolis}}
]

Several crusades were launched in the 15th century to counter the expanding ] starting in 1396 with ], king of Hungary. Many French nobles joined Sigismund's forces, including ], son of the Duke of Burgundy, who was appointed military leader of the crusade. Although Sigismund advised the crusaders to adopt a defensive posture once they reached the Danube, the crusaders instead besieged the city of ]. The Ottomans met the crusaders in the ] on 25 September 1396, defeating the Christian forces and capturing 3,000 prisoners.<ref name=Lock200>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 200</ref>

{{see|Hussite Wars}}
] warriors and the Crusaders, Jena Codex, 15th century]]
The Hussite Crusade(s), also known as the "]," or the "Bohemian Wars," involved the military actions against the followers of ] in ] in the period 1420 to around 1431. Crusades were declared five times in that period&nbsp;– in 1420, 1421, 1422, 1427 and in 1431. The net effect of these expeditions was to force the Hussite forces, which disagreed on many doctrinal points, to unite to drive out the invaders. The wars were brought to a conclusion in 1436 with the ratification of the ] by the Church.<ref name=Lock201>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 201–202</ref> In April 1487, Pope ] called a crusade against the ] heretics of ], the ], and the ] in southern France and northern Italy. The only efforts actually undertaken were against heretics in the Dauphiné, and resulted in little change.<ref name=Lock204>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' p. 204</ref>

{{see|Crusade of Varna}}
The Polish-Hungarian king, ] invaded Ottoman territory and reached Belgrade in January 1444. Negotiations over a truce eventually led to an agreement, that was repudiated by Sultan ] within days of its ratification. Further efforts by the crusaders ended in the ] on 10 November 1444 which, although resulting in a draw between the two forces, led to the crusaders withdrawing. This withdrawal led to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, as it was the last Western attempt to help the Byzantine Empire.

{{see|Siege of Belgrade (1456)}}
In 1456 ] and ] organized a crusade to lift the Ottomon siege of Belgrade.<ref name=Lock202>Lock ''Routledge Companion'' pp. 202–203</ref>

==See also==
{{Misplaced Pages books|The Crusades}}
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]
* ]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Bibliography'''
{{refbegin|60em}}
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* {{cite book |author=Asbridge, Thomas |title=The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-518905-6}}
* {{cite book |author=Barber, Malcolm |authorlink=Malcolm Barber |title=The Two Cities: Medieval Europe 1050–1320 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |year=1992 |isbn=0-415-09682-0}}
* {{cite journal |author=Brand, Charles M. |title=The Byzantines and Saladin, 1185–1192: Opponents of the Third Crusade |journal=Speculum |volume=37 |month=April|year= 1962 |pages=167–181|jstor=2849946 |issue=2 |doi=10.2307/2849946}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Bréhier, Louis |title=Crusades |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04543c.htm |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia'' |year=1908 |volume=4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|author=Bull, Marcus |title=Origins |encyclopedia= The Oxford History of the Crusades |editor= Riley-Smith, Jonathan |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |pages=15–34|isbn=0-19-280312-3}}
* {{cite book |title=The pursuit of the Millennium |last=Cohn| first = Norman| year=1970 |publisher = |isbn=|ref=harv}}
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* {{cite book |author=Edington, Susan B. and Lambert, Sarah |title=Gendering the Crusades |location= New York|publisher= Columbia University Press |year=2002}}
* {{cite book |first=John L. |last=Esposito |url= http://www.amazon.ca/What-Everyone-Needs-about-Islam/dp/0195157133 |title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam }}
* {{cite book |last=Findley| first=Carter Vaughan | year = 2005| title=The Turks in World History|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-516770-8|location=New York|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hillenbrand| first=Carole | year = 1999| title=The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives|publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=|location=Edinburgh|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author=Hindley, Geoffrey |title=The Crusades: Islam and Christianity in the Struggle for World Supremacy |publisher=Carrol & Graf |isbn=0-7867-1344-5|location=New York}}
* {{cite book |author=Hodgson, Natasha |title=Women, Crusading and the Holy Land in Historical Narrative |publisher=Boydell |year= 2007}}
* {{cite journal |author=Holt, P. M. |title=Saladin and His Admirers: A Biographical Reassessment |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=46 |issue=2 |year=1983 |pages=235–239 |jstor=615389 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00078824 }}
* {{cite book |author=Housley, Norman |authorlink= Norman Housley |title=Contesting the Crusades |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |year=2006 |isbn=1-4051-1189-5 }}
* {{cite book |author= Jackson, Peter |title=The Seventh Crusade, 1244–1254 |year=2007}}
* {{cite book |author=Kolbaba, T. M. |year=2000 |title=The Byzantine Lists: Errors of the Latins |publisher=University of Illinois }}
* {{cite book|author=Lewis, Richard D. |title=Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf|year=2005|publisher=Intercultural Press |isbn=978-1-931930-49-9}}
* {{cite book |author=Lock, Peter |title=Routledge Companion to the Crusades |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=0-415-39312-4 }}
* {{cite book |author=Madden, Thomas F. |title=The New Concise History of the Crusades |year=2005 |publisher= Rowman & Littlefield |location= Lanham, MD |isbn= 978-0-7425-3822-1}}
* {{cite book |author=Mayer, Hans Eberhard |title=The Crusades |edition=Second|publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |year=1988|isbn=0-19-873097-7 }}
* {{cite journal |author=Munro, Dana Carleton |title=The Speech of Pope Urban II at Clermont, 1095 |journal = American Historical Review |volume= 11 |issue= 2 |month=January |year=1906 |pages= 231–242 |jstor=1834642 |doi=10.2307/1834642 }}
* {{cite book |author=Nelson, Laura N. |title=The Byzantine Perspective of the First Crusade}} <!-- MA thesis&nbsp;– replace see here -->
* {{cite journal |author=Nicholson, Helen |title=Women on the Third Crusade |journal=Journal of Medieval History |volume=23 |issue=4 |year=1997 |doi=10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00013-4 |page=335}}
* {{cite book |author= Nicolle, David |title=Crusader Warfare Volume II: Muslims, Mongols and the Struggle against the Crusades |year=2007}}
* {{cite book |author=Nicolle, David |title=The First Crusade 1066–99: Conquest of the Holy Land |series=Campaign |publisher=Osprey |location=Wellingborough, UK |year=2003|isbn=1-84176-515-5}}
* {{cite book|author= Nicolle, David|title=The Fourth Crusade 1202–04: The Betrayal of Byzantium |year=2011 |publisher=Osprey Publishing }}
* {{cite encyclopedia|author=Pringle, Denys |title=Architecture in Latin East|encyclopedia= The Oxford History of the Crusades |editor= Riley-Smith, Jonathan |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |pages=155–175|isbn=0-19-280312-3}}
* {{cite book |author=Owen, Roy Douglas Davis |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine: Queen and Legend |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=1993}}
* {{cite book |author= Riley-Smith, Jonathan |title=The Atlas of the Crusades |location=New York |publisher=Facts on File |year=1990 |isbn= 0-8160-2186-4}}
* {{cite book |author=Riley-Smith, Jonathan |author-link=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=The Crusades: A Short History|edition=Second |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=2005 |isbn=0-300-10128-7}}
* {{cite book |author=Riley-Smith, Jonathan |title=The First Crusaders 1096–1131 |location=New York, NY |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year= 1997}}
* Rose, Karen (2009) "The Order of the Knights Templar"
* {{cite book |author=Runciman, Steven |authorlink=Steven Runciman |title=A History of the Crusades: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades |year=1951 |edition= reprinted 1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Jerusalem: The Endless Crusade |last=Sinclair| first = Andrew| year=1995 |publisher = Crown Publishers|location=New York|isbn=|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author=Strayer, Joseph Reese |year=1992) |title=The Albigensian Crusades |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-06476-2}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Strayer, Joseph R. |editor=Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H. W. |encyclopedia=The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |year=1969 |url =http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTWO.I0023&isize=M |title=The Crusades of Louis IX |pages=487–521}}
* {{cite book|author= Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles and Henry Laurens |year=2013 |title=Europe and the Islamic World: A History.|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-14705-5}}
* {{cite book |author=Tyerman, Christopher |title=England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago, IL |year=1988 |isbn=0-226-82013-0 }}
* {{cite book |author=Tyerman, Christopher |title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades |publisher=Belknap Press |location=Cambridge, MA |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-674-02387-1 }}
* {{cite book|author= Vasilʹev, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich|title=History of the Byzantine Empire: 324–1453 |year=1952|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press }}
* {{cite journal |author=Villegas-Aristizábal, L. |year=2009 |title=Anglo-Norman involvement in the conquest of Tortosa and Settlement of Tortosa, 1148–1180 |journal=Crusades |issue=8 |pages=63–129}}
* {{cite book |author=Wickham, Chris |authorlink= Christopher Wickham |title=The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-14-311742-1}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |author= Zacour, Norman P. |title=The Children's Crusade |editor=Wolff, R. L. and Hazard, H. W. |encyclopedia=The Later Crusades, 1189–1311 |year=1969 |pages=325–342|url =http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/History/History-idx?type=article&did=HISTORY.CRUSTWO.I0023&isize=M }}
{{refend}}

'''Further reading'''
::'''Introductions'''
* Andrea, Alfred J. ''Encyclopedia of the Crusades''. (2003)
* Asbridge, Thomas. ''The First Crusade: A New History: The Roots of Conflict between Christianity and Islam'' (2005)
* France, John. ''Western Warfare in the Age of the Crusades, 1000–1300'' (1999)
* Hillenbrand, Carole. ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives''. (2000)
* Holt, P.M. ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517''. (1986)
* Phillips, Jonathan. ''Holy Warriors: A Modern History of the Crusades'' (2010)
* Riley-Smith, Jonathan, ed. ''The Atlas of the Crusades'' (1991)
* Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Crusades, Christianity, and Islam'' (2011)

::'''Specialized studies'''
* Boas, Adrian J. ''Jerusalem in the Time of the Crusades: Society, Landscape, and Art in the Holy City under Frankish Rule'' (2001)
* Bull, Marcus, and Norman Housley, eds. ''The Experience of Crusading Volume 1, Western Approaches.'' (2003)
* Edbury, Peter, and Jonathan Phillips, eds. ''The Experience of Crusading Volume 2, Defining the Crusader Kingdom.'' (2003)
* Florean, Dana. "East Meets West: Cultural Confrontation and Exchange after the First Crusade." ''Language & Intercultural Communication,'' 2007, Vol. 7 Issue 2, pp.&nbsp;144–151
* Folda, Jaroslav. ''Crusader Art in the Holy Land, From the Third Crusade to the Fall of Acre'' (2005)
* France, John. ''Victory in the East: A Military History of the First Crusade'' (1996)
* Harris, Jonathan. ''Byzantium and the Crusades.'' (2003)
* Hillenbrand, Car. ''The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives'' (1999)
* Housley, Norman. ''The Later Crusades, 1274–1580: From Lyons to Alcazar'' (1992)
* James, Douglas. "Christians and the First Crusade." ''History Review'' (Dec 2005), Issue 53
* Kagay, Donald J., and L. J. Andrew Villalon, eds. ''Crusaders, Condottieri, and Cannon: Medieval Warfare in Societies around the Mediterranean.'' (2003)
* Maalouf, Amin. ''Crusades Through Arab Eyes'' (1989)
* Madden, Thomas F. ''et al.'', eds. ''Crusades Medieval Worlds in Conflict'' (2010)
* Peters, Edward. ''Christian Society and the Crusades, 1198–1229'' (1971)
* Powell, James M. ''Anatomy of a Crusade, 1213–1221,'' (1986)
* Queller, Donald E., and Thomas F. Madden. ''The Fourth Crusade: The Conquest of Constantinople'' (2nd ed. 1999)
* Riley-Smith, Jonathan.''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading''. (1986)
* Runciman, Steven. ''A History of the Crusades: Volume 2, The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East'' (1952) ; ''A History of the Crusades: Volume 3, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades'' (1954); the classic 20th century history
* Setton, Kenneth ed., ''A History of the Crusades''. (1969–1989), the standard scholarly history in six volumes, published by the University of Wisconsin Press
: Includes: (2nd ed. 1969); (1969); (1975); (1977); (1985); (1989)
* Smail, R. C. "Crusaders' Castles of the Twelfth Century" ''Cambridge Historical Journal'' Vol. 10, No. 2. (1951), pp.&nbsp;133–149.
* Stark, Rodney. ''God's Battalions: The Case for the Crusades'' (2010)
* Tyerman, Christopher. ''England and the Crusades, 1095–1588.'' (1988)

::'''Historiography'''
* Constable, Giles. "The Historiography of the Crusades" in Angeliki E. Laiou, ed. ''The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'' (2001)
* Illston, James Michael. '''An Entirely Masculine Activity'? Women and War in the High and Late Middle Ages Reconsidered'' (MA thesis, University of Canterbury, 2009)
* Madden, Thomas F. ed. ''The Crusades: The Essential Readings'' (2002)
* Maier, C.T. "The roles of women in the crusade movement: a survey" ''Journal of medieval history'' 2004.
* Powell, James M. "The Crusades in Recent Research," '' The Catholic Historical Review'' (2009) 95#2 pp 313-19
* Rubenstein, Jay. "In Search of a New Crusade: A Review Essay," ''Historically Speaking'' (2011) 12#2 pp 25-27
::'''Primary sources'''
* ], Bate, Keith (2010). ''Letters from the East: Crusaders, Pilgrims and Settlers in the 12th–13th Centuries'' (Crusade Texts in Translation Volume 18, Ashgate Publishing Ltd)
* Housley, Norman, ed. ''Documents on the Later Crusades, 1274–1580'' (1996)
* Krey, August C. ''The First Crusade: The Accounts of Eye-Witnesses and Participants'' (1958)
* Shaw, M. R. B. ed.''Chronicles of the Crusades'' (1963)
* Villehardouin, Geoffrey, and Jean de Joinville. ''Chronicles of the Crusades'' ed. by Sir Frank Marzials (2007)

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Crusade}}
{{Commons category|Crusades}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc}}
* , a virtual college course through ] ed. by E. L. Knox.
* , Paul Crawford, 1999.
* —an international organization of professional Crusade scholars
* —contains articles and primary sources related to the Crusades
* The Jewish History Resource Center&nbsp;– Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The ]

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{{Crusader States}}
{{Middle Ages}}
{{History of Europe}}
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Revision as of 18:38, 18 November 2013

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