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{{see also|Alternative psychoactive alcohol use}}
#REDIRECT ]
] 2010 study ranking the levels of damage caused by drugs, in the opinion of drug-harm experts.]]

] (simply called alcohol) is a ]<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2947861/ |title=Disparity between tonic and phasic ethanol-induced dopamine increases in the nucleus accumbens of rats |publisher=Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2013-09-17}}</ref><ref>Drugs and society - Page 189, Glen (Glen R.) Hanson, Peter J. Venturelli, Annette E. Fleckenstein - 2006</ref> primarily found in alcoholic beverages. Alcohol is one of the most commonly abused drugs in the world (Meropol, 1996)<ref>http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1010220-overview</ref> often used for ],<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23280888</ref> and as recreational drug use.<ref>http://blog.oup.com/2010/01/drugs-2/</ref>

==Recreational==
Since ancient times, people around the world have been drinking alcoholic beverages. Reasons for drinking alcoholic beverages vary and include:
* ]: ], and ] effects
* ]
* Putative ] effects
* Medical purposes

In countries that have a ], ] may cause many people not to view alcohol as a drug because it is an important part of social events. In these countries, many young binge drinkers prefer to call themselves ''hedonists'' rather than ''binge drinkers''<ref>{{cite pmid|17981452}}</ref> or ''recreational drug users''. Undergraduate students often position themselves outside the categories of "serious" or "anti-social" drinkers.<ref>{{cite pmid|17675648}}</ref> However, about 40 percent of ] in the United States<ref> The article reports that the new DSM-5 criteria could increase the number of people diagnosed as alcoholics by 60%</ref> could be considered alcoholics according to new criteria in ''] 5'' but most college binge drinkers and drug users don't develop lifelong problems.<ref>{{cite web|last=Szalavitz |first=Maia |url=http://healthland.time.com/2012/05/14/dsm-5-could-mean-40-of-college-students-are-alcoholics/ |title=DSM-5 Could Categorize 40% of College Students as Alcoholics &#124; TIME.com |publisher=Healthland.time.com |date=2012-05-14 |accessdate=2013-10-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Sanderson |first=Megan |url=http://dailyemerald.com/2012/05/22/redefining-alcoholic-what-this-means-for-students/ |title=About 37 percent of college students could now be considered alcoholics &#124; Emerald Media |publisher=Dailyemerald.com |date=2012-05-22 |accessdate=2013-10-14}}</ref>

==Controversial entheogen==
{{see also|Entheogen#Controversial_entheogens}}

Some ]s forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic beverages for various reasons. These include ], ], ], the ], the ], ], the ], the ], the ], ], most ] schools of ], some ] denominations of ], some sects of ] (] and ]), and some sects of ]. In ] with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. For instance, some Islamic states, including ], such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], prohibit alcoholic beverages because they are ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1012.html|title=Saudi Arabia|publisher=Travel.state.gov|accessdate=2012-10-22}}</ref>

In some religions alcoholic beverages are used for ritual purposes. For example, the ] uses wine in the celebration of the ]; in ] ] is used ].

] is historically a Roman Catholic feast which is well known for its excessive drinking of alcohol.

==Effects==
{{Main|Alcohol and health|Ethanol#Human consumption}}
] (age 15 or older), per year, by country, in liters of pure alcohol.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/entity/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf |format=PDF |year=2004 |title=Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004 |deadurl=no |accessdate=2013-04-02}}</ref>]]

] consumption include ] and ].

===Adverse effects===
Short-term effects of alcohol of excessive amounts of alcohol can cause ].

] include ] (linked onset for ] and many other alcohol related diseases), ], ], ], ] and damage to the ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM|title=|language=German|journal=Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz)|volume=37|issue=3|pages=129–32|date=March 1985|pmid=2988001}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Testino G|title=Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view |journal=Hepatogastroenterology |volume=55 |issue=82–83 |pages=371–7 |year=2008 |pmid=18613369}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-first=Woody|editor1-last=Caan|editor2-first=Jackie de|editor2-last=Belleroche|title=Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice|url=http://books.google.com/?id=nPvbDUw4w5QC|edition=1st|date=11 April 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-27891-1 |pages=19–20}}</ref> ] list ethanol in alcoholic beverages as ''Group 1 carcinogens'' and arguments "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of ] (the major metabolite of ethanol) in experimental animals.".<ref>http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ClassificationsGroupOrder.pdf</ref>

==Alcohols==
<!-- Please do not remove this section without Talk: 8.4% of the intoxication effect (see Propanol below) cause by another alcohol than ethanol is large enough to write something about it. -->
In nature all alcohols act as psychoactive drugs which vary in potency and effects. Excessive concentrations of some alcohols (other than ethanol) may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as "spicy", "hot", or "solvent-like".

Some beverages, such as ], ] (especially ]), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. ]), and traditional ]s and ]s, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous aroma alcohols as part of their flavor profile;<ref name="ReferenceB">Aroma of Beer, Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages</ref> European legislation demands minimum content of higher alcohols in certain distilled beverages (spirits) to give them their expected distinct flavour.<ref>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18295386</ref> However, in other beverages, such as ], ], and ]s, the presence of other alcohols than ethanol is considered ]s.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|-
! Chemical alcohol classification
|| Simple or higher (consumable) alcohol
|| ]
|| Common name
|| Alcohol by volume (ABV)<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
|| % intoxication by alcoholic beverage (Typical alcohol content / Typical alcohol content x Content of tot. alcohol x Potency compared to EtOH)
|| Color/Form<ref name="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">Pubchem Compound, https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/</ref>
|| Odor<ref name="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>
|| Taste<ref name="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>
|| Moderate intoxicating loading dose
|| BAC poisoning
|| LD50 in rat, oral<ref name="chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite web|url=http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ |title=ChemIDplus Advanced |publisher=Chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=2013-02-05}}</ref>
|| Therapeutic index (Potency compared to EtOH/EtOH LD50:LD50 ratio)
|| Potency compared to EtOH
|| EtOH LD50:LD50 ratio
|-
! Primary
| Simple
| ]
| Phenethyl alcohol
| 0.1% in non-yeasted cider (Kieser 1964): 100&nbsp;mg/100 mL
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| Intense odour of roses
| Burning
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 1790&nbsp;mg/kg
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
|-
! Primary
| Simple
| ]
| EtOH
| Up to 95.6% in ]
| -
| Clear, colorless, very mobile liquid
| Mild, rather pleasant; like wine or whiskey. Weak, ethereal, vinous odor.
| Burning
| 20-50 mL/40%
| 0.4%
| 7060&nbsp;mg/kg
| -
| -
| -
|-
! Primary
| Simple
| ]
| Propanol
| 2.8% (mean) in Jamaican rum: 2384–3130&nbsp;mg/100 mL. Up to 3500&nbsp;mg/L (0.35%) in spirits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc102.htm#SubSectionNumber:10.1.1 |title=Propanol, 1- (EHC 102, 1990) |publisher=Inchem.org |date=1989-04-14 |accessdate=2013-02-05}}</ref>
| 8.4% (40/40×0.028×3)
| Colorless liquid
| Similar to ethanol
| Characteristic ripe, fruity flavor. Burning taste
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 1870&nbsp;mg/kg
| 0.8 (mean): 0.5-1.1
| 3 (mean): 2-4
| 3.8
|-
! Primary
| Simple
| ]
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
|-
! Primary
| Higher
| ]
| 2M1P
| 0.9% (mean) in Rye mash cistern room: 534–1197&nbsp;mg/100 mL
| {{?}}
| Colorless, oily liquid. Clear, colorless, refractive, mobile liquid.
| Suffocating odor of fusel oil. Slightly suffocating; nonresidual alcoholic. Sweet, musty odor
| Sweet whiskey taste
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 2460&nbsp;mg/kg
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
|-
! Primary
| Higher
| ]
| 3M1B
| 1.5% (mean) in French Brandy: 859–2108&nbsp;mg/100 mL
| {{?}}
| Oily, clear liquid. Colorless liquid.
| Characteristic, disagreeable odor.
| Pungent, repulsive taste
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 1300&nbsp;mg/kg
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 5.4
|-
! Secondary
| Higher
| ]
| 2M1B
| 1.2% (mean) in Bourbon: 910–1390&nbsp;mg/100 mL
| {{?}}
| Oily, clear liquid. Colorless liquid
| Characteristic, disagreeable odor.
| Pungent, repulsive taste
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 4170&nbsp;mg/kg<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grrexports.com/Products/2-Methyl-1-Butanol.html |title=2-Methyl-1-Butanol |publisher=Grrexports.com |accessdate=2013-02-05}}</ref>
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 1.7
|-
! Tertiary
| Higher
| ]
| 2M2B
| 0.07% in beer: 70&nbsp;mg/100 mL (see ''tert''-Pentyl alcohol in ref) Found in ]
| 0.14% (5/5×0.0007×20)
| Colorless liquid
| Characteristic odor. Camphor odor
| Burning taste
| 2.0-4.0 gram
| {{?}}
| 1000&nbsp;mg/kg
| 2.8
| 20
| 7.1
|-
! Tertiary
| Higher
| ]
| 2M2P
| Identified, not quantified, in beer<ref>{{cite web|url=http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+50 |title=t-butyl alcohol |publisher=Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov |accessdate=2013-02-05}}</ref>
| {{?}}
| Colorless liquid or solid (crystals) (above 78 degrees F)
| Camphor-like odor
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 2743&nbsp;mg/kg
| {{?}}
| {{?}}
| 2.6
|}

==Poly drug products==

===Caffeinated alcohol===
] combine ], ], and the ingredients of ]s into one drink. In 2010 and 2011, this type of beverage faced criticism for posing health risks to their drinkers. Alcohol and caffeine are both psychoactive drugs, drugs that are mixed are referred to as ]. As a response FDA have introduced a ].

However, to date a few ready to drink product exist including ].

==Tragedies==
In 2005 a mother ]d her month-old baby in a ]. ] claimed to be under the influence of ] and Galbraith testified that Arnold told him during his initial questioning: "If I hadn't gotten so drunk, I guess my baby wouldn't have died.".<ref>{{cite news|title=Drunken mom microwaved one-month-old baby|first=James|last=Hannah|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/drunken-mom-microwaved-one-month-old-baby-article-1.268827|agency=The Associated Press|newspaper=]|publisher=Mortimer Zuckerman|location=]|date=20 July 2007|accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Life in prison for Ohio mom in microwave-baby case|url=http://articles.nydailynews.com/2008-09-08/news/17905427_1_china-arnold-microwave-oven-paris-talley|agency=The Associated Press|newspaper=]|publisher=Mortimer Zuckerman|location=]|date=8 July 2008|accessdate=27 February 2012}}</ref> On May 20, 2011, Arnold was sentenced to ] without parole. Her attorney says they will appeal the decision.<ref> 20 May 2011 </ref>

In November 2011, ], then 15, allegedly went with a friend to a home in which she was reportedly ] by 4 teenage boys.<ref name=herald>{{cite web|last=Ross|first=Selena|title=Who failed Rehtaeh Parsons?|url=http://www.thechronicleherald.ca/metro/1122345-who-failed-rehtaeh-parsons|work=The Chronicle Herald|accessdate=11 April 2013}}</ref> The teenagers were drinking ] at a small party. Parsons had little memory of the event, except that at one point she vomited. While a boy was allegedly raping her, the incident was photographed and the photo became widespread in Parsons' school and town in three days. Afterwards, many in school called Parsons a "]" and she received ] and Facebook messages from people requesting to have sex with her. The alleged rape went unreported for several days until Parsons broke down and told her family, who contacted an emergency health team and the police.<ref name="CBCApril9">"", ''CBC News'', April 9, 2013, URL accessed April 13, 2013.</ref> Later the ] student, Parsons, attempted suicide by hanging<ref name="video tribute">"," ''] Canada'', April 9, 2013, URL accessed April 14, 2013.</ref> on April 4, 2013, at her home in ], ], leading to a ] and the decision to switch her ] machine off on April 7, 2013.<ref name=huffpost>{{cite news|title=Rehtaeh Parsons, Canadian Girl, Dies After Suicide Attempt; Parents Allege She Was Raped By 4 Boys|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/04/09/rehtaeh-parsons-girl-dies-suicide-rape-canada_n_3045033.html|work=The Huffington Post|accessdate=11 April 2013|first=Andres|last=Jauregui|date=April 9, 2013}}</ref>

Revision as of 02:25, 18 June 2014

Results of the ISCD 2010 study ranking the levels of damage caused by drugs, in the opinion of drug-harm experts.

Ethanol (simply called alcohol) is a psychoactive drug primarily found in alcoholic beverages. Alcohol is one of the most commonly abused drugs in the world (Meropol, 1996) often used for self-medication, and as recreational drug use.

Recreational

Since ancient times, people around the world have been drinking alcoholic beverages. Reasons for drinking alcoholic beverages vary and include:

In countries that have a drinking culture, social stigma may cause many people not to view alcohol as a drug because it is an important part of social events. In these countries, many young binge drinkers prefer to call themselves hedonists rather than binge drinkers or recreational drug users. Undergraduate students often position themselves outside the categories of "serious" or "anti-social" drinkers. However, about 40 percent of college students in the United States could be considered alcoholics according to new criteria in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5 but most college binge drinkers and drug users don't develop lifelong problems.

Controversial entheogen

See also: Entheogen § Controversial_entheogens

Some religions forbid, discourage, or restrict the drinking of alcoholic beverages for various reasons. These include Islam, Jainism, Sikhism, the Bahá'í Faith, the Church of God In Christ, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, the Church of Christ, Scientist, the United Pentecostal Church International, Theravada, most Mahayana schools of Buddhism, some Protestant denominations of Christianity, some sects of Taoism (Five Precepts (Taoism) and Ten Precepts (Taoism)), and some sects of Hinduism. In some regions with a dominant religion the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages is forbidden to everybody, regardless of religion. For instance, some Islamic states, including member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Brunei, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen, prohibit alcoholic beverages because they are forbidden by Islam.

In some religions alcoholic beverages are used for ritual purposes. For example, the Roman Catholic Church uses wine in the celebration of the Eucharist; in Judaism kosher wine is used in holidays and rituals.

Carnival in the Netherlands is historically a Roman Catholic feast which is well known for its excessive drinking of alcohol.

Effects

Main articles: Alcohol and health and Ethanol § Human consumption
2004 data of alcohol consumption per capita (age 15 or older), per year, by country, in liters of pure alcohol.

Short-term effects of alcohol consumption include intoxication and dehydration.

Adverse effects

Short-term effects of alcohol of excessive amounts of alcohol can cause acute alcohol poisoning.

Long-term effects of alcohol include alcoholism (linked onset for Korsakoff's syndrome and many other alcohol related diseases), malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease, cancer and damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. IARC list ethanol in alcoholic beverages as Group 1 carcinogens and arguments "There is sufficient evidence for the carcinogenicity of acetaldehyde (the major metabolite of ethanol) in experimental animals.".

Alcohols

In nature all alcohols act as psychoactive drugs which vary in potency and effects. Excessive concentrations of some alcohols (other than ethanol) may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as "spicy", "hot", or "solvent-like".

Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous aroma alcohols as part of their flavor profile; European legislation demands minimum content of higher alcohols in certain distilled beverages (spirits) to give them their expected distinct flavour. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of other alcohols than ethanol is considered fusel alcohols.

Chemical alcohol classification Simple or higher (consumable) alcohol IUPAC nomenclature Common name Alcohol by volume (ABV) % intoxication by alcoholic beverage (Typical alcohol content / Typical alcohol content x Content of tot. alcohol x Potency compared to EtOH) Color/Form Odor Taste Moderate intoxicating loading dose BAC poisoning LD50 in rat, oral Therapeutic index (Potency compared to EtOH/EtOH LD50:LD50 ratio) Potency compared to EtOH EtOH LD50:LD50 ratio
Primary Simple 2-phenylethanol Phenethyl alcohol 0.1% in non-yeasted cider (Kieser 1964): 100 mg/100 mL ? ? Intense odour of roses Burning ? ? 1790 mg/kg ? ? ?
Primary Simple Ethanol EtOH Up to 95.6% in rectified spirit - Clear, colorless, very mobile liquid Mild, rather pleasant; like wine or whiskey. Weak, ethereal, vinous odor. Burning 20-50 mL/40% 0.4% 7060 mg/kg - - -
Primary Simple Propan-1-ol Propanol 2.8% (mean) in Jamaican rum: 2384–3130 mg/100 mL. Up to 3500 mg/L (0.35%) in spirits. 8.4% (40/40×0.028×3) Colorless liquid Similar to ethanol Characteristic ripe, fruity flavor. Burning taste ? ? 1870 mg/kg 0.8 (mean): 0.5-1.1 3 (mean): 2-4 3.8
Primary Simple Tryptophol ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Primary Higher 2-Methyl-1-propanol 2M1P 0.9% (mean) in Rye mash cistern room: 534–1197 mg/100 mL ? Colorless, oily liquid. Clear, colorless, refractive, mobile liquid. Suffocating odor of fusel oil. Slightly suffocating; nonresidual alcoholic. Sweet, musty odor Sweet whiskey taste ? ? 2460 mg/kg ? ? ?
Primary Higher 3-methyl-1-butanol 3M1B 1.5% (mean) in French Brandy: 859–2108 mg/100 mL ? Oily, clear liquid. Colorless liquid. Characteristic, disagreeable odor. Pungent, repulsive taste ? ? 1300 mg/kg ? ? 5.4
Secondary Higher 2-Methyl-1-butanol 2M1B 1.2% (mean) in Bourbon: 910–1390 mg/100 mL ? Oily, clear liquid. Colorless liquid Characteristic, disagreeable odor. Pungent, repulsive taste ? ? 4170 mg/kg ? ? 1.7
Tertiary Higher 2-Methyl-2-butanol 2M2B 0.07% in beer: 70 mg/100 mL (see tert-Pentyl alcohol in ref) Found in cassava fermented beverages 0.14% (5/5×0.0007×20) Colorless liquid Characteristic odor. Camphor odor Burning taste 2.0-4.0 gram ? 1000 mg/kg 2.8 20 7.1
Tertiary Higher 2-Methylpropan-2-ol 2M2P Identified, not quantified, in beer ? Colorless liquid or solid (crystals) (above 78 degrees F) Camphor-like odor ? ? ? 2743 mg/kg ? ? 2.6

Poly drug products

Caffeinated alcohol

Caffeinated alcoholic drinks combine alcohol, caffeine, and the ingredients of energy drinks into one drink. In 2010 and 2011, this type of beverage faced criticism for posing health risks to their drinkers. Alcohol and caffeine are both psychoactive drugs, drugs that are mixed are referred to as poly drug use. As a response FDA have introduced a caffeinated alcohol drinks ban.

However, to date a few ready to drink product exist including 3 A.M. Vodka.

Tragedies

In 2005 a mother infanticided her month-old baby in a microwave oven. China Arnold claimed to be under the influence of alcohol and Galbraith testified that Arnold told him during his initial questioning: "If I hadn't gotten so drunk, I guess my baby wouldn't have died.". On May 20, 2011, Arnold was sentenced to life imprisonment without parole. Her attorney says they will appeal the decision.

In November 2011, Rehtaeh Parsons, then 15, allegedly went with a friend to a home in which she was reportedly gang raped by 4 teenage boys. The teenagers were drinking vodka at a small party. Parsons had little memory of the event, except that at one point she vomited. While a boy was allegedly raping her, the incident was photographed and the photo became widespread in Parsons' school and town in three days. Afterwards, many in school called Parsons a "slut" and she received texts and Facebook messages from people requesting to have sex with her. The alleged rape went unreported for several days until Parsons broke down and told her family, who contacted an emergency health team and the police. Later the Cole Harbour District High School student, Parsons, attempted suicide by hanging on April 4, 2013, at her home in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, leading to a coma and the decision to switch her life support machine off on April 7, 2013.

  1. USA (2013-03-25). "Disparity between tonic and phasic ethanol-induced dopamine increases in the nucleus accumbens of rats". Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
  2. Drugs and society - Page 189, Glen (Glen R.) Hanson, Peter J. Venturelli, Annette E. Fleckenstein - 2006
  3. http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1010220-overview
  4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23280888
  5. http://blog.oup.com/2010/01/drugs-2/
  6. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 17981452, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=17981452 instead.
  7. Attention: This template ({{cite pmid}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by PMID 17675648, please use {{cite journal}} with |pmid=17675648 instead.
  8. Time: DSM-5 Could Categorize 40% of College Students as Alcoholics, 14 May 2012 The article reports that the new DSM-5 criteria could increase the number of people diagnosed as alcoholics by 60%
  9. Szalavitz, Maia (2012-05-14). "DSM-5 Could Categorize 40% of College Students as Alcoholics | TIME.com". Healthland.time.com. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
  10. Sanderson, Megan (2012-05-22). "About 37 percent of college students could now be considered alcoholics | Emerald Media". Dailyemerald.com. Retrieved 2013-10-14.
  11. "Saudi Arabia". Travel.state.gov. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
  12. "Global Status Report on Alcohol 2004" (PDF). 2004. Retrieved 2013-04-02. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  13. Müller D, Koch RD, von Specht H, Völker W, Münch EM (March 1985). "". Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz) (in German). 37 (3): 129–32. PMID 2988001.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. Testino G (2008). "Alcoholic diseases in hepato-gastroenterology: a point of view". Hepatogastroenterology. 55 (82–83): 371–7. PMID 18613369.
  15. Caan, Woody; Belleroche, Jackie de, eds. (11 April 2002). Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice (1st ed.). Routledge. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-415-27891-1.
  16. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Classification/ClassificationsGroupOrder.pdf
  17. ^ Aroma of Beer, Wine and Distilled Alcoholic Beverages
  18. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18295386
  19. ^ Pubchem Compound, https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
  20. "ChemIDplus Advanced". Chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
  21. "Propanol, 1- (EHC 102, 1990)". Inchem.org. 1989-04-14. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
  22. "2-Methyl-1-Butanol". Grrexports.com. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
  23. "t-butyl alcohol". Toxnet.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2013-02-05.
  24. Hannah, James (20 July 2007). "Drunken mom microwaved one-month-old baby". Daily News. New York, NY, USA: Mortimer Zuckerman. The Associated Press. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
  25. "Life in prison for Ohio mom in microwave-baby case". Daily News. New York, NY, USA: Mortimer Zuckerman. The Associated Press. 8 July 2008. Retrieved 27 February 2012.
  26. "Jury Recommends Life Without Parole for China Arnold" Dayton Daily News 20 May 2011
  27. Ross, Selena. "Who failed Rehtaeh Parsons?". The Chronicle Herald. Retrieved 11 April 2013.
  28. "Rape, bullying led to N.S. teen's death, says mom", CBC News, April 9, 2013, URL accessed April 13, 2013.
  29. "Rehtaeh Parsons Video Tribute Marks Life Of 'Angel' (VIDEO)," The Huffington Post Canada, April 9, 2013, URL accessed April 14, 2013.
  30. Jauregui, Andres (April 9, 2013). "Rehtaeh Parsons, Canadian Girl, Dies After Suicide Attempt; Parents Allege She Was Raped By 4 Boys". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 11 April 2013.