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| ] and ] texts suggest that the term ''Scythians'' referred to Iranian tribes from the much more extensive region of ], which included parts of ] and ].<ref name="Books.google.com">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=J_gAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA322&lpg=PA322&dq=HAIHAIYA+AHIR#v=onepage&q=AHIR&f=false |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society ... – Google Books |publisher=|date=2007-04-06 |accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland By Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland-page-323</ref> | ] and ] texts suggest that the term ''Scythians'' referred to Iranian tribes from the much more extensive region of ], which included parts of ] and ].<ref name="Books.google.com">{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=J_gAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA322&lpg=PA322&dq=HAIHAIYA+AHIR#v=onepage&q=AHIR&f=false |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society ... – Google Books |publisher=|date=2007-04-06 |accessdate=2010-12-30}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland By Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland-page-323</ref> | ||
| ==Usage of the name ''Saka''== | |||
| ==Classical European and Persian accounts== | |||
| ].]] | ].]] | ||
| Modern debate about the identity of the "Saka" is due partly to ambiguous usage of the word by ancient, non-Saka authorities. According to ], the Persians gave the name "Saka" to all Scythians.<ref>Herodotus Book VII, 64</ref> However, ] (''Gaius Plinius Secundus'', AD 23–79) claims that the Persians gave the name Sakai only to the Scythian tribes "nearest to them".<ref>Naturalis Historia, VI, 19, 50</ref> The Scythians to the far north of Assyria were also called the ''Saka suni'' "Saka or Scythian sons" by the Persians.{{cn|May 2014}} The ] of the time of ] record campaigning against a people they called in the ] the ''Ashkuza'' or ''Ishhuza''.<ref name=west506>{{cite book|first=Claus|last=Westermann|coauthors=John J. Scullion, Translator|title=: A Continental Commentary|year=1984|location=Minneapolis|page=506|unused_data=|isbn=0800695003}}</ref> | |||
| ] has said that it is clear that ancient Greek and Roman scholars believed, ''all Sakai were Scythians'', but ''not all Scythians were Sakai'' {{why|date=January 2013}}.<ref>B. N. Mukerjee, Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 690-91.</ref> | |||
| Another people, the '']'',<ref name=west506/> who were known to the ] as the ], were closely associated with the the Sakas. In ancient ] texts, the ''Ashkuz'' ('']'') are considered to be a direct offshoot from the Gimirri (Gomer).<ref>"The sons of Gomer were Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah." See also the entry for Ashkenaz in {{cite book|first=Robert|last=Young|title=Analytical Concordance to the Bible|publisher=Mac Donald Publishing Company|location=McLean, Virginia|isbn=0-917006-29-1}}</ref> | |||
| ]-style parade armour of a Saka royal from the ], ].]] The Saka regarded by the Babylonians as synonymous with the ''Gimirrai''; both names are used synonymously on the trilingual ], carved in 515 BC on the order of Darius the Great.<ref>], noted in his translation of ''History of Herodotus'', Book VII, p. 378</ref> (These people were reported to be mainly interested in settling in the kingdom of ], later part of ] and Shacusen, in Uti Province derives its name from them.<ref>{{cite book|first=Vahan M.|last=Kurkjian|title=A History of Armenia|publisher=Armenian General Benevolent Union of America|year=1964|location=New York|page=23}}</ref>) The Behistun inscription mentions four divisions of Scythians, | |||
| ]-style parade armour of a Saka royal from the ], ].]] | |||
| Thus the Behistun inscription mentions four divisions of Scythians, | |||
| *the ''Sakā paradraya'' "Saka beyond the sea" of ], | *the ''Sakā paradraya'' "Saka beyond the sea" of ], | ||
| *the ''Sakā tigraxaudā'' "Saka with pointy hats/caps", | *the ''Sakā tigraxaudā'' "Saka with pointy hats/caps", | ||
| *the ''Sakā haumavargā'' "]-drinking Saka"<ref>http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/haumavarga</ref> (], the Saka tribe in closest proximity to ] and ]), | *the ''Sakā haumavargā'' "]-drinking Saka"<ref>http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/haumavarga</ref> (], the Saka tribe in closest proximity to ] and ]), | ||
| *the ''Sakā para Sugdam'' "Saka beyond Sugda (]na)" at the ]. | *the ''Sakā para Sugdam'' "Saka beyond Sugda (]na)" at the ]. | ||
| Of these, the ''Sakā tigraxaudā'' were the Saka proper.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} The ''Sakā paradraya'' were the western Scythians or Sarmatians, the ''Sakā haumavargā'' and ''Sakā para Sugdam'' were likely Scythian tribes associated with or split-of from the original Saka.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} | Of these, the ''Sakā tigraxaudā'' were the Saka proper.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} The ''Sakā paradraya'' were the western Scythians or Sarmatians, the ''Sakā haumavargā'' and ''Sakā para Sugdam'' were likely Scythian tribes associated with or split-of from the original Saka.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} | ||
| In the modern era, the archaeologist ] (1863–1913) was the first to associate the Sakas with the Scyths. I. Gershevitch, in ''The Cambridge History of Iran'' states: "The Persians gave the single name Sakā both to the nomads whom they encountered between the Hunger steppe and the Caspian, and equally to those north of the Danube and Black Sea against whom Darius later campaigned; and the Greeks and Assyrians called all those who were known to them by the name Skuthai (Iškuzai). Sakā and Skuthai evidently constituted a generic name for the nomads on the northern frontiers."<ref>I. Gershevitch,''The Cambridge History of Iran'' (Volume 2), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 253 .</ref> Conversely, the political historian ] has claimed that ancient Greek and Roman scholars believed that while "all Sakai were Scythians", "not all Scythians were Sakai".{{why|date=January 2013}} <ref>B. N. Mukerjee, ''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, p 690-91.</ref> | |||
| ===Ancient South Asian accounts=== | |||
| <!-- Commented out the following section due to a lack of any relevance to lay readers, i.e. Who are the Aseni/Asoi, the Sacarauls /Sarauceans etc and what is their connection to the Saka? ===Ancient accounts of Central Asians in South Asia=== | |||
| {{see also|Central Asians in Ancient Indian literature}} | {{see also|Central Asians in Ancient Indian literature}} | ||
| ⚫ | ] also mentions ''Aseni'' and ''Asoi'' clans south of the ].<ref>Pliny: ''Hist Nat''., VI.21.8–23.11, ''List of Indian races''</ref> ] was the capital of the ''Aseni'' which stood on the Hydaspes (the ]).<ref>''Alexander the Great, Sources and Studies'', p 236, W. W. Tarn; ''Political History of Indian People'', 1996, p 232, H. C. Raychaudhury, B. N. Mukerjee</ref> The Sarauceans and Aseni are the Sacarauls and ] of Strabo.<ref>''History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity'', p 111; ''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, p 692.</ref>{{clarify|reason=this relies on primary sources, is original research and the relevance to Saka is unclear|date=October 2011}} ''Asio'', ''Asi'', ''Asii'', ''Asva'', ''Aswa'', ''Ari-aspi'', ''Aspasios'', ''Aspasii'' and ''Hippasii'' are variant names the classical writers have given to the horse-clans of the ].<ref>For nomenclature Aspasii, Hipasii, see: ], ''The Pathans'', 1958, pp 37, 55–56. ] also refers to horse clans like ''Aseni, Asoi'' living in north-west of India (which were none-else than the ] and ] Kambojas of Indian texts). See: ''Hist. Nat''. VI 21.8–23.11; See ''Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian'', Trans. and edited by J. W. McCrindle, Calcutta and Bombay,: Thacker, Spink, 1877, 30–174.</ref> The Old-Persian words for horse, "asa" and "aspa, have most likely been derived from this.<ref></ref> If one accepts this connection,{{Or|date=October 2011}} then the Tukharas (= Rishikas = Yuezhi) controlled the eastern parts of Bactria (Chinese ''Ta-hia'') while the combined forces of the ''Sakarauloi'', ''Asio'' (''horse people = Parama Kambojas'') and ''Pasinoi'' of Strabo occupied its western parts after being displaced from their original home in the ] valley by the Yuezhi. Ta-hia (]) is then taken to mean the ] which also included ], ], ] and ]<ref>''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, Commentary, p 719, B. N. Mukerjee. Cf: "It appears likely that like the Yue-chis, the Scythians had also occupied a part of Transoxiana before conquering Bactria. If the Tokhario, who were the same as or affiliated with Yue-chihs, and who were mistaken as Scythian people, participated in the same series of invasions of Bactria of the Greeks, then it may be inferred that eastern Bactria was conquered by Yue-chis and the western by other nomadic people in about the same period. In other words, the Greek rule in Bactria was put to end in c 130/29 BC due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians Sakas nomads (Commentary: ''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, p 692-93, B.N. Mukerjee). It is notable that before its occupation by Tukhara Yue-chis, Badakashan formed a part of ancient Kamboja i.e. Parama Kamboja country. But after its occupation by the Tukharas in the 2nd century BC, it became a part of Tukharistan. Around the 4th or 5th century, when the fortunes of the Tukharas finally died down, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself and the region again started to be called by its ancient name Kamboja (See: Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, J.C. Vidyalankar; ''Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country'', 1981, pp 129, 300 J.L. Kamboj; ''Kambojas Through the Ages'', 2005, p 159, S Kirpal Singh). There are several later-time references to this Kamboja of Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha, a 5th c Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (4.68–70). They have also been attested as ''Kiumito'' by 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Hiun Tsang. King Lalitadiya of Kashmir in the 8th century, had invaded the Oxian Kambojas as is attested by Rajatarangini of Kalhana (See: Rajatarangini 4.163-65). Here they are mentioned as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors to the Tukharas who were living in western parts of Oxus valley (See: ''The Land of the Kambojas'', Purana, Vol V, No, July 1962, p 250, D. C. Sircar). These Kambojas apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second c BC under assault from Ta Yue-chi, had compromised with the invaders and had decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to Helmond valley or to the Kabol valley. There are other references which equate Kamboja= Tokhara. A Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya text (N. Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, quoted in B.S.O.A.S XIII, 404) has the expression ''satam Kambojikanam kanayanam'' i.e a hundred maidens from Kamboja. This has been rendered in Tibetan as ''Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya'' and in Mongolian as ''Togar ulus-un yagun ükin''. Thus ''Kamboja'' has been rendered as ''Tho-gar'' or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar is Tibetan/Mongolian names for Tokhar/Tukhar. See refs: Irano-Indica III, ], Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950, pp. 389–409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p 66, H. W. Bailey.</ref> According to other scholars, it were the Saka hordes alone who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria.<ref>Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, S. Chattopadhyava.</ref> --> | ||
| ] also mentions ''Aseni'' and ''Asoi'' clans south of the ].<ref>Pliny: ''Hist Nat''., VI.21.8–23.11, ''List of Indian races''</ref> ] was the capital of the ''Aseni'' which stood on the Hydaspes (the ]).<ref>''Alexander the Great, Sources and Studies'', p 236, W. W. Tarn; ''Political History of Indian People'', 1996, p 232, H. C. Raychaudhury, B. N. Mukerjee</ref> The Sarauceans and Aseni are the Sacarauls and ] of Strabo.<ref>''History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Unity'', p 111; ''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, p 692.</ref>{{clarify|reason=this relies on primary sources, is original research and the relevance to Saka is unclear|date=October 2011}} | |||
| . Asio, Asi/Asii, Asva/Aswa, Ari-aspi, Aspasios, Aspasii (or ''Hippasii'') are possibly variant names the classical writers have given to the horse-clans of the Kambojas.<ref>For nomenclature Aspasii, Hipasii, see: ], ''The Pathans'', 1958, pp 37, 55–56. ] also refers to horse clans like ''Aseni, Asoi'' living in north-west of India (which were none-else than the ] and ] Kambojas of Indian texts). See: ''Hist. Nat''. VI 21.8–23.11; See ''Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian'', Trans. and edited by J. W. McCrindle, Calcutta and Bombay,: Thacker, Spink, 1877, 30–174.</ref> The Old-Persian words for horse, "asa" and "aspa, have most likely been derived from this."<ref></ref> | |||
| ⚫ | If one accepts this connection,{{Or|date=October 2011}} then the Tukharas (= Rishikas = Yuezhi) controlled the eastern parts of Bactria (Chinese ''Ta-hia'') while the combined forces of the ''Sakarauloi'', ''Asio'' (''horse people = Parama Kambojas'') and ''Pasinoi'' of Strabo occupied its western parts after being displaced from their original home in the ] valley by the Yuezhi. Ta-hia (]) is then taken to mean the ] which also included ], ], ] and ]<ref>''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, Commentary, p 719, B. N. Mukerjee. Cf: "It appears likely that like the Yue-chis, the Scythians had also occupied a part of Transoxiana before conquering Bactria. If the Tokhario, who were the same as or affiliated with Yue-chihs, and who were mistaken as Scythian people, participated in the same series of invasions of Bactria of the Greeks, then it may be inferred that eastern Bactria was conquered by Yue-chis and the western by other nomadic people in about the same period. In other words, the Greek rule in Bactria was put to end in c 130/29 BC due to invasion by the Great Yue-chis and the Scythians Sakas nomads (Commentary: ''Political History of Ancient India'', 1996, p 692-93, B.N. Mukerjee). It is notable that before its occupation by Tukhara Yue-chis, Badakashan formed a part of ancient Kamboja i.e. Parama Kamboja country. But after its occupation by the Tukharas in the 2nd century BC, it became a part of Tukharistan. Around the 4th or 5th century, when the fortunes of the Tukharas finally died down, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself and the region again started to be called by its ancient name Kamboja (See: Bhartya Itihaas ki Ruprekha, p 534, J.C. Vidyalankar; ''Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country'', 1981, pp 129, 300 J.L. Kamboj; ''Kambojas Through the Ages'', 2005, p 159, S Kirpal Singh). There are several later-time references to this Kamboja of Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha, a 5th c Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (4.68–70). They have also been attested as ''Kiumito'' by 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Hiun Tsang. King Lalitadiya of Kashmir in the 8th century, had invaded the Oxian Kambojas as is attested by Rajatarangini of Kalhana (See: Rajatarangini 4.163-65). Here they are mentioned as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors to the Tukharas who were living in western parts of Oxus valley (See: ''The Land of the Kambojas'', Purana, Vol V, No, July 1962, p 250, D. C. Sircar). These Kambojas apparently were descendants of that section of the Kambojas who, instead of leaving their ancestral land during second c BC under assault from Ta Yue-chi, had compromised with the invaders and had decided to stay put in their ancestral land instead of moving to Helmond valley or to the Kabol valley. There are other references which equate Kamboja= Tokhara. A Buddhist Sanskrit Vinaya text (N. Dutt, Gilgit Manuscripts, III, 3, 136, quoted in B.S.O.A.S XIII, 404) has the expression ''satam Kambojikanam kanayanam'' i.e a hundred maidens from Kamboja. This has been rendered in Tibetan as ''Tho-gar yul-gyi bu-mo brgya'' and in Mongolian as ''Togar ulus-un yagun ükin''. Thus ''Kamboja'' has been rendered as ''Tho-gar'' or Togar. And Tho-gar/Togar is Tibetan/Mongolian names for Tokhar/Tukhar. See refs: Irano-Indica III, ], Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1950, pp. 389–409; see also: Ancient Kamboja, Iran and Islam, 1971, p 66, H. W. Bailey.</ref> According to other scholars, it were the Saka hordes alone who had put an end to the Greek kingdom of Bactria.<ref>Cambridge History of India, Vol I, p 510; Taxila, Vol I, p 24, Marshal, Early History of North India, p 50, S. Chattopadhyava.</ref> | ||
| ==History== | ==History== | ||
Revision as of 07:13, 3 May 2014
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The Saka (Old Persian Sakā; Sanskrit शाक Śāka; Greek Σάκαι; Latin Sacae; Old Chinese: *Sək) were a Scythian tribe or group of tribes of Iranian origin. They were nomadic warriors roaming the steppes of modern-day Kazakhstan.
Greek and Latin texts suggest that the term Scythians referred to Iranian tribes from the much more extensive region of Scythia, which included parts of Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Usage of the name Saka
Modern debate about the identity of the "Saka" is due partly to ambiguous usage of the word by ancient, non-Saka authorities. According to Herodotus, the Persians gave the name "Saka" to all Scythians. However, Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus, AD 23–79) claims that the Persians gave the name Sakai only to the Scythian tribes "nearest to them". The Scythians to the far north of Assyria were also called the Saka suni "Saka or Scythian sons" by the Persians. The Assyrians of the time of Esarhaddon record campaigning against a people they called in the Akkadian the Ashkuza or Ishhuza.
Another people, the Gimirrai, who were known to the ancient Greeks as the Cimmerians, were closely associated with the the Sakas. In ancient Hebrew texts, the Ashkuz (Ashkenaz) are considered to be a direct offshoot from the Gimirri (Gomer).
The Saka regarded by the Babylonians as synonymous with the Gimirrai; both names are used synonymously on the trilingual Behistun inscription, carved in 515 BC on the order of Darius the Great. (These people were reported to be mainly interested in settling in the kingdom of Urartu, later part of Armenia and Shacusen, in Uti Province derives its name from them.) The Behistun inscription mentions four divisions of Scythians,
- the Sakā paradraya "Saka beyond the sea" of Sarmatia,
- the Sakā tigraxaudā "Saka with pointy hats/caps",
- the Sakā haumavargā "haoma-drinking Saka" (Amyrgians, the Saka tribe in closest proximity to Bactria and Sogdiana),
- the Sakā para Sugdam "Saka beyond Sugda (Sogdiana)" at the Jaxartes.
Of these, the Sakā tigraxaudā were the Saka proper. The Sakā paradraya were the western Scythians or Sarmatians, the Sakā haumavargā and Sakā para Sugdam were likely Scythian tribes associated with or split-of from the original Saka.
In the modern era, the archaeologist Hugo Winckler (1863–1913) was the first to associate the Sakas with the Scyths. I. Gershevitch, in The Cambridge History of Iran states: "The Persians gave the single name Sakā both to the nomads whom they encountered between the Hunger steppe and the Caspian, and equally to those north of the Danube and Black Sea against whom Darius later campaigned; and the Greeks and Assyrians called all those who were known to them by the name Skuthai (Iškuzai). Sakā and Skuthai evidently constituted a generic name for the nomads on the northern frontiers." Conversely, the political historian B. N. Mukerjee has claimed that ancient Greek and Roman scholars believed that while "all Sakai were Scythians", "not all Scythians were Sakai".
History
Migrations of the 2nd and 1st century BC have left traces in Sogdiana and Bactria, but they cannot firmly be attributed to the Saka, similarly with the sites of Sirkap and Taxila in Pakistan. The rich graves at Tillya Tepe in Afghanistan are seen as part of a population affected by the Saka.
Indo-Scythians
Main article: Indo-ScythiansTadeusz Sulimirski notes that the Sacae also invaded parts of Northern India. Weer Rajendra Rishi, and Indian linguist has identified linguistic affinities between Indian and Central Asian languages, which further lends credence to the possibility of historical Sacae influence in Northern India.
Kingdom of Khotan
Main article: Kingdom of KhotanLanguage
Main article: Saka language
The language of the original Saka tribes is unknown. The only record from their early history is the Issyk inscription, a short fragment on a silver cup found in the Issyk kurgan, Kazakhstan.
The inscription is in a variant of the Kharoṣṭhī script, and is probably in a Saka dialect, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language. Harmatta (1999) identifies the language as Khotanese Saka, tentatively translating "The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, then added cooked fresh butter on".
What is nowadays called the Saka language is the language of the kingdom of Khotan which was ruled by the Saka. This was gradually conquered and acculturated by the Turkic expansion to Central Asia beginning in the 4th century. The only known remnants of the Khotanese Saka language come from Xinjiang, China. The language there is widely divergent from the rest of Iranian belongs to the Eastern Iranian group. It also is divided into two divergent dialects. Both dialects share features with modern Wakhi and Pashto, but both of the Saka dialects contain many borrowings from the Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit.
See also
Notes
- P. Lurje, “Yārkand”, Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition
- Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society ... – Google Books. 2007-04-06. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland By Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland-page-323
- Herodotus Book VII, 64
- Naturalis Historia, VI, 19, 50
- ^ Westermann, Claus (1984). : A Continental Commentary. Minneapolis. p. 506. ISBN 0800695003.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|unused_data=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - "The sons of Gomer were Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah." See also the entry for Ashkenaz in Young, Robert. Analytical Concordance to the Bible. McLean, Virginia: Mac Donald Publishing Company. ISBN 0-917006-29-1.
- George Rawlinson, noted in his translation of History of Herodotus, Book VII, p. 378
- Kurkjian, Vahan M. (1964). A History of Armenia. New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America. p. 23.
- http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/haumavarga
- I. Gershevitch,The Cambridge History of Iran (Volume 2), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 253 .
- B. N. Mukerjee, Political History of Ancient India, 1996, p 690-91.
- Yaroslav Lebedynsky, P. 84
- ^ Sulimirski, Tadeusz (1970). The Sarmatians. Vol. Volume 73 of Ancient peoples and places. New York: Praeger. pp. 113–114.
The evidence of both the ancient authors and the archaeological remains point to a massive migration of Sacian (Sakas)/Massagetan tribes from the Syr Daria Delta (Central Asia) by the middle of the second century B.C. Some of the Syr Darian tribes; they also invaded North India.
{{cite book}}:|volume=has extra text (help) - Indian Institute of Romani Studies
- Rishi, Weer Rajendra (1982). India & Russia: linguistic & cultural affinity. Roma. p. 95.
- Litvinsky, Boris Abramovich (1999). "Religions and religious movements". History of civilizations of Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 421–448. ISBN 8120815408.
{{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter|booktitle=ignored (|book-title=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)
References
- Bailey, H. W. 1958. "Languages of the Saka." Handbuch der Orientalistik, I. Abt., 4. Bd., I. Absch., Leiden-Köln. 1958.
- Bailey, H. W. (1979). Dictionary of Khotan Saka. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. ISBN 978-0-521-14250-2.
- Davis-Kimball, Jeannine. 2002. Warrior Women: An Archaeologist's Search for History's Hidden Heroines. Warner Books, New York. 1st Trade printing, 2003. ISBN 0-446-67983-6 (pbk).
- Bulletin of the Asia Institute: The Archaeology and Art of Central Asia. Studies From the Former Soviet Union. New Series. Edited by B. A. Litvinskii and Carol Altman Bromberg. Translation directed by Mary Fleming Zirin. Vol. 8, (1994), pp. 37–46.
- Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. John E. Hill. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.
- Hill, John E. 2004. The Peoples of the West from the Weilue 魏略 by Yu Huan 魚豢: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE. Draft annotated English translation.
- Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. (2006). Les Saces: Les <<Scythes>> d'Asie, VIII av. J.-C.-IV siècle apr. J.-C. Editions Errance, Paris. ISBN 2-87772-337-2 (in French).
- Pulleyblank, Edwin G. 1970. "The Wu-sun and Sakas and the Yüeh-chih Migration." Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 33 (1970), pp. 154–160.
- Puri, B. N. 1994. "The Sakas and Indo-Parthians." In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 191–207.
- Thomas, F. W. 1906. "Sakastana." Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1906), pp. 181–216.
- Yu, Taishan. 1998. A Study of Saka History. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 80. July, 1998. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania.
- Yu, Taishan. 2000. A Hypothesis about the Source of the Sai Tribes. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 106. September, 2000. Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania.
External links
- Scythians/Sacae by Jona Lendering
- Article by Kivisild et al. on genetic heritage of early Indian settlers
- Indian, Japanese and Chinese Emperors
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| See also Taxation districts of the Achaemenid Empire (according to Herodotus) | ||