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The Yolmo people speak a language of the Central Bodic a.k.a Tibetan group of the Tibeto-Burman language family. It has a high level of lexical similarity to Sherpa (61% lexical similarity) and Standard Tibetan (66% lexical similarity). Nonetheless, it is generally agreed that it has enough dissimilarities with either of the aforementioned dialects for it to be considered a language in its own right.

The Yolmo language consists largely of classical Tibetan terminologies as used in the religious Buddhist scripts - the 'Pechhas'. In keeping with historical tradition, most Yolmo scholars transcribe their language in the Sambhoti script, which is very similar to the Tibetan script and used by other Tibetan people too. However, today, an increasing number of Yolmo speakers in Nepal opt for the Devanagari script (which has conventionally been used for Nepali and Hindi) to perform the same. This can be seen in two recent dictionaries where Yolmo is written in Devanagari.

Phonology

Consonants

There are 36 consonants in Yolmo, which are summarized in the table below. The form is given in IPA and then to the right in brackets is given the form more frequently used in Roman orthography if different.

Vowels

There are five places of articulation for vowels, with a length distinction for each place of articulation:

Tone

Yolmo has lexical tone. Hari indicates there is a four tone contrast but acoustic evidence indicates that there are likely only two tones; low and high. Low tone words can be marked with breathy voice, but this is not always the case. Tone is marked using acute and grave accents over the first vowel of the word, with acute used for high tone and grave used for low tone, some people use unmarked for high tone and indicate low tone with a following h, for example puh for 'son' below. Below are some examples of tone minimal pairs:

pú 'body hair'

pù ‘son’

kómba ‘thirsty’

kòmba ‘temple’

Tone is predictable in some environments. It is always low following voiced stops and affricates, and is always high following all aspirated stops, affricates and voiceless liquids. The verbal negator prefixes ma- and me- both have low tone, however if the following root has high tone it will not change tone because of the preceding low suffix.

Word order

Yolmo is a verb final language with the word order of Subject-Object-Verb

ŋà=ki tó sà-sin

1SG=ERG rice.cooked eat-PST

'I ate rice'

Adjectives usually come after the noun, so 'small child' would be pìʑa tɕhómbo (lit. 'child small'), however some people will place them before the noun, especially in casual speech.

Nouns/Nominals

The noun phrase in Yolmo consists of an obligatory noun or pronoun, and may also include a determiner, case-marker, numeral classifier, number marker or focus marker.

Pronouns

The first person plural form òraŋ is more frequent in the Western dialects while the form ùu is more frequent in the Eastern dialects. Dual forms can be created by adding ɲíi to the plural forms, although it is optional.

Plural

The plural marker in Yolmo is =ya. Plural marking is optional if the number is clear from context or if an overt number or adjective is used with the noun.

Case marking

Yolmo uses post-positional suffixes to mark the case of nouns. Similar to other Tibetic languages, Yolmo case markers often have multiple functions. Below the cases are listed alongside their function:

The case-markers are phonologically bound, with the =ki form becoming voiced in some environments. Where the noun has a plural marker the case-marking suffix comes after the plural- marking suffix.

Verbs

There are three main types of verbs in Yolmo, lexical verbs, auxiliary verbs and copula verbs. The lexical verbs inflect for tense, aspect, mood and evidence and can take negation.

Copula verbs

The copula verbs and their functions are given in the table below. Copulas are not inflected for person, number or politeness level and many do not distinguish tense:

Equation copulas are used to link to noun phrases, while existential copulas are used for functions of existence, location, attribution and possession. The egophoric and perceptual are evidential distinctions, while the dubitative is used for reduced certainty. The general fact form is used for uncontroversial and universally known facts. Different varieties of Yolmo prefer different forms of the egophoric as the default; In Helambu they prefer yìn, in Lamjung yìmba and Ilam yìŋge. yèken/yèba are past tense forms of the existential. Some copula verbs can also be used as verbal auxiliaries.

Auxiliary verbs

There is a small set of auxiliary verbs in Yolmo. The auxiliary tè- is the same as the lexical verb tè- 'sit' and is used to add progressive aspect:

mò sà tè-ku dù

she eat aux-ipvf aux

'she is eating'

A subset of the copulas can also be used as verbal auxiliaries; yìn,yè, yèken and dù. These contribute evidential information and for yè/yèken also some tense information. As you can see in the example above the dù copula is being used as an auxiliary, so they can co-occur with the other auxiliaries.

Tense

Yolmo has a major tense distinction between past and non-past. These are marked with suffixes on the lexical verb, -sin is the past tense marker and -ke or -ken is the non-past marker.

Aspect

There are a number of verb suffixes that are used to mark aspect, these broadly fall into categories of imperfective and perfective.

Mood

Mood is marked with a number of different suffixes. These attach to the lexical verb and are listed below:

Imperative -toŋ

Hortative -ka or -tɕo

Optative -ɲi

Dubitative -ʈo

It is worth noting that there is a small class of irregular imperatives; sà- 'eat' becomes sò.

Negation

Negation is marked on lexical verbs with the prefix mà-. Copula forms have slightly irregular forms so they are listed in the table below:

Particles

Below is a list of clause final particles found in Yolmo and a brief description of their function.

The ló reported speech marker is part of the wider evidential semantics in Yolmo, which are also found in the copula verbs above.

Honorifics

Yolmo has a set of lexical distinctions used for people of higher social status, particularly Lamas. Honorific lexicon can include nouns, verbs and adjectives. In the table below are some examples including normal lexical forms, the honorific forms and the English.

The use of honorifics is not as common in the Ilam and Lamjung varieties, although people still recognise some forms.

1. Yholmo Foundation Survey, Hari 2010
2. ^ Hari, Anne Marie (2010). Yolmo Sketch Grammar. Kathmandu: Ekta Books.
3. Cite error: The named reference Indigenous Voice was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. Hari, Anne Marie; Lama, C. (2004). Yolmo-Nepali-English Dictionary. Kathmandu: Central Dept. of Linguistics, Tribhnvan University.
5. ^ Gawne, Lauren (2010). Lamjung Yolmo - Nepali - English Dictionary. Melbourne: Custom Book Centre, The University of Melbourne.
6. ^ Gawne, Lauren (2013). "Report on the relationship between Yolmo and Kagate" (PDF). Himalayan Linguistics. 12(2): 1–27.