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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2012}}
{{chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 477162965
| Name = Bisphenol A
| ImageFile1_Ref = {{chemboximage|correct|??}}
| ImageFile1 = Bisphenol-A-Skeletal.svg
| ImageSize1 = 240px
| ImageFile2 = Bisphenol A.png
| ImageSize2 = 180px
| ImageName = Bisphenol A
| IUPACName = 4,4'-(propane-2,2-diyl)diphenol
| OtherNames = BPA, ''p'',''p'''-isopropylidenebisphenol,<br/> 2,2-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)propane.
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| IUPHAR_ligand = 7865
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 33216
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| DrugBank = DB06973
| SMILES = Oc1ccc(cc1)C(c2ccc(O)cc2)(C)C
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = MLT3645I99
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = C13624
| InChI = 1/C15H16O2/c1-15(2,11-3-7-13(16)8-4-11)12-5-9-14(17)10-6-12/h3-10,16-17H,1-2H3
| InChIKey = IISBACLAFKSPIT-UHFFFAOYAI
| SMILES1 = CC(C)(c1ccc(cc1)O)c2ccc(cc2)O
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 418971
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C15H16O2/c1-15(2,11-3-7-13(16)8-4-11)12-5-9-14(17)10-6-12/h3-10,16-17H,1-2H3
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = IISBACLAFKSPIT-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo = 80-05-7
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| PubChem = 6623
| EINECS = 201-245-8
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 6371
| RTECS = SL6300000
| UNNumber = 2430
}}
|Section2={{Chembox Properties
| C=15 | H=16 | O=2
| Appearance = White solid
| Density = 1.20 g/cm³
| Solubility = 120–300 ppm (21.5&nbsp;°C)
| MeltingPtC = 158 to 159
| BoilingPtC = 220
| BoilingPt_notes = 4 mmHg
| Viscosity =
| VaporPressure = {{nowrap|5×10<sup>−6</sup> Pa}} (25&nbsp;°C)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.speclab.com/compound/c80057.htm|work=speclab.com|title=Chemical Fact Sheet – Cas #80057 CASRN 80-05-7|date= 1 April 2012}}</ref>
}}
|Section3={{Chembox Structure
| CrystalStruct =
| Dipole =
}}
|Section7={{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalSDS =
| EUClass =
| NFPA-H = 3
| NFPA-F = 0
| NFPA-R = 0
| RPhrases = {{R36}} {{R37}} {{R38}} {{R43}}
| SPhrases = {{S24}} {{S26}} {{S37}}
| FlashPtC = 227
| AutoignitionPtC = 600
}}
|Section8={{Chembox Related
| OtherFunction_label =
| OtherFunction =
| OtherCompounds = ]<br/>]
}}
}}

'''Bisphenol A''' ('''BPA''') is an ] ] with the ] (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>C(C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>OH)<sub>2</sub> belonging to the group of ] derivatives and ]s, with two hydroxyphenyl groups. It is a colorless solid that is soluble in ] solvents, but poorly soluble in water. It has been in commercial use since 1957.

BPA is employed to make certain ]s and ] resins. BPA-based plastic is clear and tough, and is made into a variety of common consumer goods, such as water bottles, sports equipment, CDs, and DVDs. Epoxy resins containing BPA are used to line water pipes, as coatings on the inside of many food and beverage cans and in making ] such as that used in sales receipts.<ref name="Pivnenko 39–47">{{Cite journal|title = Bisphenol A and its structural analogues in household waste paper|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956053X15300349|journal = Waste Management|date = 2015-10-01|pages = 39–47|volume = 44|doi = 10.1016/j.wasman.2015.07.017|first = K.|last = Pivnenko|first2 = G. A.|last2 = Pedersen|first3 = E.|last3 = Eriksson|first4 = T. F.|last4 = Astrup}}</ref> In 2011, an estimated 10 billion pounds of BPA chemical were produced for manufacturing polycarbonate plastic, making it one of the highest volume of chemicals produced worldwide.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title = The estrogenic endocrine disrupting chemical bisphenol A (BPA) and obesity|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0303720712000056|journal = Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|date = 2012-05-06|pmc = 3306519|pmid = 22249005|pages = 74–84|volume = 354|series = Environment, Epigenetics and Reproduction|issue = 1–2|doi = 10.1016/j.mce.2012.01.001|first = Frederick S.|last = vom Saal|first2 = Susan C.|last2 = Nagel|first3 = Benjamin L.|last3 = Coe|first4 = Brittany M.|last4 = Angle|first5 = Julia A.|last5 = Taylor}}</ref>

BPA exhibits ]-like properties that raise concern about its suitability in some consumer products and food containers. Since 2008, several governments have investigated its safety, which prompted some retailers to withdraw ] products. The FDA has ended its authorization of the use of BPA in baby bottles and infant formula packaging, based on market abandonment, not safety.<ref name="FDA Regulations No Longer Authorize the Use of BPA in Infant Formula Packaging Based on Abandonment; Decision Not Based on Safety">{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/food/newsevents/constituentupdates/ucm360147.htm |title=FDA Regulations No Longer Authorize the Use of BPA in Infant Formula Packaging Based on Abandonment; Decision Not Based on Safety |publisher=Fda.gov |date=2013-07-12 |accessdate=2014-02-01}}</ref> The European Union and Canada have banned BPA use in baby bottles.

A 2010 report from the US ] (FDA) identified possible hazards to fetuses, infants, and young children.<ref name="U.S. Food and Drug Administration">{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/downloads/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/UCM197778.pdf|title=Update on Bisphenol A for Use in Food Contact Applications: January 2010 |date=15 January 2010 |publisher=]|accessdate=15 January 2010}}</ref> However, an FDA assessment released in March 2013 said that BPA is safe at the very low levels that occur in some foods.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/newsevents/publichealthfocus/ucm064437.htm#current|title=Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application|work=fda.gov}}</ref> In July 2014, the FDA updated its perspective on the use of BPA in food contact applications, confirming that "BPA is safe at the current levels occurring in foods" based on extensive research, including two more studies issued by the agency in early 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437.htm?_cldee=a2F0aHJ5bl9zdGpvaG5AYW1lcmljYW5jaGVtaXN0cnkuY29t|title=Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application|work=fda.gov}}</ref> The ] (EFSA) reviewed new scientific information on BPA in 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2015: EFSA’s experts concluded on each occasion that they could not identify any new evidence which would lead them to revise their opinion that the presently known levels of exposure to BPA is safe; however, EFSA does recognize some uncertainties, and will continue to investigate them.<ref></ref>

==Production==
World production capacity of this compound was 1&nbsp;million tons in the 1980s,<ref name="Fiege"/> and more than 2.2&nbsp;million tons in 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE65L6JN20100622?loomia_ow=t0:s0:a49:g43:r3:c0.084942:b35124310:z0 |title=Experts demand European action on plastics chemical |agency=Reuters |date=22 June 2010}}</ref> and thus belongs to the ]. In 2003, U.S. consumption was 856,000 tons, 72% of which used to make polycarbonate plastic and 21% going into epoxy resins.<ref name="NTP-CERHR">{{cite web |title=CERHR Expert Panel Report for Bisphenol A |url=http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/ohat/bisphenol/bisphenol.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=May 2013 |date= September 2008 |author=National Toxicology Program, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services}}</ref> In the U.S., less than 5% of the BPA produced is used in food contact applications,<ref name="epa-action-plan"/> but remains in the canned food industry and printing applications such as sales receipts.<ref name="consumerreports">{{cite news |url=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine-archive/december-2009/food/bpa/overview/bisphenol-a-ov.htm |work=Consumer Reports |title=Concern over canned foods |date=December 2009 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/health/2011/11/23/soaring-bpa-levels-found-in-people-who-eat-canned-foods/ |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=23 November 2011 |title=Soaring BPA Levels Found in People Who Eat Canned Foods}}</ref>

Bisphenol&nbsp;A was first synthesized by the ]n ] ] in 1891.<ref name="dianin">{{cite journal | author= Дианин (Dianin) | date = 1891 | title = О продуктах конденсация кетонов с фенолами | trans_title = On condensation products of ketones with phenols | journal = Журнал Русского Физико-химических Общества (Journal of the Russian Physical-Chemical Society) | volume = 23 | pages = 488–517, 523–546, 601–611 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VHYMAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA488#v=onepage&q&f=false}} See especially p. 492.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Zincke T | title = Ueber die Einwirkung von Brom und von Chlor auf Phenole: Substitutionsprodukte, Pseudobromide und Pseudochloride | journal=] | year = 1905 | pages = 75–99 | doi = 10.1002/jlac.19053430106 | volume = 343}}</ref> This compound is synthesized by the ] of ] (hence the suffix A in the name)<ref>{{cite book | last=Uglea | first=Constantin V. |author2=Ioan I. Negulescu | title=Synthesis and Characterization of Oligomers | year=1991 | publisher=] | page=103 | isbn=0-8493-4954-0}}</ref> with two ] of ]. The reaction is ] by a strong acid, such as ] (HCl) or a ]. Industrially, a large excess of phenol is used to ensure full condensation; the product mixture of the ] (acetone and phenol) may also be used as starting material:<ref name="Fiege"/>

:]

A large number of ]s undergo analogous condensation reactions. Commercial production of BPA requires distillation – either extraction of BPA from many resinous byproducts under ] or solvent-based extraction using additional phenol followed by distillation.<ref name="Fiege">{{cite book | author = Fiege H, Voges H-W, Hamamoto T, Umemura S, = Iwata T, Miki H, Fujita Y, Buysch H-J, = Garbe D, Paulus W | title = Phenol Derivatives | series = Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry | publisher=Wiley-VCH | location = Weinheim | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a19_313 | journal=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry}}</ref>

==Use==
{{further2|]}}
] water bottle.]]
Bisphenol&nbsp;A is used primarily to make plastics, and products using bisphenol&nbsp;A-based plastics have been in commercial use since 1957.<ref name="infosheet">{{cite web | title=Bisphenol A Information Sheet | date=October 2002 | publisher=Bisphenol A Global Industry Group | url=http://www.bisphenol-a.org/pdf/DiscoveryandUseOctober2002.pdf | accessdate=7 December 2010 }}</ref> At least 3.6 million tonnes (8&nbsp;billion pounds) of BPA are used by manufacturers yearly.<ref name="USNews3">{{cite news|url=http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/heart/articles/2009/06/10/studies-report-more-harmful-effects-from-bpa.html|title=Studies Report More Harmful Effects From BPA|date=10 June 2009|work=]|accessdate=28 October 2010}}</ref> It is a key ] in production of ] resins<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/2009/07/committee_succe.html
| title=Lawmakers to press for BPA regulation
| author = Replogle J
| date = 17 July 2009
| publisher=California Progress Report
| accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thestar.com/article/415296|title=Ridding life of bisphenol A a challenge|last=Ubelacker |first=Sheryl |date=16 April 2008|work=Toronto Star |accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> and in the most common form of ] plastic.<ref name="Fiege"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Kroschwitz|first=Jacqueline I.|title=Kirk-Othmer encyclopedia of chemical technology|edition=5|volume=5|page=8|isbn=0-471-52695-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alliancepoly.com/polycarbonate.asp|title=Polycarbonate (PC) Polymer Resin|publisher=Alliance Polymers, Inc|accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> Bisphenol A and ] react to give polycarbonate under biphasic conditions; the hydrochloric acid is scavenged with aqueous base:

:]

] may be used in place of phosgene. ] is eliminated instead of hydrochloric acid. This transesterification process avoids the toxicity and handling of phosgene.<ref name="ioc">{{cite book |last=Wittcoff |first=Harold |last2=Reuben |first2=B. G. |last3=Plotkin |first3=Jeffrey S. |year=2004 |title=Industrial Organic Chemicals |publisher=Wiley-IEEE |isbn=978-0-471-44385-8 |page=278 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=4KHzc-nYPNsC&pg=PA278&dq=%22Diphenyl+carbonate%22 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>

Polycarbonate plastic, which is clear and nearly shatter-proof, is used to make a variety of common products including baby and water bottles, sports equipment, medical and dental devices, ] sealants, CDs and DVDs, household electronics, eyeglass lenses,<ref name="Fiege"/> ], and the lining of water pipes.<ref name="epa-action-plan">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/bpa_action_plan.pdf|title=Bisphenol A Action Plan |date=29 March 2010|publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref>
BPA is also used in the synthesis of ]s and ] ], as an ] in some ]s, and as a ] inhibitor in ]. Epoxy resins containing bisphenol&nbsp;A are used as coatings on the inside of almost all food and ]s;<ref name="C&ENews">{{cite journal|author = Erickson BE | date = 2 June 2008 |title=Bisphenol A under scrutiny|journal=Chemical and Engineering News|publisher=American Chemical Society|volume=86|issue=22|pages=36–39|url=http://pubs.acs.org/isubscribe/journals/cen/86/i22/html/8622gov1.html|doi = 10.1021/cen-v086n022.p036}}</ref> however, due to BPA health concerns, in Japan epoxy coating was mostly replaced by ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodnavigator.com/Financial-Industry/Consumers-fear-the-packaging-a-BPA-alternative-is-needed-now|title=Consumers fear the packaging – a BPA alternative is needed now|last=Byrne|first=Jane|date=22 September 2008|accessdate=5 January 2010}}</ref> Bisphenol&nbsp;A is also a precursor to the ] ], and formerly was used as a ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pesticideinfo.org/Detail_Chemical.jsp?Rec_Id=PC33756 |title=Bisphenol A |publisher=Pesticideinfo.org |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref>

Bisphenol&nbsp;A is a preferred color developer in ] and thermal ] receipt paper.<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |title=Thermal paper with security features |number=6562755}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Concerned about BPA: Check your receipts|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48084/title/Science_%2B_the_Public__Concerned_about_BPA_Check_your_receipts|date=7 October 2009|accessdate=3 August 2010|author=Raloff, Janet|publisher=Science News}}</ref> When used in thermal paper, BPA is present as "free" (i.e., discrete, non-polymerized) BPA, which is likely to be more available for exposure than BPA polymerized into a resin or plastic. Upon handling, BPA in thermal paper can be transferred to skin, and there is some concern that residues on hands could be ingested through incidental hand-to-mouth contact. Furthermore, some studies suggest that dermal absorption may contribute some small fraction to the overall human exposure. European data indicate that the use of BPA in paper may also contribute to the presence of BPA in the stream of recycled paper and in landfills. Although there are currently no estimates for the amount of BPA used in thermal paper in the United States, in Western Europe, the volume of BPA reported to be used in thermal paper in 2005/2006 was 1,890 tonnes per year, while total production was estimated at 1,150,000 tonnes per year. (Figures taken from 2012 EPA draft paper.)<ref>http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/actionplans/aa-for-bpa-full-version.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/projects/bpa/bpa-report-public-comments10-18-12.pdf|title=Safer Choice|work=epa.gov}}</ref> ] resin may or may not contain BPA, and is employed to bind ] in some root canal procedures.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Marciano MA, Ordinola-Zapata R, Cunha TV, Duarte MA, Cavenago BC, Garcia RB, Bramante CM, Bernardineli N, Moraes IG | title = Analysis of four gutta-percha techniques used to fill mesial root canals of mandibular molars | journal = International Endodontic Journal | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 321–329 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21219361 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2591.2010.01832.x }}
</ref>

===Identification in plastics===
] plastics may contain bisphenol&nbsp;A|right]]
{{Main|Resin identification code}}
Plastic packaging is split into seven broad classes for recycling purposes by a ]. As of 2014 there are no BPA labeling requirements for plastics in the US. "In general, plastics that are marked with Resin Identification Codes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 are very unlikely to contain BPA. Some, but not all, plastics that are marked with the Resin Identification Code 7 may be made with BPA."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/ |title=Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents |publisher=Hhs.gov |date=15 January 2010 |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> Type 7 is the catch-all "other" class, and some type 7 plastics, such as ] (sometimes identified with the letters "PC" near the ]) and epoxy resins, are made from bisphenol&nbsp;A monomer.<ref name="Fiege"/><!--When such plastics are exposed to hot liquids, bisphenol&nbsp;A leaks out 55 times faster than it does under normal conditions.{{Clarify|date=March 2009}}--><!-- Unit incomplete. Nanogrammes per hour per how much of the plastic? That much per mg would be a lot, per tonne not much. Also need to know what "hot" means, and what "normal conditions" means.--><ref name="sciam2008">{{cite journal|author=Biello D | title=Plastic (not) fantastic: Food containers leach a potentially harmful chemical | journal=Scientific American | volume=2 | date=19 February 2008 | url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=plastic-not-fantastic-with-bisphenol-a | accessdate=9 April 2008}}</ref> Type 3 (]) may contain bisphenol&nbsp;A as an antioxidant in "flexible PVC" softened by ],<ref name="Fiege"/> but not rigid PVC such as pipe, windows, and siding.

==History==

Bisphenol A was discovered in 1891 by Russian chemist ].<ref>See:
* А. Дианина (1891) (On condensation products of ketones with phenols), ''Журнал Русского физико-химического общества'' (Journal of the Russian Physical Chemistry Society), '''23''' : 488-517, 523–546, 601–611 ; see especially pages 491-493 ("Диметилдифеиолметаиь" (dimethyldiphenolmethane)).
* Reprinted in condensed form in: A. Dianin (1892) (Condensation products of ketones and phenols), ''Berichte der Deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin'', '''25''', part 3 : 334-337.</ref>

Based on research by chemists at ] and ], BPA has been used since the 1950s to harden polycarbonate plastics, and make epoxy resin, which is contained in the lining of food and beverage containers.<ref>Heather Caliendo for PlasticsToday – Packaging Digest, June 20, 2012 </ref><ref name="timeBPA1">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1976909_1976908_1976938-2,00.html|title=The Perils of Plastic – Environmental Toxins – TIME|author = Walsh B|date=1 April 2010|work=Time|accessdate=2 July 2010}}</ref>

In the early 1930s, the British biochemist Edward ] tested BPA as an artificial estrogen, but found it to be 37,000 times less effective than estradiol.<ref name=Vogel2009>{{cite journal | author = Vogel SA | year = 2009 | title = The Politics of Plastics: The Making and Unmaking of Bisphenol A "Safety | journal = Am J Public Health | volume = 99 | issue = S3| pages = S559–S566 | pmc=2774166 | pmid=19890158 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2008.159228}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| author=Dodds EC, Lawson W| year = 1936| title = Synthetic Œstrogenic Agents without the Phenanthrene Nucleus| journal=Nature| volume = 137| issue =3476| page = 996|bibcode=1936Natur.137..996D| doi=10.1038/137996a0}}</ref><ref name="W. Lawson, 1938 pp. 222">{{cite journal | author = Dodds E. C., Lawson W. | year = | title = Molecular Structure in Relation to Oestrogenic Activity. Compounds without a Phenanthrene Nucleus| url = | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 125 | issue = 839| pages = 222–232 | doi=10.1098/rspb.1938.0023}}</ref> Dodds eventually developed a structurally similar<ref name="HejmejKotula-Balak2011">{{cite journal|last1=Hejmej|first1=Anna|last2=Kotula-Balak|first2=Magorzata|last3=Bilinsk|first3=Barbara|title=Antiandrogenic and Estrogenic Compounds: Effect on Development and Function of Male Reproductive System|year=2011|doi=10.5772/28538}}</ref> compound, ] (DES), which was used as a synthetic estrogen drug in women and animals until it was banned due to its risk of causing cancer; the ban on use of DES in humans came in 1971 and in animals, in 1979.<ref name=Vogel2009/> BPA was never used as a drug.<ref name=Vogel2009/> BPA's ability to mimic the effects of natural estrogen derive from the similarity of phenol groups on both BPA and ], which enable this synthetic molecule to trigger estrogenic pathways in the body.<ref name="kwon">{{cite journal | author = Kwon J.H., Katz L.E., Liljestrand H.M.| title = Modeling binding equilibrium in a competitive estrogen receptor binding assay | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 69 | issue = 7 | pages = 1025–1031 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17559906 | doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2007.04.047 }}</ref> Typically phenol-containing molecules similar to BPA are known to exert weak oestrogenic activities, thus it is also considered an endocrine disrupter (ED) and oestrogenic chemical.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Effect of prenatal exposure to Bisphenol A on the vagina of albino rats: immunohistochemical and ultrastructural study|last = Ahmed|first = R. A. M.|date = 2014|journal = Folia Morphologica|doi = 10.5603/FM.2014.0061|pmid = |access-date =|volume=73|pages=399–408}}</ref> Xenoestrogens is another category the chemical BPA fits under because of its capability to interrupt the network that regulates the signals which control the reproductive development in humans and animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Bisphenol A induces both transient and permanent histofunctional alterations of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in prenatally exposed male rats.|last = Ramos|first = J.G.|date = 2003|journal = Endocrinology|doi = 10.1210/en.2002-0198|pmid = |access-date =|volume=144|pages=3206–3215}}</ref>

BPA has been found to bind to both of the ] ]s (ERs), ] and ].<ref name="HejmejKotula-Balak2011" /> It is 1000- to 2000-fold less potent than estradiol.<ref name="HejmejKotula-Balak2011" /> The drug can both mimic the action of estrogen and antagonize estrogen, indicating that it is a ] (SERM) or ] of the ER.<ref name="HejmejKotula-Balak2011" /> At high concentrations, BPA also binds to and acts as an ] of the ] (AR).<ref name="HejmejKotula-Balak2011" /> In addition to receptor binding, the compound has been found to affect ] ], including affecting ] and ] expression and interfering with ]-ligand binding.<ref name="HejmejKotula-Balak2011" />

In 1997, adverse effects of low-dose BPA exposure in laboratory animals were first proposed.<ref name="C&ENews" /> Modern studies began finding possible connections to health issues caused by exposure to BPA during pregnancy and during development. See ] and ]. As of 2014, research and debates are ongoing as to whether BPA should be banned or not.

], explaining reports of high bisphenol accumulation in this tissue.<ref name="pmid19304792">{{cite journal | author=Takeda Y., Liu X., Sumiyoshi M., Matsushima A., Shimohigashi M., Shimohigashi Y.|title = Placenta expressing the greatest quantity of bisphenol A receptor ERR{gamma} among the human reproductive tissues: Predominant expression of type-1 ERRgamma isoform | journal= J. Biochem.|volume = 146|issue = 1|pages = 113–22|date = July 2009 |pmid = 19304792|doi = 10.1093/jb/mvp049}}</ref>]]

A 2007 study investigated the interaction between bisphenol&nbsp;A's and ] (ERR-γ). This ] (endogenous ligand unknown) behaves as a constitutive activator of transcription. BPA seems to bind strongly to ERR-γ (] = 5.5 nM), but only weakly to the ER.<ref name="matsushima"/> BPA binding to ERR-γ preserves its basal constitutive activity.<ref name="matsushima"/> It can also protect it from deactivation from the SERM ] (afimoxifene).<ref name="matsushima">{{cite journal | author = Matsushima A, Kakuta Y, Teramoto T, Koshiba T, Liu X, Okada H, Tokunaga T, Kawabata S, Kimura M, Shimohigashi Y | title = Structural evidence for endocrine disruptor bisphenol A binding to human nuclear receptor ERR gamma | journal = J. Biochem. | volume = 142 | issue = 4 | pages = 517–24 | date = October 2007 | pmid = 17761695 | doi = 10.1093/jb/mvm158 }}</ref> This may be the mechanism by which BPA acts as a ].<ref name="matsushima"/> Different expression of ERR-γ in different parts of the body may account for variations in bisphenol&nbsp;A effects. For instance, ERR-γ has been found in high concentration in the ], explaining reports of high bisphenol accumulation in this tissue.<ref name="pmid19304792" /> BPA has also been found to act as an ] of the ] (GPR30).<ref name="ProssnitzBarton2014">{{cite journal|last1=Prossnitz|first1=Eric R.|last2=Barton|first2=Matthias|title=Estrogen biology: New insights into GPER function and clinical opportunities|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=389|issue=1-2|year=2014|pages=71–83|issn=03037207|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2014.02.002|pmid=24530924|pmc=4040308}}</ref>

==Pharmacokinetics==
The area of the pharmacokinetics of BPA has expanded greatly since 2010. In the US, the ] (NIEHS) and the ] have been working collaboratively to understand the internal exposure to humans. In a 2013 editorial in ], the authors ], Director of NIEHS, Jason Aungst of FDA, Thaddeus Schug of NIEHS and Jesse Goodman, then Chief Scientist at FDA stated, "The results of our collaborations to date have been important in understanding of how BPA is handled once in the body. This has reduced key uncertainties concerning levels of internal exposure in humans. For example, we have learned that newborn and young rodents have significant age-dependent differences in metabolic capabilities, resulting in their not being able to metabolize BPA as well as adult rodents do and thus being exposed to higher levels internally; this is not the case for ]s. Multiple pharmacokinetic studies in monkeys supported by preliminary results in humans, have now demonstrated, that newborn and young primates metabolize BPA at or very near the level of adult metabolism. potential fetal exposure is significantly reduced by the mother's metabolic capabilities, and that the fetus can effectively metabolize BPA."<ref name="Working Together: Research‑ and Science‑Based Regulation of BPA">{{cite journal | author = Birnbaum LS, Aungst J, Schug TT, Goodman JL | title = Working Together: Research- and Science-Based Regulation of BPA | journal = EHP | volume = 121 | pages = A206-A207 | date = 2013 | pmid = 23817036 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1306963 | url = http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/1306963/ | publisher = Ehp.niehs.nih.gov | accessdate = 2014-02-01 | issue=7}}</ref>

==Human exposure sources==
The major human exposure route to BPA is diet, including ingestion of contaminated food and water.<ref>Cichna-Markl, M. Methods (2012).</ref>
Bisphenol&nbsp;A is leached from the lining of food and beverage cans where it is used as an ingredient in the plastic used to protect the food from direct contact with the can.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ewg.org/reports/bisphenola |title=A Survey of Bisphenol A in U.S. Canned Foods |work=Environmental Working Group |date=5 March 2007 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> It is especially likely to leach from plastics when they are cleaned with harsh detergents or when they contain acidic or high-temperature liquids. BPA is used to form epoxy resin coating of water pipes; in older buildings, such resin coatings are used to avoid replacement of deteriorating pipes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aceduraflo.com/fixmypipes.html|title=Pipeline relining|accessdate=18 October 2010}}</ref> In the workplace, while handling and manufacturing products which contain BPA, inhalation and dermal exposures are the most probable routes.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title = Human Health Risk on Environmental Exposure to Bisphenol-A: A Review|url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10590500600936482|journal = Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C|date = 2006-12-01|issn = 1059-0501|pages = 225–255|volume = 24|issue = 2|doi = 10.1080/10590500600936482|first = WEN-TIEN|last = TSAI}}</ref> There are many uses of BPA for which related potential exposures have not been fully assessed including digital media, electrical and electronic equipment, automobiles, sports safety equipment, electrical laminates for printed circuit boards, composites, paints, and adhesives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bisphenol-a.org/about/faq.html#b|title=What Is BPA? - Bisphenol A (BPA) FAQs - Frequently Asked Questions|work=bisphenol-a.org}}</ref> In addition to being present in many products that people use on a daily basis, BPA has the ability to bioaccumulate, especially in water bodies. In one review, it was seen that although BPA is biodegradable, it is still detected after wastewater treatment in many waterways at concentrations of approximately 1&nbsp;ug/L. This study also looked at other pathways where BPA could potentially bioaccumulate and found “low-moderate potential...in microorganisms, algae, invertebrates, and fish in the environment” suggesting that some environmental exposures less likely.<ref name=":4" />

In November 2009, the '']'' magazine published an analysis of BPA content in some canned foods and beverages, where in specific cases the content of a single can of food could exceed the FDA "Cumulative Exposure Daily Intake" limit.<ref name="consumerreports"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodmag.com.au/Article/Significant-bisphenol-A-levels-found-in-canned-food/504393.aspx|title=Significant bisphenol A levels found in canned food |date=4 November 2009|accessdate=4 November 2009}}</ref>

The ] had found bisphenol&nbsp;A in the urine of 95% of adults sampled in 1988–1994<ref name="pmid15811827">{{cite journal | author = Calafat AM, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Caudill SP, Ekong J, Needham LL | title = Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in a human reference population | journal = ] | volume = 113 | issue = 4 | pages = 391–5 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15811827 | pmc = 1278476 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.7534 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1278476/ }}</ref> and in 93% of children and adults tested in 2003–04.<ref name="pmid18197297">{{cite journal | author = Calafat AM, Ye X, Wong LY, Reidy JA, Needham LL | title = Exposure of the U.S. population to bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-octylphenol: 2003–2004 | journal = ] | volume = 116 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–44 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18197297 | pmc = 2199288 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.10753 }}</ref> The USEPA ] (RfD) for BPA is 50&nbsp;µg/kg/day which is not enforceable but is the recommended safe level of exposure. The most sensitive animal studies show effects at much lower doses,<ref name="globemittelstaedt"/><ref name="CASRN 80-05-7">{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0356.htm |title=Integrated Risk Information System: Bisphenol A. (CASRN 80-05-7): Oral RfD Assessment: Bisphenol A |work=] |year=1988 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> and several studies of children, who tend to have the highest levels, have found levels over the EPA's suggested safe limit figure.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal | author = Lakind JS, Naiman DQ | title = Daily intake of bisphenol a and potential sources of exposure: 2005–2006 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey | journal = Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 272–9 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20237498 | pmc = 3079892 | doi = 10.1038/jes.2010.9 }}</ref>

{{rquote|right|The problem is, BPA is also a synthetic estrogen, and plastics with BPA can break down, especially when they're washed, heated or stressed, allowing the chemical to leach into food and water and then enter the human body. That happens to nearly all of us; the CDC has found BPA in the urine of 93% of surveyed Americans over the age of 6. If you don't have BPA in your body, you're not living in the modern world. |, ]<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1976909_1976908_1976938-2,00.html|title=The Perils of Plastic – Environmental Toxins – TIME|last=Walsh|first=Bryan|date=1 Apr 2010|work=Time|accessdate=2 July 2010}}</ref>}}

A 2009 ] study found that the majority of canned ]s it tested had low, but measurable levels of bisphenol&nbsp;A.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/packag-emball/bpa/bpa_survey-enquete-can-eng.php|title=Survey of Bisphenol A in Canned Drink Products|last=Health Canada|accessdate=13 March 2009}}</ref> A study conducted by the University of Texas School of Public Health in 2010 found BPA in 63 of 105 samples of fresh and canned foods, including fresh turkey sold in plastic packaging and canned infant formula.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Schecter A, Malik N, Haffner D, Smith S, Harris TR, Paepke O, Birnbaum L | title = Bisphenol A (BPA) in U.S. Food | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 44 | issue = 24 | pages = 9425–30 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21038926 | doi = 10.1021/es102785d |bibcode = 2010EnST...44.9425S }}</ref> A 2011 study published in ''Environmental Health Perspectives'', "Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention," selected 20 participants based on their self-reported use of canned and packaged foods to study BPA. Participants ate their usual diets, followed by three days of consuming foods that were not canned or packaged. The study's findings include: 1) evidence of BPA in participants' urine decreased by 50% to 70% during the period of eating fresh foods; and 2) participants' reports of their food practices suggested that consumption of canned foods and beverages and restaurant meals were the most likely sources of exposure to BPA in their usual diets. The researchers note that, even beyond these 20 participants, BPA exposure is widespread, with detectable levels in urine samples in more than an estimated 90% of the U.S. population.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/health/food-packaging-diet-bpa-chemical/ |title = Food Packaging and Bisphenol A and Bis(2-Ethyhexyl) Phthalate Exposure: Findings from a Dietary Intervention|publisher = Journalist's Resource.org }}</ref> Another U.S. study found that consumption of soda, school lunches, and meals prepared outside the home were statistically significantly associated with higher urinary BPA.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

A 2011 experiment by researchers at the Harvard School of Public Health indicated that BPA used in the lining of food cans is absorbed by the food and then ingested by consumers. Of 75 participants, half ate a lunch of canned vegetable soup for five days, followed by five days of fresh soup, while the other half did the same experiment in reverse order. "The analysis revealed that when participants ate the canned soup, they experienced more than a 1,000 percent increase in their urinary concentrations of BPA, compared to when they dined on fresh soup."<ref>
{{cite news|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health/new-health/paul-taylor/bpa-being-absorbed-from-canned-food-study/article2248262/|title="BPA being absorbed from canned food" at theglobeandmail.com |location=Canada |work=The Globe and Mail |first=Paul|last=Taylor|date=24 November 2011}}</ref>
A 2009 study found that drinking from polycarbonate bottles increased urinary bisphenol&nbsp;A levels by two thirds, from 1.2 μg/g creatinine to 2 μg/g creatinine.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Carwile JL, Luu HT, Bassett LS, Driscoll DA, Yuan C, Chang JY, Ye X, Calafat AM, Michels KB | title = Polycarbonate Bottle Use and Urinary Bisphenol A Concentrations | journal = Environ. Health Perspect. | volume = 117 | issue = 9 | pages = 1368–72 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19750099 | pmc = 2737011 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0900604 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2737011/ }}</ref> Consumer groups recommend that people wishing to lower their exposure to bisphenol&nbsp;A avoid ] and ] plastic containers (which shares ] 7 with many other plastics) unless the packaging indicates the plastic is bisphenol&nbsp;A-free.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.htm?programID=08-P13-00038&segmentID=4 |title=War of the Sciences |work=Living on Earth |author=Ashley Ahearn |date=19 September 2008 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> To avoid the possibility of BPA leaching into food or drink, the National Toxicology Panel recommends avoiding ] food in plastic containers, putting plastics in the ], or using harsh detergents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=94680753 |title=FDA Weighs Safety Of Bisphenol A |publisher=NPR |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref>

Besides diet, exposure can also occur through air and through skin absorption.<ref name="Melzer et al.">{{cite journal | author = Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, Wallace RB, Melzer D | title = Association of Urinary Bisphenol A Concentration With Medical Disorders and Laboratory Abnormalities in Adults | journal = Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 300 | issue = 11 | pages = 1303–10 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18799442 | doi = 10.1001/jama.300.11.1303 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300.11.1303 }}</ref> Free BPA is found in high concentration in ] and ], which would be expected to be more available for exposure than BPA bound into resin or plastic.<ref name="DoiSMissing">{{cite journal | author = Fukazawa H, Hoshino K, Shiozawa T, Matsushita H, Terao Y | title = Identification and quantification of chlorinated bisphenol a in wastewater from wastepaper recycling plants | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 44 | issue = 5 | pages = 973–9 | year = 2001 | pmid = 11513431 | doi = 10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00507-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48084/title/Concerned_about_BPA_Check_your_receipts|title=Concerned About BPA: Check Your Receipts|last=Raloff|first=Janet|date=7 October 2009|publisher=Society for Science and the Public|accessdate=7 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Gehring M, Tennhardt L, Vogel D, Weltin D, Bilitewski B | title = Bisphenol A Contamination of Wastepaper, Cellulose and Recycled Paper Products | journal = Transactions on Ecology and the Environment | year = 2004 | volume = 78 | pages = 294–300 | url = http://rcswww.urz.tu-dresden.de/~gehring/deutsch/dt/vortr/040929ge.pdf | laysummary = http://rcswww.urz.tu-dresden.de/~gehring/deutsch/dt/poster/030331g2.pdf }}</ref><ref name="BPAinBatonRouge">{{cite journal | author = Babu, S., Uppu, S. N., Martin, B., Agu, O. A., & Uppu, R. M.| title = Unusually high levels of bisphenol A (BPA) in thermal paper cash register receipts (CRs): development and application of a robust LC-UV method to quantify BPA in CRs. | journal = Toxicology mechanisms and methods| volume = epub ahead | issue = epub | pages = 1–7 | year = 2015 | pmid = 26024012 | doi = 10.3109/15376516.2015.1045661 | url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.3109/15376516.2015.1045661 }}</ref> Popular uses of thermal paper include receipts, event and cinema tickets, labels, and airline tickets.<ref name="BPAinBatonRouge"/> A Swiss study found that 11 of 13 thermal printing papers contained {{nowrap|8 – 17 g/kg}} {{nowrap|bisphenol A}} (BPA). Upon dry finger contact with a thermal paper receipt, roughly {{nowrap|1 μg}} BPA ({{nowrap|0.2 – 6 μg}}) was transferred to the forefinger and the middle finger. For wet or greasy fingers approximately {{nowrap|10 times}} more was transferred. Extraction of BPA from the fingers was possible up to {{nowrap|2 hours}} after exposure.<ref name="pmid20623271">{{cite journal | author = Biedermann S, Tschudin P, Grob K | title = Transfer of bisphenol A from thermal printer paper to the skin | journal = Anal Bioanal Chem | volume = 398 | issue = 1 | pages = 571–6 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20623271 | doi = 10.1007/s00216-010-3936-9 }}</ref> Further, it has been demonstrated that thermal receipts placed in contact with ] in a wallet for 24 hours cause a dramatic increase in the concentration of BPA in paper currency, making paper money a secondary source of exposure.<ref name="pmid21744851">{{cite journal | author = Liao C, Kannan K | title = High levels of bisphenol A in paper currencies from several countries, and implications for dermal exposure | journal = Environ. Sci. Technol. | volume = 45 | issue = 16 | pages = 6761–8 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21744851 | doi = 10.1021/es200977t | bibcode = 2011EnST...45.6761L }}</ref> Another study has identified BPA in all of the waste paper samples analysed (newspapers, magazines, office paper, etc.), indicating direct results of contamination through paper recycling.<ref name="Pivnenko 39–47"/> Free BPA can readily be transferred to skin, and residues on hands can be ingested.<ref name="epa-action-plan"/> Bodily intake through dermal absorption (99% of which comes from handling receipts) has been shown for the general population to be 0.219&nbsp;ng/kg bw/day (occupationally exposed persons absorb higher amounts at 16.3&nbsp;ng/kg bw/day)<ref name="BPA in paper">{{cite journal |author = Liao C, Kannan K|title = Widespread occurrence of bisphenol A in paper and paper products: implications for human exposure|journal = Environ. Sci. Technol.|volume = 45|issue = 21|pages = 9372–9|date = November 2011|pmid = 21939283|doi = 10.1021/es202507f|bibcode = 2011EnST...45.9372L}}</ref> whereas aggregate intake (food/beverage/environment) for adults is estimated at 0.36–0.43 μg/kg bw/day (estimated intake for occupationally exposed adults is 0.043–100 μg/kg bw/day).<ref name="NTP-CERHR"/>

A study from 2011 found that Americans of all age groups had twice as much BPA in their bodies as Canadians; the reasons for the disparity were unknown, as there was no evidence to suggest higher amounts of BPA in U.S. foods, or that consumer products available in the U.S. containing BPA were BPA-free in Canada. According to another study it may have been due to differences in how and when the surveys were done,<ref>{{cite news| url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2011/03/us-bpa-twice-canadas-level/1#.UTKRhlKwBPY | work=USA Today | title=Study: Americans have twice as much BPA as Canadians | date=3 March 2011}}</ref> because "although comparisons of measured concentrations can be made across populations, this must be done with caution owing to differences in sampling, in the analytical methods used and in the sensitivity of the assays."<ref>
Vandenberg LN (2011) . CMAJ (183)11:1265–1270 {{DOI|10.1503/cmaj.101408}} PMID 21343266</ref>

Comparing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) from four time periods between 2003 and 2012, urinary BPA data the median daily intake for the overall population is approximately 25&nbsp;ng/kg/day and below current health based guidelines. Additionally, daily intake of BPA in the United States has decreased significantly compared to the intakes measured in 2003-2004.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Temporal trends in bisphenol A exposure in the United States from 2003–2012 and factors associated with BPA exposure: Spot samples and urine dilution complicate data interpretation|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935115001887|journal = Environmental Research|date = 2015-10-01|pages = 84–95|volume = 142|doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2015.06.013|first = Judy S.|last = LaKind|first2 = Daniel Q.|last2 = Naiman}}</ref> Public attention and governmental action during this time period may have decreased the exposure to BPA somewhat but these studies did not include children under the age of six. According to the Endocrine Society, age of exposure is an important factor in determining the extent to which endocrine disrupting chemicals will have an effect, and the effects on developing fetuses or infants is quite different than an adult.<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.endocrine.org/endocrine-press/scientific-statements|title = Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocrine Reviews|date = 2009|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = Diamanti-Kandarakis|first = E}}</ref>

===Fetal and early-childhood exposures===
A 2009 study found higher urinary concentrations in young children than in adults under typical exposure scenarios.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Edginton AN, Ritter L | title = Predicting plasma concentrations of bisphenol a in children younger than 2 years of age after typical feeding schedules, using a physiologically based toxicokinetic model | journal = Environmental health perspectives | volume = 117 | issue = 4 | pages = 645–52 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19440506 | pmc = 2679611 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0800073 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19931376">{{cite journal | author = Beronius A, Rudén C, Håkansson H, Hanberg A | title = Risk to all or none? A comparative analysis of controversies in the health risk assessment of Bisphenol A | journal = Reprod. Toxicol. | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 132–46 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 19931376 | doi = 10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.11.007 }}</ref> In adults, BPA is eliminated from the body through a detoxification process in the liver. In infants and children, this pathway is not fully developed so they have a decreased ability to clear BPA from their systems. Several recent studies of children have found levels that exceed the EPAs suggested safe limit figure.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

Infants fed with liquid formula are among the most exposed, and those fed formula from polycarbonate bottles can consume up to 13 micrograms of bisphenol&nbsp;A per kg of body weight per day (μg/kg/day; see table below).<ref>{{cite web | title = European Food Safety Authority Opinion | url =http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/science/afc/afc_opinions/bisphenol_a.html | format = Abstract | accessdate =28 February 2007}}</ref> In the US and Canada, BPA has been found in infant liquid formula in concentrations varying from 0.48 to 11&nbsp;ng/g.<ref name="infantformulaUS">{{cite journal | author = Ackerman LK, Noonan GO, Heiserman WM, Roach JA, Limm W, Begley TH | title = Determination of bisphenol a in U.S. Infant formulas: Updated methods and concentrations | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 58 | issue = 4 | pages = 2307–13 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20102208 | doi = 10.1021/jf903959u }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Cao XL, Dufresne G, Belisle S, Clement G, Falicki M, Beraldin F, Rulibikiye A | title = Levels of bisphenol a in canned liquid infant formula products in Canada and dietary intake estimates | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 56 | issue = 17 | pages = 7919–24 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18702469 | doi = 10.1021/jf8008712 }}</ref> BPA has been rarely found in infant powder formula (only 1 of 14).<ref name="infantformulaUS"/> While breast milk is the optimal source of nutrition for infants, it is not always an option. The ] (HHS) states that "the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition from infant formula and food outweighs the potential risk of BPA exposure.".<ref>{{cite web | title = Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents | url=http://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/|publisher=]|accessdate=25 March 2011}}</ref>

Children may be more susceptible to BPA exposure than adults (see health effects). {{citation needed|date=March 2014}}
A 2010 study of people in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany has suggested polycarbonate (PC) baby bottles as the most prominent role of exposure for infants, and canned food for adults and teenagers.<ref>{{cite journal | author = von Goetz N, Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Hungerbühler K | title = Bisphenol A: How the Most Relevant Exposure Sources Contribute to Total Consumer Exposure | journal = Risk Analysis | volume = 30 | issue = 3 | pages = 473–87 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20136739 | doi = 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2009.01345.x }}</ref> In the United States, the growing concern over BPA exposure in infants in recent years has led the manufacturers of plastic baby bottles to stop using BPA in their bottles. . The FDA banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and sippy cups (July 2012) as well as the use of epoxy resins in infant formula packaging.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/PublicHealthFocus/ucm064437.htm|title = Bisphenol A (BPA): Use in Food Contact Application|date = January 2015|accessdate = 25 October 2015|website = |publisher = US Food and Drug Administration}}</ref> However, babies may still be exposed if they are fed with old or hand-me-down bottles bought before the companies stopped using BPA.

One often overlooked source of exposure occurs when a pregnant woman is exposed, thereby exposing the fetus. Animal studies have shown that BPA can be found in both the placenta and the amniotic fluid of pregnant mice.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Zalko D, Soto AM, Dolo L, Dorio C, Rathahao E, Debrauwer L, Faure R, Cravedi JP | title = Biotransformations of bisphenol a in a mammalian model: Answers and new questions raised by low-dose metabolic fate studies in pregnant CD1 mice | journal = Environmental health perspectives | volume = 111 | issue = 3 | pages = 309–19 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12611660 | pmc = 1241388 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.5603 }}</ref> Since BPA was also “detected in the urine and serum of pregnant women and the serum, plasma, and placenta of newborn infants” a study to examine the externalizing behaviors associated with prenatal exposure to BPA was performed which suggests that exposures earlier in development have more of an effect on the behavior outcomes and that female children (2-years-old) are impacted more than males.<ref name=":5" /> A small US study in 2009, funded by the ], detected an average of 2.8&nbsp;ng/mL BPA in the blood of 9 out of the 10 ]s tested.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ewg.org/files/2009-Minority-Cord-Blood-Report.pdf|title=Cord Blood Contaminants in Minority Newborns|year=2009|publisher=]|accessdate=2 December 2009}}</ref> A study of 244 mothers indicated that exposure to BPA before birth could affect the behavior of girls at age 3. Girls whose mother's urine contained high levels of BPA during pregnancy scored worse on tests of anxiety and hyperactivity. Although these girls still scored within a normal range, for every 10-fold increase in the BPA of the mother, the girls scored at least six points lower on the tests. Boys did not seem to be affected by their mother's BPA levels during pregnancy.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://healthland.time.com/2011/10/24/bpa-exposure-in-pregnancy-may-affect-behavior-in-girls/ | work=Time | title=BPA Exposure in Pregnancy May Affect Behavior in Girls – TIME.com | date=24 October 2011}}</ref> After the baby is born, maternal exposure can continue to affect the infant through transfer of BPA to the infant via breast milk.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sun Y, Irie M, Kishikawa N, Wada M, Kuroda N, Nakashima K | title = Determination of bisphenol a in human breast milk by HPLC with column-switching and fluorescence detection | journal = Biomedical chromatography : BMC | volume = 18 | issue = 8 | pages = 501–7 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15386523 | doi = 10.1002/bmc.345 }} {{open access}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Ye X, Kuklenyik Z, Needham LL, Calafat AM | title = Measuring environmental phenols and chlorinated organic chemicals in breast milk using automated on-line column-switching-high performance liquid chromatography-isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry | journal = Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences | volume = 831 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 110–5 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16377264 | doi = 10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.11.050 }}</ref> Because of these exposures that can occur both during and after pregnancy, mothers wishing to limit their child's exposure to BPA should attempt to limit their own exposures during that time period.

While the majority of exposures have been shown to come through the diet, accidental ingestion can also be considered a source of exposure. One study conducted in Japan tested plastic baby books to look for possible leaching into saliva when babies chew on them.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sajiki J, Yanagibori R, Kobayashi Y | title = Study of experiment on leaching of bisphenol a from infant books to artificial saliva | journal = Nihon eiseigaku zasshi. Japanese journal of hygiene | volume = 65 | issue = 3 | pages = 467–70 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20508389 | doi = 10.1265/jjh.65.467 }}</ref> While the results of this study have yet to be replicated, it gives reason to question whether exposure can also occur in infants through ingestion by chewing on certain books or toys.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Population
! Estimated daily bisphenol&nbsp;A intake, μg/kg body wt/day.<br/>Table adapted from the National Toxicology Program Expert Panel Report.<ref name="NTP-CERHR"/>
|-
| Infant (0–6 months)<br/>formula-fed
| <center>1–11</center>
|-
| Infant (0–6 months)<br/>breast-fed
| <center>0.2–1 </center>
|-
| Infant (6–12 months)
| <center>1.65–13</center>
|-
| Child (1.5–6 years)
| <center>0.043–14.7</center>
|-
| Adult (general population)
| <center>0.008–1.5</center>
|-
| Adult (occupational)
| <center>0.043–100</center>
|}

==Health effects==
] lining of metal food and beverage cans, and plastic bottles.]]

The first evidence of the ] of bisphenol&nbsp;A came from experiments on rats conducted in the 1930s,<ref name="W. Lawson, 1938 pp. 222"/><ref>{{cite journal | author=Dodds E. C., Lawson Wilfrid | year = 1936 | title = Synthetic Œstrogenic Agents without the Phenanthrene Nucleus | journal=Nature | volume = 137 | issue =3476 | page = 996 |bibcode=1936Natur.137..996D | doi=10.1038/137996a0}}</ref> but it was not until 1997 that adverse effects of low-dose exposure on laboratory animals were first reported.<ref name="C&ENews"/>
Bisphenol&nbsp;A is an ] that can mimic ] and has been shown to cause negative health effects in animal studies. To be specific, bisphenol A closely mimics the structure and function of the hormone ] with the ability to bind to and activate the same estrogen receptor as the natural hormone.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rubin BS | title = Bisphenol A: An endocrine disruptor with widespread exposure and multiple effects | journal = J.Steroid Biochem.Mol.Bio | volume = 127 | pages = 27–34 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21605673 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.05.002 | issue=1-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | author = Gore AC | title = Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals: From Basic Research to Clinical Practice | publisher = Humana Press | date = 8 June 2007 | series = Contemporary Endocrinology | isbn = 978-1-58829-830-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = O'Connor JC, Chapin RE | title = Critical evaluation of observed adverse effects of endocrine active substances on reproduction and development, the immune system, and the nervous system | journal = Pure Appl. Chem | volume = 75 | issue = 11–12 | pages = 2099–2123 | year = 2003 | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2003/pdf/7511x2099.pdf | accessdate = 28 February 2007 | doi = 10.1351/pac200375112099 }}</ref><ref name="pmid18197296">{{cite journal | author = Okada H, Tokunaga T, Liu X, Takayanagi S, Matsushima A, Shimohigashi Y | title = Direct evidence revealing structural elements essential for the high binding ability of bisphenol A to human estrogen-related receptor-gamma | journal = Environ. Health Perspect. | volume = 116 | issue = 1 | pages = 32–8 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18197296 | pmc = 2199305 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.10587 }}</ref><ref name="JAMAVS">{{cite journal | author = vom Saal FS, Myers JP | title = Bisphenol A and Risk of Metabolic Disorders | journal = ] | volume = 300 | issue = 11 | pages = 1353–5 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18799451 | doi = 10.1001/jama.300.11.1353 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300.11.1353 }}</ref> Early developmental stages appear to be the period of greatest sensitivity to its effects,<ref name="HealthCanada">
], 2008.</ref> and some studies have linked prenatal exposure to later physical and neurological difficulties.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} Regulatory bodies have determined safety levels for humans, but those safety levels are currently being questioned or are under review as a result of new scientific studies.<ref name="EHP">{{cite journal | author = Ginsberg G, Rice DC | title = Does Rapid Metabolism Ensure Negligible Risk from Bisphenol A? | journal = ] | volume = 117 | issue = 11 | pages = 1639–1643 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20049111 | pmc = 2801165 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0901010 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2801165/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Beronius A, Rudén C, Håkansson H, Hanberg A | title = Risk to all or none? A comparative analysis of controversies in the health risk assessment of Bisphenol A | journal = Reproductive toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.) | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 132–46 | year = 2010 | pmid = 19931376 | doi = 10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.11.007 }}</ref>

Experts in the field of endocrine disruptors have stated the opposite in 2010 that the general population may suffer adverse health effects from current BPA levels.<ref name="test">{{cite journal | pmid = 19931376 | doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2009.11.007 | volume=29 | issue=2 | title=Risk to all or none? A comparative analysis of controversies in the health risk assessment of Bisphenol A | date=April 2010 | author=Beronius A, Rudén C, Håkansson H, Hanberg A | pages=132–46 | journal=Reproductive Toxicology}}</ref> In 2009, ] released a statement citing the adverse effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals, and the controversy surrounding BPA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.endo-society.org/advocacy/policy/upload/Endocrine-Disrupting-Chemicals-Position-Statement.pdf |title=Endocrine Society Position Statement Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals |publisher=Endocrine Society |date=11 June 2009 |accessdate=6 April 2012}}</ref>

In 2012 the FDA banned the use of BPA in baby bottles, however the ] called the ban "purely cosmetic" and "If the agency truly wants to prevent people from being exposed to this toxic chemical associated with a variety of serious and chronic conditions it should ban its use in cans of infant formula, food and beverages." The ] called the move inadequate, saying the FDA needed to ban BPA from all food packaging.<ref name="commondreams">{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headline/2012/07/17-4|title=FDA to Ban BPA from Baby Bottles; Plan Falls Short of Needed Protections: Scientists|work=Common Dreams}}</ref> In a statement an FDA spokesman said the agency's action was not based on safety concerns and that "the agency continues to support the safety of BPA for use in products that hold food."<ref name="huffpo">{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/07/17/fda-bans-bpa-baby-bottles_n_1679795.html | work=Huffington Post | title=BPA Banned From Baby Bottles | date=17 July 2012}}</ref>

The ] (EPA) also holds the position that BPA is not a health concern. In 2011, Andrew Wadge, the chief scientist of the United Kingdom's ], commented on a 2011 US study on dietary exposure of adult humans to BPA,<ref name="Teeguarden">{{cite journal | author = Teeguarden JG, Calafat AM, Ye X, Doerge DR, Churchwell MI, Gunawan R, Graham MK | title = Twenty-four hour human urine and serum profiles of bisphenol A during high-dietary exposure | journal = Toxicological Sciences | volume = 123 | issue = 1 | pages = 48–57 | date = September 2011 | pmid = 21705716 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfr160 }}</ref> saying, "This corroborates other independent studies and adds to the evidence that BPA is rapidly absorbed, detoxified, and eliminated from humans – therefore is not a health concern."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.food.gov.uk/science/entry/small_pond_same_big_issues |title=Small pond, same big issues |publisher=] |first=Andrew |last=Wage |date=27 July 2011 |accessdate=3 August 2011 }}</ref> In the 2011 US study 20 subjects were tested for BPA every hour for twenty-four hours while consuming three meals consisting of canned food.<ref name="Teeguarden"/> This study has been criticized, however, as lacking data and having flawed assumptions.<ref name="pmid22020768">{{cite journal | author = Vom Saal FS, Prins GS, Welshons WV | title = Report of very low real-world exposure to bisphenol A is unwarranted based on a lack of data and flawed assumptions | journal = Toxicol. Sci. | volume = 125 | issue = 1 | pages = 318–20; author reply 321–5 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22020768 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfr273 }}</ref>

===United States expert panel conclusions===
In 2006, the US Government sponsored an assessment of the scientific literature on BPA. Thirty-eight experts in fields involved with bisphenol A gathered in Chapel Hill, North Carolina to review several hundred studies on BPA, many conducted by members of the group. At the end of the meeting, the group issued the Chapel Hill Consensus Statement,<ref name=ChapelHill>{{cite journal | author = Vom Saal FS | year = 2007 | title = Chapel Hill bisphenol A expert panel consensus statement: integration of mechanisms, effects in animals and potential to impact human health at current levels of exposure | journal = Reprod Toxicol | volume = 24 | issue = 2| pages = 131–8 | pmc=2967230 | doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2007.07.005 | pmid=17768031|display-authors=etal}}</ref> which stated "BPA at concentrations found in the human body is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals."<ref>{{cite journal | author = Vogel S | year = 2009 | title = The Politics of Plastics: The Making and Unmaking of Bisphenol A 'Safety' | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 99 | issue = S3| pages = 559–566 | pmc=2774166 | pmid=19890158 | doi=10.2105/AJPH.2008.159228}}</ref> The Chapel Hill Consensus Statement stated that average BPA levels in people were above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments. It noted that while BPA is not persistent in the environment or in humans, ] surveys indicate that exposure is continuous. This is problematic because acute animal exposure studies are used to estimate daily human exposure to BPA, and no studies that had examined BPA ] in animal models had followed continuous low-level exposures. The authors added that measurement of BPA levels in serum and other body fluids suggests the possibilities that BPA intake is much higher than accounted for or that BPA can bioaccumulate in some conditions (such as pregnancy).<ref name=ChapelHill />

A 2008 report by the ] within the U.S. ], which is part of the ], reported its review of the literature, finding "some concern", midpoint of a five-level scale, that infants were at risk from exposure to the chemical.<ref name="NTP08"/> It concluded, "expressed relative to current estimates of general population exposure levels in the U.S." the following:
# For pregnant women and fetuses the Expert Panel has different levels of concern for the different developmental endpoints that may be susceptible to bisphenol A disruption, as follows:
#* For neural and behavioral effects, the Expert Panel has some concern
#* For prostate effects, the Expert Panel has minimal concern
#* For the potential effect of accelerated puberty, the Expert Panel has minimal concern
#* For birth defects and malformations, the Expert Panel has negligible concern
# For infants and children the Expert Panel has the following levels of concern for biological processes that might be altered by Bisphenol A, as follows:
#* some concern for neural and behavioral effects
#* minimal concern for the effect of accelerated puberty
# For adults, the Expert Panel has negligible concern for adverse reproductive effects following exposures in the general population to Bisphenol A. For highly exposed subgroups, such as occupationally exposed populations, the level of concern is elevated to minimal.<ref name="NTP-CERHR"/>{{rp|382–3}}<ref name="NTP08">{{cite web |url=http://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/sya-bpa/ |title=Since you asked – Bisphenol A (BPA): Questions and Answers about Bisphenol A |publisher=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences |author=John Bucher, PhD, Mike Shelby, PhD |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref>

===Obesity===
{{main|Obesity}}The association between growth promoting chemicals and increased weight in humans and animals is not new.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|title = Chemical Toxins: A Hypothesis to Explain the Global Obesity Epidemic|url = http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/107555302317371479|journal = The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine|date = 2002-04-01|issn = 1075-5535|pages = 185–192|volume = 8|issue = 2|doi = 10.1089/107555302317371479|first = Paula F.|last = Baillie-Hamilton}}</ref> The concern for these relationships has been studied by academics for more than twenty-five years. The rapid onset of the obesity epidemic may denote a greater likelihood of environmental co-causation rather than simply inactivity, genetics, or overconsumption.<ref name=":1" />]

BPA is an estrogenic ] chemical (EDC) – a chemical category that is known in the literature for its capacity to impair reproduction. EDCs interact with fetal and neonatal growth factors, including placental blood and nutrient flow; a disruptive process that has implications for fetal growth and potential abnormalities in the control mechanism for bodily weight maintenance over life stages.<ref name=":0" /> Endocrine disruptors, like bisphenol A (a ] of polycarbonate plastic), can distress ]s that regulate feeding behavior, which has been proposed to increase the risk of obesity.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rezg R, El-Fazaa S, Gharbi N, Mornagui B | title = Bisphenol A and human chronic diseases: Current evidences, possible mechanisms, and future perspectives | journal = Environment International | volume = 64 | pages = 83–90 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24382480 | doi = 10.1016/j.envint.2013.12.007 }}</ref> Numerous animal studies have demonstrated an association between EDCs (including BPA) and obesity.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|title = Urinary Bisphenol A and Obesity in US Children|url = http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/177/11/1263|journal = American Journal of Epidemiology|date = 2013-06-01|issn = 0002-9262|pmc = 3664337|pmid = 23558351|pages = 1263–1270|volume = 177|issue = 11|doi = 10.1093/aje/kws391|first = Ruchi|last = Bhandari|first2 = Jie|last2 = Xiao|first3 = Anoop|last3 = Shankar}}</ref> BPA works by imitating the natural hormone ]. In the past BPA has been considered a weak mimicker of ] but newer evidence indicates that it is a potent mimicker.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Alonso-Magdalena|first1=P|last2=Ropero|first2=AB|last3=Soriano|first3=S|last4=García-Arévalo|first4=M|last5=Ripoll|first5=C|last6=Fuentes|first6=E|last7=Quesada|first7=I|last8=Nadal|first8=Á|title=Bisphenol-A acts as a potent estrogen via non-classical estrogen triggered pathways.|journal=Molecular and cellular endocrinology|date=22 May 2012|volume=355|issue=2|pages=201–7|pmid=22227557|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2011.12.012}}</ref> When it binds to estrogen receptors it triggers alternative estrogenic effects that begin outside of the nucleus. This different path induced by BPA has been shown to alter glucose and lipid metabolism in animal studies.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Alonso-Magdalena|first1=P|last2=Ropero|first2=AB|last3=Soriano|first3=S|last4=Quesada|first4=I|last5=Nadal|first5=A|title=Bisphenol-A: a new diabetogenic factor?|journal=Hormones (Athens, Greece)|date=2010|volume=9|issue=2|pages=118–26|pmid=20687395}}</ref>

Multiple studies have entered the academic field describing an association between BPA and obesity in both adults and children. It is well-documented that obese children are at a greater risk of continuing obesity in adulthood.<ref name=":2" /> Epidemiological studies have examined the association between BPA exposure and obesity in adults, but fewer studies have been done with children and infants.<ref name=":2" /> In the United States, upwards of 92% of people 6 years and above have detectable levels of BPA in their urine.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = ASsociation between urinary bisphenol a concentration and obesity prevalence in children and adolescents|url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/2012.jama.11461|journal = JAMA|date = 2012-09-19|issn = 0098-7484|pages = 1113–1121|volume = 308|issue = 11|doi = 10.1001/2012.jama.11461}}</ref> Children and infants are believed to have higher BPA intake for several reasons, including having more repetitions in their exposure intakes (food, drink, air) per pound than their adult counterpart.<ref name=":2" /> A 2013 study found an association between urinary concentrations of BPA and body mass indexes of children and adults aged 6–19 years.<ref name="Nadal 2013 9">{{cite journal | author = Nadal A | title = Fat from plastics? Linking bisphenol A exposure and obesity | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 9 | pages = 9–10 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23147575 | doi = 10.1038/nrendo.2012.205 | issue=1}}</ref> Obesity was not correlated with exposure to any other environmental ] such as those found in soaps or sunscreens. This finding strengthens the association between BPA and obesity. Although several associations have been discovered, the molecular mechanisms linking BPA exposure and obesity are not yet known; however, cell-based in vitro studies have been performed to develop a better understanding.

In April of that same year, another study described a positive association between increased levels of urinary BPA and obesity, independent of other factors (incl. age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, physical activity, serum cotinine, and urinary creatine).<ref name=":2" /> This ] pulled data from the ] between 2003 and 2008 (N=2,200, Female: 48.5%). Obesity was defined as <u>></u>95thpercentile of BMI specific for age/sex. The observed association presented predominately in non-Hispanic white (] =5.87, 95% CI:2.15,16.05, P<sub>trend</sub><0.01) boys (OR=3.80, 95% CI: 2.25,6.43, P<sub>trend</sub> <0.001).<ref name=":2" /> Also utilizing the National Health and Nutrition Examination Study between 2003 and 2008, another study indicates the validity of these results. This study controlled for race/ethnicity, age, sex, serum continue level, and urinary creatinine levels, but added caregiver education, poverty to income ratio, caloric intake, and television watching. This study looked at BPA concentrations in urine and found an association with the prevalence of obesity in children.<ref name=":3" />

In developing organisms, effects can occur at concentrations of the chemical that are much lower than those that would cause harmful effects in the adult. Studies have indicated that perinatal exposure to BPA at very low concentration feminizes activity and spatial memory of male offspring. This tendency toward feminization has led to a gender difference in sweet and salty taste preference.

There are different effects of BPA exposure during different stages of development: During adulthood, BPA exposure modifies insulin sensitivity and insulin release without affecting weight.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alonso-Magdalena P, Quesada I, Nadal A | title = Endocrine disruptors in the etiology of type 2 diabetes mellitus | journal = Nat Rev Endocrinol | volume = 7 | issue = 6 | pages = 346–53 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21467970 | doi = 10.1038/nrendo.2011.56 | url = }}</ref> Exposure during pregnancy has effects on both mother and offspring later in life. During pregnancy and lactation (perinatally) BPA exposure induces metabolic alterations, including weight gain. Effects of exposure during infancy and puberty have not been studied yet and will most likely be the subject of future research.

The effect on pancreatic B-cells is significant because its function is to store and release insulin, the main hormone involved in maintaining blood sugar levels. A 2006 animal study demonstrated a link between environmental estrogens and insulin resistance.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Alonso-Magdalena P, Morimoto S, Ripoll C, Fuentes E, Nadal A | title = The estrogenic effect of bisphenol A disrupts pancreatic B cell function in vivo and induces insulin resistance | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 106–112 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16393666 | pmc = 1332664 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.8451 | series = 1 }}</ref> Mice were injected with BPA to replicate plasma concentrations found in late pregnancy. The authors concluded that BPA imitates the sex hormone 17B-estradiol, which leads to a rise in insulin and eventually resistance which can lead to type 2 diabetes and ].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Manikkam|first1=M.|last2=Tracey |first2=R.|last3= Guerrero-Bosagna |first3=C.|last4= Skinner |first4=M. K. | title = Plastics derived endocrine disruptors (BPA, DEHP and DBP) induce epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of obesity, reproductive disease and sperm epimutations | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–16 |date = January 24, 2013 | pmid = 23359474 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0055387 |bibcode = 2013PLoSO...855387M }} {{open access}}</ref>

===Neurological effects===
A panel convened by the National Toxicology Program (NTP) of the U.S. ] determined that there was "some concern" about BPA's effects on fetal and infant brain development and behavior.<ref name="NTP-CERHR"/><ref name="NTP08"/> In January 2010, based on the NTP report, the FDA expressed the same level of concern.<ref name=FDA-BPA-Web>Staff, FDA. January 2010; Updated March 2013. Accessed May 7, 2013</ref><ref name=FDA-DraftAssess>Staff, FDA, DRAFT version August 14, 2008 Accessed May 7, 2013</ref>

A 2007 literature review concluded that BPA, like other xenoestrogens, should be considered as a player within the nervous system that can regulate or alter its functions through multiple pathways.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Panzica GC, Viglietti-Panzica C, Mura E, Quinn MJ, Lavoie E, Palanza P, Ottinger MA | title = Effects of xenoestrogens on the differentiation of behaviorally-relevant neural circuits | journal = Frontiers in neuroendocrinology | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 179–200 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17868795 | doi = 10.1016/j.yfrne.2007.07.001 }}</ref> A 2008 review of animal research found that low-dose BPA maternal exposure can cause long-term consequences for the neurobehavioral development in mice.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Palanza P, Gioiosa L, vom Saal FS, Parmigiani S | title = Effects of developmental exposure to bisphenol a on brain and behavior in mice | journal = Environmental research | volume = 108 | issue = 2 | pages = 150–7 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18949834 | doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2008.07.023 |bibcode = 2008ER....108..150P }}</ref> A 2008 animal study showed that neonatal exposure to bisphenol-A (BPA) can affect sexually dimorphic brain morphology and neuronal adult phenotypes in mice.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Patisaul HB, Polston EK | title = Influence of endocrine active compounds on the developing rodent brain | journal = Brain Research Reviews | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 352–62 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17822772 | doi = 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.06.008 }}</ref>
] in the ] and even nanomolar (10<sup>−9</sup> ]) dosage could induce significant effects on memory processes.<ref name="pmid17822775">{{cite journal | author = Ogiue-Ikeda M, Tanabe N, Mukai H, Hojo Y, Murakami G, Tsurugizawa T, Takata N, Kimoto T, Kawato S | title = Rapid modulation of synaptic plasticity by estrogens as well as endocrine disrupters in hippocampal neurons | journal = Brain Research Reviews | volume = 57 | issue = 2 | pages = 363–75 | year = 2008 | pmid = 17822775 | doi = 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.06.010 }}</ref>]]
A 2009 review raised concerns about a BPA effect on the ].<ref name="pmid18394690">{{cite journal | author = Gore AC | title = Developmental programming and endocrine disruptor effects on reproductive neuroendocrine systems | journal = Front Neuroendocrinol | volume = 29 | issue = 3 | pages = 358–74 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18394690 | pmc = 2702520 | doi = 10.1016/j.yfrne.2008.02.002 }}</ref>

A 2008 study demonstrated that adverse neurological effects occur in ] regularly exposed to bisphenol&nbsp;A at levels equal to the ]'s (EPA) maximum safe dose of 50&nbsp;µg/kg/day.<ref name="pmid18768812">{{cite journal | author = Leranth C, Hajszan T, Szigeti-Buck K, Bober J, MacLusky NJ | title = Bisphenol A prevents the synaptogenic response to estradiol in hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of ovariectomized nonhuman primates | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 105 | issue = 37 | pages = 14187–91 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18768812 | pmc = 2544599 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0806139105 | bibcode = 2008PNAS..10514187L }}</ref><ref name="Layton2">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/09/03/AR2008090303397.html?hpid=topnews|title=Chemical in Plastic Is Connected to Health Problems in Monkeys|last=Layton|first=Lindsey|date=4 September 2008|work=The Washington Post |pages=A02|accessdate=6 September 2008}}</ref> This research found a connection between BPA interference with brain cell connections vital to memory, learning, and mood.

====Disruption of the dopaminergic system====
{{main|Dopaminergic system}}
] dopamine activity resulting in ], ], and a heightened sensitivity to ].<ref name="pmid18555207">{{cite journal|pmid=18555207|year=2008|last1=Jones|first1=DC|last2=Miller|first2=GW|title=The effects of environmental neurotoxicants on the dopaminergic system: A possible role in drug addiction|volume=76|issue=5|pages=569–81|doi=10.1016/j.bcp.2008.05.010|journal=Biochemical pharmacology}}</ref>]]

A 2008 review of human participants has concluded that BPA mimics estrogenic activity and affects various dopaminergic processes to enhance mesolimbic dopamine activity resulting in hyperactivity, attention deficits, and a heightened sensitivity to drugs of abuse.<ref name="pmid18555207"/>

===Thyroid function===
{{main|Thyroid}}
]
A 2007 review concluded that bisphenol-A has been shown to bind to thyroid hormone receptor and perhaps has selective effects on its functions.<ref name="pmid17956155">{{cite journal | author = Zoeller RT | title = Environmental chemicals impacting the thyroid: Targets and consequences | journal = Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association | volume = 17 | issue = 9 | pages = 811–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17956155 | doi = 10.1089/thy.2007.0107 }}</ref>

A 2009 review about environmental chemicals and thyroid function raised concerns about BPA effects on ] and concluded that "available evidence suggests that governing agencies need to regulate the use of thyroid-disrupting chemicals, particularly as such uses relate exposures of pregnant women, neonates and small children to the agents".<ref name="pmid19625957">{{cite journal | author = Boas M, Main KM, Feldt-Rasmussen U | title = Environmental chemicals and thyroid function: An update | journal = Current opinion in endocrinology, diabetes, and obesity | volume = 16 | issue = 5 | pages = 385–91 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19625957 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0b013e3283305af7 }}</ref>

A 2009 review summarized BPA adverse effects on thyroid hormone action.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1248/jhs.55.147|title=Disruption of Thyroid Hormone Function by Environmental Pollutants|year=2009|last1=Kashiwagi|first1=Keiko|last2=Furuno|first2=Nobuaki|last3=Kitamura|first3=Shigeyuki|last4=Ohta|first4=Shigeru|last5=Sugihara|first5=Kazumi|last6=Utsumi|first6=Kozo|last7=Hanada|first7=Hideki|last8=Taniguchi|first8=Kikuyo|last9=Suzuki|first9=Ken-Ichi|last10=Kashiwagi|first10=Akihiko|journal=Journal of Health Science|volume=55|issue=2|pages=147–160}}</ref>

===Cancer research===
According to the WHO's INFOSAN, carcinogenicity studies conducted under the US National Toxicology Program, have shown increases in ] and testicular interstitial cell tumors in male rats. However, according to the note "these studies have not been considered as convincing evidence of a potential cancer risk because of the doubtful statistical significance of the small differences in incidences from controls."<ref name="infosan">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/entity/foodsafety/publications/fs_management/No_05_Bisphenol_A_Nov09_en.pdf|title=BISPHENOL A (BPA) – Current state of knowledge and future actions by WHO and FAO|date=27 November 2009|accessdate=2 December 2009}}</ref>

A 2010 review concluded that bisphenol&nbsp;A may increase cancer risk.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Soto AM, Sonnenschein C | title = Environmental causes of cancer: Endocrine disruptors as carcinogens | journal = Nature Reviews Endocrinology | volume = 6 | issue = 7 | pages = 363–70 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20498677 | doi = 10.1038/nrendo.2010.87 }}</ref>

At least one study suggested that bisphenol&nbsp;A suppresses ],<ref>{{cite book |last=Bagchi |first=Debasis |title=Genomics, Proteomics and Metabolomics in Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods |year=2010 |publisher=Wiley |page=319 |isbn=0-8138-1402-2}}</ref> which is involved in ] changes.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Dolinoy DC, Huang D, Jirtle RL | title = Maternal nutrient supplementation counteracts bisphenol A-induced DNA hypomethylation in early development | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 104 | issue = 32 | pages = 13056–61 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17670942 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0703739104 | pmc=1941790|bibcode = 2007PNAS..10413056D }}</ref>

====Breast cancer====
{{Further|Risk factors of breast cancer#Bisphenol A}}
]
A 2008 review stated that "evidence from animal models is accumulating that perinatal exposure to (...) low doses of (..) BPA, alters breast development and increases breast cancer risk".<ref name="chimia">{{cite journal|doi=10.2533/chimia.2008.406|title=Endocrine Disruptors and Breast Cancer|year=2008|last1=Brisken|first1=Cathrin|journal=CHIMIA International Journal for Chemistry|volume=62|issue=5|pages=406–409}}</ref> Another 2008 review concluded that "animal experiments and epidemiological data strengthen the hypothesis that fetal exposure to xenoestrogens may be an underlying cause of the increased incidence of breast cancer observed over the last 50 years".<ref>{{cite journal | author = Soto AM, Vandenberg LN, Maffini MV, Sonnenschein C | title = Does breast cancer start in the womb? | journal = Basic & clinical pharmacology & toxicology | volume = 102 | issue = 2 | pages = 125–33 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18226065 | pmc = 2817934 | doi = 10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00165.x }}</ref> <!-- not a good source A 2009 review, funded by the "Breast Cancer Fund", has recommended "a federal ban on the manufacture, distribution and sale of consumer products containing bisphenol&nbsp;A".<ref name="pmid19267127">{{cite journal | author = Nudelman J, Taylor B, Evans N, Rizzo J, Gray J, Engel C, Walker M | title = Policy and research recommendations emerging from the scientific evidence connecting environmental factors and breast cancer | journal = Int J Occup Environ Health | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 79–101 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19267127 | doi = 10.1179/oeh.2009.15.1.79 }}</ref> -->

====Neuroblastoma====
] BPA promotes the growth, invasiveness and metastasis of cells from a laboratory ] cancer cell line, SK-N-SH.<ref name="pmid19956873">{{cite journal | author = Zhu H, Zheng J, Xiao X, Zheng S, Dong K, Liu J, Wang Y | title = Environmental endocrine disruptors promote invasion and metastasis of SK-N-SH human neuroblastoma cells | journal = Oncology Reports | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages = 129–39 | year = 2010 | pmid = 19956873 | doi = 10.3892/or_00000614 }}</ref>

===Reproductive system and sexual behavior===

A 2002 study found that BPA administration, both during pregnancy and during lactation, does not masculinize female behavior and does not increase masculinization processes of males. Results were actually contrary, as the study observed an increase of female behavior in females (increase in sexual behavior) and a decrease of male behavior in males (increase in time to reach ejaculation).<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Effects of perinatal exposure to bisphenol A on sociosexual behavior of female and male rats.|last = Farabollini|first = F.|date = 2002|journal = Environ. Health Perspect.|doi = 10.1289/ehp.02110s3409|pmid = 12060837|display-authors=etal |pmc=1241191|volume=110 Suppl 3|pages=409–14}}</ref>

A 2009 study had shown exposure to BPA in the workplace was associated with self-reported adult male sexual dysfunction.<ref name="Li D, Zhou Z, Qing D, He Y, Wu T, Miao M, Wang J, Weng X, Ferber JR, Herrinton LJ, Zhu Q, Gao E, Checkoway H, Yuan W 2009 519–27">{{cite journal | author = Li D, Zhou Z, Qing D, He Y, Wu T, Miao M, Wang J, Weng X, Ferber JR, Herrinton LJ, Zhu Q, Gao E, Checkoway H, Yuan W | title = Occupational exposure to bisphenol-A (BPA) and the risk of Self-Reported Male Sexual Dysfunction | journal = Human Reproduction | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 519–27 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19906654 | doi = 10.1093/humrep/dep381 }}</ref>

A 2009 study on Chinese workers in BPA factories found that workers were four times more likely to report ], reduced sexual desire and overall dissatisfaction with their sex life than workers with no heightened BPA exposure.<ref name="Li D, Zhou Z, Qing D, He Y, Wu T, Miao M, Wang J, Weng X, Ferber JR, Herrinton LJ, Zhu Q, Gao E, Checkoway H, Yuan W 2009 519–27"/> BPA workers were also seven times more likely to have ejaculation difficulties. They were also more likely to report reduced sexual function within one year of beginning employment at the factory, and the higher the exposure, the more likely they were to have sexual difficulties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ajc.com/health/content/shared-auto/healthnews/envm/632954.html |title=BPA Tied to Impotence in Men |publisher=Ajc.com |date=11 November 2009 |accessdate=23 October 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20110628204602/http://www.ajc.com/health/content/shared-auto/healthnews/envm/632954.html |archivedate=28 June 2011 }}</ref>
A 2010 study found that fetuses and young children exposed to BPA were at risk for secondary sexual developmental changes, brain and behavior changes and immune disorders.<ref name="Erler_Novak_2010"/>

A study from 2011, looking at a deer mouse species, found choice of mating partner to be particularly sensitive to BPA. Such an issue might be extended to other species and provide a roadmap as to what sex-specific traits might be most vulnerable to such chemicals. Male spatial navigational ability was found to be disrupted by early BPA exposure. As a result, in the mate choice experiment, females proved to be particularly sensitive to the compromised condition of such males and thus prefer males not exposed to BPA. Potential in the wild for BPA exposure to reduce the chances of these males to reproduce successfully.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Disruption of adult expression of sexually selected traits by developmental exposure to bisphenol A|url = http://www.pnas.org/content/108/28/11715|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date = 2011-07-12|issn = 0027-8424|pmc = 3136312|pmid = 21709224|pages = 11715–11720|volume = 108|issue = 28|doi = 10.1073/pnas.1107958108|first = Eldin|last = Jašarević|first2 = Paizlee T.|last2 = Sieli|first3 = Erin E.|last3 = Twellman|first4 = Thomas H.|last4 = Welsh|first5 = Todd R.|last5 = Schachtman|first6 = R. Michael|last6 = Roberts|first7 = David C.|last7 = Geary|first8 = Cheryl S.|last8 = Rosenfeld}}</ref>

A study from 2013 looked at the California mice territorial marking behavior among other points of interest. These California mice who use scent or territorial marking to establish their home range were modeled to determine if exposure to BPA disrupted this behavior. The BPA-exposed males did not demonstrate any increase in territorial marking on the final day of study (day 7) in the presence of another (non BPA-exposed) male compared to day 0, when housed together. Reduced territorial marking and presumed low dominance in the wild could have reproductive consequences for male California mice and is in line with other research study results. This study also suggests that exposure to BPA may lead to lower mate guarding and, as a consequence, increase their risk of infidelity, an atypical outcome for a monogamous species, but this hypothesis has not been tested.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Effects of Developmental Bisphenol A Exposure on Reproductive-Related Behaviors in California Mice (Peromyscus californicus): A Monogamous Animal Model|url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055698|journal = PLoS ONE|date = 2013-02-06|pmc = 3565966|pmid = 23405200|pages = e55698|volume = 8|issue = 2|doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0055698|first = Scott A.|last = Williams|first2 = Eldin|last2 = Jasarevic|first3 = Gregory M.|last3 = Vandas|first4 = Denise A.|last4 = Warzak|first5 = David C.|last5 = Geary|first6 = Mark R.|last6 = Ellersieck|first7 = R. Michael|last7 = Roberts|first8 = Cheryl S.|last8 = Rosenfeld}}</ref>

===Asthma===
] rates have shown a dramatic increase since the 1970s; in 2011 the CDC reported the rate of childhood asthma to be about 1 in 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/asthmadata.htm |title=CDC - Asthma - Data and Surveillance - Asthma Surveillance Data |publisher=Cdc.gov |date=2013-03-25 |accessdate=2014-02-01}}</ref> Some experts believe that the cause may be related to early-life exposures and changes in immune systems.<ref name="scientificamerican.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=new-study-links-bpa-and-childhood-asthma |title=New Study Links BPA and Childhood Asthma |publisher=Scientific American |date=2013-03-01 |accessdate=2014-02-01}}</ref> Studies in mice have found a link between BPA exposure and asthma; a 2010 study on mice has concluded that ] exposure to 10&nbsp;µg/ml of BPA in drinking water enhances allergic sensitization and bronchial inflammation and responsiveness in an animal model of ].<ref name="scientificamerican.com"/><ref>{{cite journal | author = Midoro-Horiuti T, Tiwari R, Watson CS, Goldblum RM | title = Maternal bisphenol a exposure promotes the development of experimental asthma in mouse pups | journal = Environmental health perspectives | volume = 118 | issue = 2 | pages = 273–7 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20123615 | pmc = 2831929 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0901259 }}</ref> A study published in JAMA pediatrics has found that prenatal exposure to BPA is also linked to lower lung capacity in some young children. This study had 398 mother-infant pairs and looked at their urine samples to detect concentrations of BPA. They study found that every 10-fold increase in BPA was tied to a 55% increase in the odds of wheezing. The higher the concentration of BPA during pregnancy were linked to decrease lung capacity in children under four years old but the link disappeared at age 5. Associate professor of pediatrics at the University of Maryland School of Medicine said, “Exposure during pregnancy, not after, appears to be the critical time for BPA, possibly because it’s affecting important pathways that help the lung develop.”<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://time.com/3475859/bpa-lung-function-children/|title = The Link Between Asthma and This Chemical|last = Oaklander|first = M|date = 7 October 2014|work = TIME|access-date = 20 October 2015|via = }}</ref>

In 2013, research from scientists at the Columbia Center for Children's Environmental Health also found a link between the compound and an increased risk for asthma. The research team reported that children with higher levels of BPA at ages 3, 5 and 7 had increased odds of developing asthma when they were between the ages of 5 and 12. The children in this study had about the same concentration of BPA exposure as the average U.S child. Dr. Kathleen Donohue, an instructor at Columbia University Medical Center said, “they saw an increased risk of asthma at fairly routine, low doses of BPA.”<ref>{{cite news|title=Widely used chemical linked to childhood asthma|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-33816_162-57572194/widely-used-chemical-linked-to-childhood-asthma/|publisher=CBS News|accessdate=2 March 2013}}</ref> Kim Harley, who studies environmental chemicals and children's health, commented in the ] journal saying while the study does not show that BPA causes asthma or wheezing, "it's an important study because we don't know a lot right now about how BPA affects immune response and asthma...They measured BPA at different ages, measured asthma and wheeze at multiple points, and still found consistent associations."<ref name="scientificamerican.com" />

===Heart disease===
BPA can affect the hearts of women, can permanently damage the DNA of mice, and appears to be entering the human body from a variety of unknown sources.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/44577/title/More_troubling_news_about_BPA |title=More Troubling News About BPA / Science News|publisher=sciencenews.org|accessdate=11 June 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/06/11/us-bisphenol-idUSTRE55A0JK20090611|title=Hormone experts worried about plastics, chemicals|agency=Reuters|author=Maggie Fox|accessdate=10 June 2009|date=11 June 2009}}</ref> The first large study of health effects on humans associated with bisphenol&nbsp;A exposure was published in September 2008 by Iain Lang and colleagues in the '']''.<ref name="Lang et al.">{{cite journal | author = Lang IA, Galloway TS, Scarlett A, Henley WE, Depledge M, Wallace RB, Melzer D | title = Association of Urinary Bisphenol A Concentration With Medical Disorders and Laboratory Abnormalities in Adults | journal = ] | volume = 300 | issue = 11 | pages = 1303–10 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18799442 | doi = 10.1001/jama.300.11.1303 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/300.11.1303 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn14739-plastic-bottle-chemical-linked-to-heart-disease.html |title=Plastic bottle chemical linked to heart disease |work=New Scientist |author=Alison Motluk |date=September 2008 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> The ] of almost 1,500 people assessed exposure to bisphenol&nbsp;A by looking at levels of the chemical in urine. The authors found that higher bisphenol&nbsp;A levels were ] associated with ], ], and abnormally high levels of certain liver enzymes. An editorial in the same issue concludes:

<blockquote>"Based on this background information, the study by Lang et al,1 while preliminary with regard to these diseases in humans, should spur US regulatory agencies to follow the recent action taken by Canadian regulatory agencies, which have declared BPA a "toxic chemical" requiring aggressive action to limit human and environmental exposures.4 Alternatively, Congressional action could follow the precedent set with the recent passage of federal legislation designed to limit exposures to another family of compounds, phthalates, also used in plastic. Like BPA,5 phthalates are detectable in virtually everyone in the United States.6 This bill moves US policy closer to the European model, in which industry must provide data on the safety of a chemical before it can be used in products."<ref name="JAMAVS"/><ref>{{cite journal | author = vom Saal FS, Myers JP | title = Bisphenol a and Risk of Metabolic Disorders | journal = JAMA | volume = 300 | issue = 11 | pages = 1353–5 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18799451 | doi = 10.1001/jama.300.11.1353 }}</ref></blockquote>

A similar study performed by the same group in 2010 confirmed, despite of lower concentrations of BPA in the second study sample, an associated increased risk for heart disease but not for diabetes or liver enzymes. Patients with the highest levels of BPA in their urine carried a 33% increased risk of coronary heart disease.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Melzer D, Rice NE, Lewis C, Henley WE, Galloway TS | title = Association of Urinary Bisphenol a Concentration with Heart Disease: Evidence from NHANES 2003/06 | journal = PLoS ONE | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = e8673 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20084273 | pmc = 2800195 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0008673 | editor1-last = Zhang | editor1-first = Baohong |bibcode = 2010PLoSO...5.8673M }} {{open access}}</ref>
In 2012, David Melzer and colleagues also published a correlation between BPA levels in urine and heart disease. BPA exposure was higher in those with severe coronary artery stenoses compared to those with no vessel disease.<ref name="Melzer">{{cite journal |author=Melzer D, Gates P, Osborn NJ |year=2012 |title=Urinary bisphenol a concentration and angiography-defined coronary artery stenosis |url=http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0043378 |journal=PLoS ONE|volume=7 |doi=10.1371/annotation/5f293018-48a3-40ae-96b7-04438d1d9cb9 |editor1-last=Mendelson |editor1-first=John E |issue=11 |display-authors=etal}} {{open access}}</ref>

A 2014 Korean study pointed to a strong correlation between ] and the BPA used in the plastic lining of canned drinks.<ref>{{cite news |last=Park|first=Alice|date=8 December 2014|title=The Other Reason Canned Food Is Raising Your Blood Pressure|url=http://time.com/3623568/bpa-cans-blood-pressure/|newspaper=]|accessdate=10 December 2014}}</ref>

===Oxidative stress===
{{medref|section|date=December 2014}}

Clinical biomarkers of oxidative stress such as ], ], and ] correlate positively with high urinary BPA levels in pregnant<ref>{{cite journal | author = Watkins DJ, Ferguson KK, Anzalota Del Toro LV, Alshawabkeh AN, Cordero JF, Meeker JD. | title = Associations between urinary phenol and paraben concentrations and markers of oxidative stress and inflammation among pregnant women in Puerto Rico. | journal = Int J Hyg Environ Health |year = 2014 | pmid = 25435060 | doi = 10.1016/j.ijheh.2014.11.001 | volume=218 | pages=212–9}}</ref> and postmenopausal women.<ref name="Yang YJ, Hong YC, Oh SY, Park MS, Kim H, Leem JH, Ha EH 2009 797–801">{{cite journal | author = Yang YJ, Hong YC, Oh SY, Park MS, Kim H, Leem JH, Ha EH | title = Bisphenol a exposure is associated with oxidative stress and inflammation in postmenopausal women | journal = Environmental Research | volume = 109 | issue = 6 | pages = 797–801 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19464675 | doi = 10.1016/j.envres.2009.04.014 |bibcode = 2009ER....109..797Y }}</ref> Higher incidence of cardiovascular diseases are also associated with high urinary BPA levels. Similarly, laboratory animals such as rats<ref name="pmid12505450">{{cite journal | author = Chitra KC, Latchoumycandane C, Mathur PP| title = Induction of oxidative stress by bisphenol A in the epididymal sperm of rats. | journal = Toxicology | volume = 185 | issue = 1-2 | pages = 119–27 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12505450| doi = 10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00597-8}}</ref> and mice<ref name="pmid15051418">{{cite journal | author = Kabuto H, Amakawa M, Shishibori T| title = Exposure to bisphenol A during embryonic/fetal life and infancy increases oxidative injury and causes underdevelopment of the brain and testis in mice. | journal = Life Sci. | volume = 74 | issue = 24 | pages = 2931–40 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 15051418 | doi = 10.1016/j.lfs.2003.07.060}}</ref> exposed to bisphenol A have been found to have ] markers. Redox enzymes including catalase, peroxidase, and other antioxidant compounds such as phenolic acids, alkyresorcinols, and aminophenols are shown to alternate with BPA exposure. It is generally observed that with increased levels of BPA, there is a depletion of endogenic ] molecules and increased generation of ]. Since BPA is a phenolic compound, it can act as ].<ref name="pmid23193990">{{cite journal | author = Babu S, Uppu S, Claville MO, Uppu RM.| title = Prooxidant actions of bisphenol A (BPA) phenoxyl radicals: implications to BPA-related oxidative stress and toxicity | journal = Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 273–80 | date = May 2013 | pmid = 23193990| doi = 10.3109/15376516.2012.753969}}</ref> BPA phenoxyl radicals oxidize cellular co-factors such as ] and antibiotic drug molecules such as ]. However, co-administration of Vitamin C reversed the effects of bisphenol A-induced oxidative stress in male rats. Similarly, wheat sprout ] juice had been found to reduce the levels oxidative stress markers ] and ] in young women.

===Miscellaneous effects===
Studies have associated recurrent miscarriage with BPA serum concentrations,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sugiura-Ogasawara M, Ozaki Y, Sonta S, Makino T, Suzumori K | title = Exposure to bisphenol a is associated with recurrent miscarriage | journal = Human Reproduction | volume = 20 | issue = 8 | pages = 2325–9 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15947000 | doi = 10.1093/humrep/deh888 }}</ref> oxidative stress and inflammation in postmenopausal women with urinary concentrations,<ref name="Yang YJ, Hong YC, Oh SY, Park MS, Kim H, Leem JH, Ha EH 2009 797–801"/> externalizing behaviors in two-year-old children, especially among female children, with mother's urinary concentrations,<ref name=":5">{{cite journal | author = Braun JM, Yolton K, Dietrich KN, Hornung R, Ye X, Calafat AM, Lanphear BP | title = Prenatal Bisphenol a Exposure and Early Childhood Behavior | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 117 | issue = 12 | pages = 1945–52 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20049216 | pmc = 2799471 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0900979 }}</ref> altered hormone levels in men<ref>{{cite journal | author = Meeker JD, Calafat AM, Hauser R | title = Urinary Bisphenol a Concentrations in Relation to Serum Thyroid and Reproductive Hormone Levels in Men from an Infertility Clinic | journal = Environmental Science & Technology | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 1458–63 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20030380 | doi = 10.1021/es9028292 | pmc=2823133|bibcode = 2010EnST...44.1458M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Mendiola J, Jørgensen N, Andersson AM, Calafat AM, Ye X, Redmon JB, Drobnis EZ, Wang C, Sparks A, Thurston SW, Liu F, Swan SH | title = Are environmental levels of bisphenol a associated with reproductive function in fertile men? | journal = Environmental health perspectives | volume = 118 | issue = 9 | pages = 1286–91 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20494855 | pmc = 2944091 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1002037 }}</ref> and declining male sexual function<ref name="pmid20467048">{{cite journal | author = Li DK, Zhou Z, Miao M, He Y, Qing D, Wu T, Wang J, Weng X, Ferber J, Herrinton LJ, Zhu Q, Gao E, Yuan W | title = Relationship between urine bisphenol-A level and declining male sexual function | journal = J. Androl. | volume = 31 | issue = 5 | pages = 500–6 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20467048 | doi = 10.2164/jandrol.110.010413 }}</ref> with urinary concentrations. The Canadian Health Measures Survey, 2007 to 2009 published in 2010 found that teenagers carry 30 percent more BPA in their bodies than older adults. The reason for this is not known.<ref>{{cite news |title=Bisphenol A concentrations in the Canadian population, 2007 to 2009 |date=16 August 2010 |url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-625-x/2010002/article/11327-eng.htm |work=Statistics Canada |pages=82–625–XWE |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> A 2010 study that analyzed BPA urinary concentrations has concluded that for people under 18 years of age BPA may negatively impact human immune function.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Clayton EM, Todd M, Dowd JB, Aiello AE | title = The impact of bisphenol a and triclosan on immune parameters in the U.S. Population, NHANES 2003-2006 | journal = Environmental health perspectives | volume = 119 | issue = 3 | pages = 390–6 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21062687 | pmc = 3060004 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1002883 }}</ref> A study done in 2010 reported the daily excretion levels of BPA among European adults in a large-scale and high-quality population-based sample, and it was shown that higher BPA daily excretion was associated with an increase in serum total ] concentration in men.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/fetchArticle.action?articleURI=info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.1002367 |title=Daily Bisphenol A Excretion and Associations with Sex Hormone Concentrations: Results from the InCHIANTI Adult Population Study |work=Environmental Health Perspectives |accessdate=3 February 2012}}</ref> A recently published review found evidence that BPA alters immune responses.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rogers JA, Metz L, Yong VW | title = Review: Endocrine disrupting chemicals and immune responses: A focus on bisphenol-A and its potential mechanisms | journal = Molecular Immunology | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 421–30 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23123408 | doi = 10.1016/j.molimm.2012.09.013 }}</ref>

===Low-dose exposure in animals===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Dose (µg/kg/day)
! Effects (measured in studies of mice or rats,<br/>descriptions (in quotes) are from ])<ref name="globemittelstaedt">{{cite news | last=Mittelstaedt | first=Martin | title='Inherently toxic' chemical faces its future | date=7 April 2007 | url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20070406.wbisphenolA0407/BNStory/National/ | accessdate=7 April 2007 |work=The Globe and Mail | location=Toronto}}</ref><ref name="EWG-BPA">This table is adapted from: EWG, 2007. "Many studies confirm BPA's low-dose toxicity across a diverse range of toxic effects," Environmental Working Group Report: A Survey of Bisphenol A in U.S. Canned Foods. Retrieved 4 November 2007 at . All studies included in this table where judged by the CERHR panel to be at least of moderate usefulness for assessing the risk of BPA to human reproduction.</ref>
! Study Year
|-
| 0.025
| "Permanent changes to genital tract"
| 2005<ref name="pmid15689538">{{cite journal | author = Markey CM, Wadia PR, Rubin BS, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM | title = Long-term effects of fetal exposure to low doses of the xenoestrogen bisphenol-A in the female mouse genital tract | journal = ] | volume = 72 | issue = 6 | pages = 1344–51 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15689538 | doi = 10.1095/biolreprod.104.036301 | url = http://www.biolreprod.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15689538 | accessdate = 1 February 2012 }}</ref>
|-
| 0.025
| "Changes in breast tissue that predispose cells to hormones and carcinogens"
| 2005<ref name="pmid15919749">{{cite journal | author = Muñoz-de-Toro M, Markey CM, Wadia PR, Luque EH, Rubin BS, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM | title = Perinatal exposure to bisphenol-A alters peripubertal mammary gland development in mice | journal = ] | volume = 146 | issue = 9 | pages = 4138–47 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15919749 | pmc = 2834307 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0340 | url = http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15919749 }}</ref>
|-
| 1
| long-term adverse reproductive and carcinogenic effects
| 2009<ref name="pmid19590677">{{cite journal | author = Newbold RR, Jefferson WN, Padilla-Banks E | title = Prenatal exposure to bisphenol a at environmentally relevant doses adversely affects the murine female reproductive tract later in life | journal = Environmental health perspectives | volume = 117 | issue = 6 | pages = 879–85 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19590677 | pmc = 2702400 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0800045 }}</ref>
|-
| 2
| "increased prostate weight 30%"
| 1997<ref name="pmid9074884">{{cite journal | author = Nagel SC, vom Saal FS, Thayer KA, Dhar MG, Boechler M, Welshons WV | title = Relative binding affinity-serum modified access (RBA-SMA) assay predicts the relative in vivo bioactivity of the xenoestrogens bisphenol A and octylphenol | journal = ] | volume = 105 | issue = 1 | pages = 70–6 | year = 1997 | pmid = 9074884 | pmc = 1469837 | doi = 10.2307/3433065 | jstor = 3433065 }}</ref>
|-
| 2<!-- abstract says says 5.0, EWG report says 2.4 -->
| "lower bodyweight, increase of ] in both genders, signs of early puberty and longer estrus."
| 2002<ref name="pmid11955942">{{cite journal | author = Honma S, Suzuki A, Buchanan DL, Katsu Y, Watanabe H, Iguchi T | title = Low dose effect of in utero exposure to bisphenol A and diethylstilbestrol on female mouse reproduction | journal = Reproductive Toxicology | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 117–22 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11955942 | doi = 10.1016/S0890-6238(02)00006-0 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890623802000060 }}</ref>
|-
| 2.4
| "Decline in testicular testosterone"
| 2004<ref name="pmid14605012">{{cite journal | author = Akingbemi BT, Sottas CM, Koulova AI, Klinefelter GR, Hardy MP | title = Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat Leydig cells | journal = ] | volume = 145 | issue = 2 | pages = 592–603 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14605012 | doi = 10.1210/en.2003-1174 | url = http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=14605012 }}</ref>
|-
| 2.5
| "Breast cells predisposed to cancer"
| 2007<ref name="pmid17123778">{{cite journal | author = Murray TJ, Maffini MV, Ucci AA, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM | title = Induction of mammary gland ductal hyperplasias and carcinoma in situ following fetal bisphenol A exposure | journal = Reproductive Toxicology | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 383–90 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17123778 | pmc = 1987322 | doi = 10.1016/j.reprotox.2006.10.002 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890-6238(06)00263-2 }}</ref>
|-
| 10
| "Prostate cells more sensitive to hormones and cancer"
| 2006<ref name="pmid16740699">{{cite journal | author = Ho SM, Tang WY, Belmonte de Frausto J, Prins GS | title = Developmental exposure to estradiol and bisphenol A increases susceptibility to prostate carcinogenesis and epigenetically regulates phosphodiesterase type 4 variant 4 | journal = ] | volume = 66 | issue = 11 | pages = 5624–32 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16740699 | pmc = 2276876 | doi = 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-0516 | url = http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16740699 }}</ref>
|-
| 10
| "Decreased maternal behaviors"
| 2002<ref name="pmid12060838">{{cite journal | author = Palanza PL, Howdeshell KL, Parmigiani S, vom Saal FS | title = Exposure to a low dose of bisphenol A during fetal life or in adulthood alters maternal behavior in mice | journal = ] | volume = 110 Suppl 3 | issue = Suppl 3 | pages = 415–22 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12060838 | pmc = 1241192 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.02110s3415 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241192/ }}</ref>
|-
<!-- values in abstract (PMID 15079872) don't agree with LOAEL listed in EWG report| 30
| "Hyperactivity"
| 2004
|- -->
| 30
| "Reversed the normal sex differences in brain structure and behavior"
| 2003<ref name="pmid12631470">{{cite journal | author = Kubo K, Arai O, Omura M, Watanabe R, Ogata R, Aou S | title = Low dose effects of bisphenol A on sexual differentiation of the brain and behavior in rats | journal = ] | volume = 45 | issue = 3 | pages = 345–56 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12631470 | doi = 10.1016/S0168-0102(02)00251-1 | url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0168010202002511 }}</ref>
|-
| 50
| Adverse neurological effects occur in ]
| 2008<ref name="pmid18768812"/>
|-
| 50
| Disrupts ovarian development
| 2009<ref name="pmid19535786">{{cite journal | author = Adewale HB, Jefferson WN, Newbold RR, Patisaul HB | title = Neonatal bisphenol-a exposure alters rat reproductive development and ovarian morphology without impairing activation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons | journal = Biology of Reproduction | volume = 81 | issue = 4 | pages = 690–9 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19535786 | pmc = 2754884 | doi = 10.1095/biolreprod.109.078261 }}</ref>
|}
<!-- controversial
A study from 2008 concluded that blood levels of bisphenol&nbsp;A in neonatal mice are the same whether it is injected or ingested.<ref name="pmid18295446">{{cite journal |author=Taylor JA, Welshons WV, Vom Saal FS |title=No effect of route of exposure (oral; subcutaneous injection) on plasma bisphenol A throughout 24h after administration in neonatal female mice |journal=Reprod. Toxicol. |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=169–76 |date=February 2008 |pmid=18295446 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.01.001 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0890-6238(08)00002-6 |accessdate=5 May 2008 |pmc=3564515}}</ref>-->
The current U.S. human exposure limit set by the EPA is 50&nbsp;µg/kg/day.<ref name="CASRN 80-05-7"/>
<!-- Ongoing discussion
In a 2010 commentary a group of scientists criticized a study designed to test low dose BPA exposure published in ''"Toxicological Sciences"''<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ryan BC, Hotchkiss AK, Crofton KM, Gray LE | title = In utero and lactational exposure to bisphenol A, in contrast to ethinyl estradiol, does not alter sexually dimorphic behavior, puberty, fertility, and anatomy of female LE rats | journal = Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 133–48 | year = 2010 | pmid = 19864446 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfp266 }}</ref> and a later editorial by the same journal,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sharpe RM | title = Is it time to end concerns over the estrogenic effects of bisphenol A? | journal = Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–4 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20147444 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfp299 }}</ref> which claimed the rats used in the study were insensitive to estrogen and that had other problems like the use of polycabornate cages<ref name="Vom2010"/> while the authors disagreed.<ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 20207694 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfq073 | title=Rebuttal of "Flawed Experimental Design Reveals the Need for Guidelines Requiring Appropriate Positive Controls in Endocrine Disruption Research" by vom Saal | journal=Toxicological Sciences | date=2010 | volume=115 | issue=2 | pages=614–620 | first=L. E. | last=Gray}}</ref>
-->
Different expression of ERR-γ in different parts of the body may account for variations in bisphenol&nbsp;A effects. For instance, ERR-γ has been found in high concentration in the ], explaining reports of high bisphenol accumulation in this tissue.<ref name="pmid19304792" />

== Environmental issues ==

=== Environmental risk ===
In 2010, the ] reported that over one million pounds of BPA are released into the environment annually.<ref name="Erler_Novak_2010">{{cite journal | author = Erler C, Novak J | title = Bisphenol a exposure: human risk and health policy | journal = J Pediatr Nurs | volume = 25 | issue = 5 | pages = 400–7 | date = October 2010 | pmid = 20816563 | doi = 10.1016/j.pedn.2009.05.006 }}</ref> BPA can enter the environment either directly from chemical, plastics. coat and staining manufacturers, from paper or material recycling companies, foundries who use BPA in casting sand, or indirectly leaching from plastic, paper and metal waste in landfills.<ref name=EPA2011>{{cite web|title=Testing of Bisphenol A, Advance notice of proposed rulemaking (ANPRM)|work=Federal Register /Vol. 76, No. 143 / Proposed Rules|publisher=Federal Register|accessdate=23 March 2014|author=EPA|date=July 26, 2011}}</ref> or ocean-borne plastic trash.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plastic Breaks Down in Ocean, After All – And Fast |first=Carolyn |last=Barry |work=National Geographic News |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/08/090820-plastic-decomposes-oceans-seas.html |date=20 August 2009 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref> Despite a soil ] of only 1–10 days, BPA's ubiquity makes it an important ]; It was shown to interfere with ] at the roots of ] plants associated with the ] ] '']''.<ref name="fox">{{cite journal | author = Fox JE, Gulledge J, Engelhaupt E, Burow ME, McLachlan JA | title = Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants | journal = ] | volume = 104 | issue = 24 | pages = 10282–7 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17548832 | pmc = 1885820 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0611710104 | bibcode = 2007PNAS..10410282F }}</ref>

A 2005 study conducted in the US had found that 91–98% of BPA may be removed from water during treatment at municipal water treatment plants.<ref>Drewes, J. E.; Hemming, J.; Ladenburger, S. J.; Schauer, J.; Sonzogni, W. An assessment of endocrine disrupting activity changes during wastewater treatment through the use of bioassays and chemical measurements. Water Environ. Res. 2005, 77, 12–23.</ref> Nevertheless, a 2009 meta-analysis of BPA in the surface water system showed BPA present in surface water and sediment in the US and Europe.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Klečka, G., Staples, C., Clark, K., Anderhoeven, N., Thomas, D. and Hentges, S.|title= Exposure analysis of Bisphenol A in surface water systems in North America and Europe| journal=Environ. Sci. Technol| year= 2009|volume= 43|pages= 6145–6150|doi=10.1021/es900598e|bibcode = 2009EnST...43.6145K }}</ref> According to ] in 2011, "BPA can currently be found in municipal wastewater. initial assessment shows that at low levels, bisphenol&nbsp;A can harm fish and organisms over time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/fact-fait/bisphenol-a-eng.php|title=Bisphenol A Fact Sheet|publisher=Government of Canada |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110423211655/http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/fact-fait/bisphenol-a-eng.php|archivedate=23 April 2011|accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>

BPA affects growth, reproduction, and development in aquatic organisms. Among freshwater organisms, fish appear to be the most sensitive species. Evidence of endocrine-related effects in fish, aquatic invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles has been reported at environmentally relevant exposure levels lower than those required for acute toxicity. There is a widespread variation in reported values for endocrine-related effects, but many fall in the range of 1μg/L to 1&nbsp;mg/L.<ref name="epa-action-plan"/>

A 2009 review of the biological impacts of ]s on wildlife published by the ] with a focus on aquatic and terrestrial ], ], ], insects, fish and ]s concluded that BPA affects reproduction in all studied animal groups, impairs development in crustaceans and amphibians and induces genetic aberrations.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Oehlmann J, Schulte-Oehlmann U, Kloas W, Jagnytsch O, Lutz I, Kusk KO, Wollenberger L, Santos EM, Paull GC, Van Look KJ, Tyler CR | title = A critical analysis of the biological impacts of plasticizers on wildlife | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 364 | issue = 1526 | pages = 2047–62 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19528055 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2008.0242 | pmc=2873012}}</ref>

=== Environmental regulation in the United States ===
On 30 December 2009 EPA released a so called ] for four chemicals, including BPA, which would have added it to the list of "chemicals of concern" regulated under the ]. In February 2010, after lobbyists for the chemical industry had met with administration officials, the EPA delayed BPA regulation by not including the chemical.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogreports/84321857.html|title=Regulator waffles on bisphenol A|last=Kissinger |first=Meg|date=14 February 2010|work=The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel|accessdate=17 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2010/02/14/EPA-delays-action-on-suspect-chemical/UPI-37321266190180/|title=EPA delays action on suspect chemical|date=14 February 2010|agency=United Press International|accessdate=17 February 2010}}</ref>

On 29 March 2010, EPA published a revised action plan for BPA as "chemical of concern".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/d0cf6618525a9efb85257359003fb69d/78110048d7f696d1852576f50054241a!OpenDocument |title=EPA to Scrutinize Environmental Impact of Bisphenol A|date=29 March 2010 |publisher=US EPA |accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> In October 2010 an advanced ] for BPA testing was published in the Federal Register July 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Testing of Bisphenol A|work=Federal Register/Vol. 76, No. 143|accessdate=23 March 2014|author=US EPA|date=July 26, 2011}}</ref> After more than 3 years at the ] (OIRA), part of the ] (OMB), which has to review draft proposals within 3 months, OIRA had not done so.

In September 2013 EPA withdrew its 2010 draft BPA rule.<ref>{{cite web|last=Carroll|first=Jeremy |title=EPA withdraws draft rules on BPA, PBDEs|url=http://www.plasticsnews.com/article/20130920/NEWS/130929993/epa-withdraws-draft-rules-on-bpa-pbdes#|work=Plastics News|publisher=Crain Communications Inc.|accessdate=13 March 2014|date=20 September 2013}}</ref> saying the rule was “no longer necessary”, because EPA was taking a different track at looking at chemicals, a so-called "Work Plan" of more than 80 chemicals for risk assessment and risk reduction. Another proposed rule that EPA withdrew would have limited industry's claims of ] (CBI) for the health and safety studies needed, when new chemicals are submitted under TSCA for review. The EPA said it continued "to try to reduce unwarranted claims of confidentiality and has taken a number of significant steps that have had dramatic results... tightening policies for CBI claims and declassifying unwarranted confidentiality claims, challenging companies to review existing CBI claims to ensure that they are still valid and providing easier and enhanced access to a wider array of information.”

The chemical industry group ] commended EPA for "choosing a course of action that will ultimately strengthen the performance of the nation’s primary chemical management law.” Richard Denison, senior scientist with the ], commented “both rules were subject to intense opposition and lobbying from the chemical industry” and “Faced presumably with the reality that was never going to let EPA even propose the rules for public comment, EPA decided to withdraw them.”<ref>{{cite web|last=Denison|first=Richard|title=Stymied at every turn: EPA withdraws two draft TSCA proposals in the face of endless delay at OMB|url=http://blogs.edf.org/health/2013/09/06/stymied-at-every-turn-epa-withdraws-two-draft-tsca-proposals-in-the-face-of-endless-delay-at-omb/#sthash.TacBQoh1.dpuf|work=EDF Health|publisher=EDF|accessdate=23 March 2014|date=September 6, 2013}}</ref>

On 29 January 2014 EPA released a final alternatives assessment for BPA in thermal paper as part of its ] program.<ref>{{cite web|title=BPA Alternatives in Thermal Paper Partnership|url=http://www.epa.gov/oppt/dfe/pubs/projects/bpa/bpa-report-complete.pdf|work=Design for Environment|publisher=EPA|accessdate=23 March 2014|date=29 January 2014}}</ref>

=== Bioremediation ===

==== Microbial degradation ====
Two enzymes participate in bisphenol degradation:
* The enzyme ], which can be found in ''] sp'', transforms ] and O<sub>2</sub> into 4-hydroxybenzoate and ].<ref>{{cite journal|author1= Mayu Enya|author2= Keiko Aoyagi|author3= Yoshihiro Hishikawa|author4= Azusa Yoshimura|author5= Koichi Mitsukura|author6= Kiyofumi Marayuma|title= Molecular and Catalytic Properties of 2,4′-Dihydroxyacetophenone Dioxygenase from Burkholderia sp. AZ11|journal= Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry|volume= 76|issue= 3|year= 2012|pages= 567–574|url= http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1271/bbb.110867|doi=10.1271/bbb.110867}}</ref>
* The enzyme ], which can be found in '']'', uses (4-hydroxyphenyl)ethan-1-one, NADPH, H<sup>+</sup> and O<sub>2</sub> to produce ], NADP<sup>+</sup>, and H<sub>2</sub>O.<ref>{{cite web|title= Bisphenol A Pathway Map|author= Prasad Kotharu, Lynda Ellis & Shawn Balcome|website= Biocatalysis/Biodegradation Database|url= http://eawag-bbd.ethz.ch/bpa/bpa_map.html|accessdate= 2015-11-04 }}</ref>

The fungus '']'' is also able to degrade synthetic phenolic compounds like bisphenol A.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Keum YS, Lee HR, Park HW, Kim JH | title = Biodegradation of bisphenol a and its halogenated analogues by Cunninghamella elegans ATCC36112 | journal = Biodegradation | volume = 21 | issue = 6 | pages = 989–997 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20455075 | pmc = | doi = 10.1007/s10532-010-9358-8 }}</ref>

==== Plant degradation ====
'']'' efficiently removes bisphenol A from a hydroponic solution. How this happens is unclear.<ref>Watanabe I. Harada K. Matsui T. Miyasaka H. Okuhata H. Tanaka S. Nakayama H. Kato K. Bamba T. Hirata K."Characterization of bisphenol A metabolites produced by Portulaca oleracea cv. by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry." , ''Biotechnology & Biochemistry''. 76(5):1015-7, 2012.</ref>

== Government positions on safety ==

=== World Health Organization ===
In November 2009, the ] announced to organize an expert consultation in 2010 to assess low-dose BPA exposure health effects, focusing on the nervous and behavioral system and exposure to young children.<ref name="infosan"/> The 2010 WHO expert panel recommended no new regulations limiting or banning the use of bisphenol-A, stating that "initiation of public health measures would be premature."<ref>Brown, Eryn. , '']'', 11 November 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2011.</ref>

===United States===

In 2013, the FDA posted on its web site: "Is BPA safe?
Yes. Based on FDA's ongoing safety review of scientific evidence, the available information continues to support the safety of BPA for the currently approved uses in food containers and packaging. People are exposed to low levels of BPA because, like many packaging components, very small amounts of BPA may migrate from the food packaging into foods or beverages."<ref name="Questions & Answers on Bisphenol A (BPA) Use in Food Contact Applications">{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/ucm355155.htm |title=Questions & Answers on Bisphenol A (BPA) Use in Food Contact Applications |publisher=Fda.gov |date=2013-06-04 |accessdate=2014-02-01}}</ref> FDA issued a statement on the basis of three previous reviews by a group of assembled Agency experts in 2014 in its "Final report for the review of literature and data on BPA" that said in part, "The results of these new toxicity data and studies do not affect the dose-effect level and the existing NOAEL (5 mg/kg bw/day; oral exposure)."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/FoodAdditivesIngredients/UCM424011.pdf |title=Final Report for the Review of Literature and Data on BPA |publisher=Fda.gov |date=2014-06-06}}</ref>

===Australia and New Zealand===
In 2009 the Australia and New Zealand Food Safety Authority (]) did not see any health risk with bisphenol&nbsp;A ]s if the manufacturer's instructions were followed, as levels of exposure were very low and would not pose a significant health risk. It added that "the move by overseas manufacturers to stop using BPA in baby bottles is a voluntary action and not the result of a specific action by regulators."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/newsroom/factsheets/factsheets2009/bisphenolabpaandfood4218.cfm |title=Bisphenol A (BPA) and food packaging |publisher=Food Standards Australia New Zealand |date=May 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100109102336/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/educationalmaterial/factsheets/factsheets2009/bisphenolabpaandfood4218.cfm |archivedate=9 January 2010 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}{{Dead link|date=May 2012}}</ref> In 2008 it had suggested the use of glass baby bottles if parents had concerns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/bisphenol-a.htm |title=Babies' bottles and bisphenol A |date=May 2008 |publisher=] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100726062453/http://www.nzfsa.govt.nz/consumers/chemicals-nutrients-additives-and-toxins/bisphenol-a.htm |archivedate=26 July 2010 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>

In 2012 the Australian Government introduced a voluntary phase out of BPA use in polycarbonate baby bottles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumerinformation/bisphenolabpa/ |title=Bisphenol A (BPA) |publisher=Food Standards Australia New Zealand |date=April 2012 }}</ref>

===Canada===
In April 2008, ] concluded that, while adverse health effects were not expected, the margin of safety was too small for formula-fed infants<ref name="C&EN">{{cite news |last= Morrissey |first=Susan R. |title=Banning Bisphenol A In Baby Bottles: Canada moves toward restricting the chemical; Congress proposes similar legislation |newspaper=Chemical and Engineering News |date=23 April 2008 |url=http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/86/i17/8617news4.html}}</ref> and proposed classifying the chemical as "'toxic' to human health and the environment."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chemicalsubstanceschimiques.gc.ca/challenge-defi/batch-lot-2/bisphenol-a/index-eng.php |title=Bisphenol A |work=Health Canada |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> The Canadian Minister of Health announced Canada's intent to ban the import, sale, and advertisement of polycarbonate baby bottles containing bisphenol&nbsp;A due to safety concerns, and investigate ways to reduce BPA contamination of baby formula packaged in metal cans.<ref name="HealthCanada"/> Subsequent news reports from April 2008 showed many retailers removing polycarbonate drinking products from their shelves.<ref>, Politics: Bisphenol A water-bottle removal expanding among Canadian retailers.{{dead link|date=October 2011}}</ref>
On 18 October 2008, Health Canada noted that "bisphenol&nbsp;A exposure to newborns and infants is below levels that cause effects" and that the "general public need not be concerned".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/media/nr-cp/_2008/2008_167-eng.php |title=Government of Canada Protects Families With Bisphenol A Regulations |publisher=Health Canada |date=17 October 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100226005022/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/ahc-asc/media/nr-cp/_2008/2008_167-eng.php |archivedate=26 February 2010 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>

In 2010, Canada's department of the environment declared BPA to be a ''"toxic substance"'' and added it to schedule 1 of the ].<ref name="gazette.gc.ca">{{cite web |url=http://www.gazette.gc.ca/rp-pr/p2/2010/2010-10-13/html/sor-dors194-eng.html|title=Order Adding a Toxic Substance to Schedule 1 to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 |work=]|date=23 September 2010|accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref>

===European Union===
The 2008 European Union Risk Assessment Report on {{nowrap|bisphenol A}}, published by the European Commission and ] (EFSA), concluded that {{nowrap|bisphenol A}}-based products, such as ] plastic and ] resins, are safe for consumers and the environment when used as intended.<ref>]: United Kingdom. (2008). FINAL APPROVED VERSION AWAITING FOR PUBLICATION. </ref> By October 2008, after the ] was published, the EFSA issued a statement concluding that the study provided no grounds to revise the current Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI) level for BPA of {{nowrap|0.05 mg/kg}} bodyweight.<ref>{{dead link|date=October 2011}}</ref>

On 22 December 2009, the EU Environment ministers released a statement expressing concerns over recent studies showing adverse effects of exposure to ]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/NewsWord/en/envir/112043.doc|title=Council conclusions on combination effects of chemicals|date=22 December 2009|publisher=Council of The European Union|accessdate=30 December 2009|location=Brussels}}</ref>

In September 2010, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded after a "comprehensive evaluation of recent toxicity data that no new study could be identified, which would call for a revision of the current TDI".<ref name="European Food Safety Authority">{{cite web|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/scdocs/scdoc/1829.htm|title=Scientific Opinion on Bisphenol A: evaluation of a study investigating its neurodevelopmental toxicity, review of recent scientific literature on its toxicity and advice on the Danish risk assessment of Bisphenol A|date=23 September 2010|publisher=European Food Safety Authority|accessdate=23 September 2010}}</ref> The Panel noted that some studies conducted on developing animals have suggested BPA-related effects of possible toxicological relevance, in particular biochemical changes in brain, immune-modulatory effects and enhanced susceptibility to breast tumours but considered that those studies had several shortcomings so the relevance of these findings for human health could not be assessed.<ref name="European Food Safety Authority"/>

On 25 November 2010, the ] said it planned to ban the manufacturing by {{nowrap|1 March 2011}} and ban the marketing and market placement of ] ]s containing the organic compound {{nowrap|bisphenol A}} (BPA) by {{nowrap|1 June 2011}}, according to ], ] in charge of health and consumer policy. This was backed by a majority of EU governments.<ref name="rban2011">{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/11/25/us-eu-health-plastic-idUSTRE6AO3MS20101125 |title=EU to ban Bisphenol A in baby bottles in 2011 |agency=Reuters |date=25 November 2010 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="pban2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.physorg.com/news/2010-11-europe-baby-bottles-bisphenol-a.html |title=Europe bans baby bottles with Bisphenol-A |publisher=PhysOrg.com |date=25 November 2010 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> The ban was called an over-reaction by Richard Sharpe, of the ]'s Human Reproductive Sciences Unit, who said to be unaware of any convincing evidence justifying the measure and criticized it as being done on political, rather than scientific grounds.<ref>{{cite news |title=EU bans bisphenol A chemical from babies' bottles |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11843820 |publisher=BBC News |date=25 November 2010|quote=I do not know of any convincing evidence that bisphenol A exposure, in the amounts used in polycarbonate bottles, can cause any harm to babies, as not only are the amounts so minuscule but they are rapidly broken down in the gut and liver. }}</ref>

In January 2011 use of bisphenol A in ]s was forbidden in all EU-countries.<ref name=spiegel2015/>

After reviewing more recent research, in 2012 EFSA made a decision to re-evaluate the human risks associated with exposure to BPA. They completed a draft assessment of consumer exposure to BPA in July 2013 and at that time asked for public input from all stakeholders to assist in forming a final report, which is expected to be completed in 2014.<ref></ref>

In January 2014, EFSA presented a second part of the draft opinion which discussed the human health risks posed by BPA. The draft opinion was accompanied by an eight-week public consultation and also included adverse effects on the liver and kidney as related to BPA. From this it was recommended that the current TDI to be revised.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/bisphenol.htm|title = EFSA Topic: Bisphenol A|date = October 24, 2014|accessdate = October 27, 2014|website = European Safety Authority|publisher = }}</ref> In January 2015 EFSA indicated that the TDI was reduced from 50 to 4&nbsp;µg/kg body weight/day - a recommendation, as national legislatures make the laws.<ref name=spiegel2015>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/bisphenol-a-eu-lebensmittelamt-senkt-grenzwert-fuer-a-1014139.html||title=Umstrittene Chemikalie: EU-Behörde senkt Grenzwert für Bisphenol A |publisher=] |language=German |date=January 21, 2015| accessdate=January 21, 2015}}</ref>

====Denmark====
In May 2009, the Danish parliament passed a resolution to ban the use of BPA in baby bottles, which had not been enacted by April 2010. In March 2010, a temporary ban was declared by the Health Minister.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik/2010/03/26/113304.htm |title=Danmark forbyder giftigt stof i sutteflasker |language=Danish |publisher=DR |date=26 March 2010 |accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref>

====Belgium====
On March 2010, senator ] proposed legislation to ban BPA in ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nieuws.be.msn.com/buitenland/artikel.aspx?cp-documentid=152421106 |title=Negen op tien zuigflessen zijn gevaarlijk |language=Dutch |publisher=Microsoft |date=3 May 2010 |accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref> On May 2011, senators ] and ] proposed legislation to ban BPA from thermal paper.<ref>http://www.tssbelgium.be/printversion/senate.5.1037.1.pdf</ref>

====France====
On 5 February 2010, the French Food Safety Agency (AFSSA) questioned the previous assessments of the health risks of BPA, especially in regard to behavioral effects observed in rat pups following exposure in utero and during the first months of life.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afssa.fr/PM9100B6I0.htm|title=Bisphenol A: AFSSA recommends the development of new assessment methods|date=5 February 2010|accessdate=8 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.afssa.fr/cgi-bin/countdocs.cgi?Documents/MCDA2009sa0270EN.pdf |title=Opinion of the French Food Safety Agency on the critical analysis of the results of a study of the toxicity of bisphenol A on the development of the nervous system together with other recently-published data on its toxic effects |date=29 January 2010 |publisher=French Food Safety Agency |accessdate=8 February 2010}}</ref> In April 2010, the AFFSA suggested the adoption of better labels for food products containing BPA.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-actu/2010/04/27/97001-20100427FILWWW00356-afssa-informations-sur-le-bisphenol-a.php |title=Afssa: informations sur le Bisphénol A |date=27 April 2010 |work=Le Figaro |language=french |accessdate=7 May 2010}}</ref>

On 24 March 2010, the French Senate unanimously approved a proposition of law to ban BPA from baby bottles.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2010/03/24/les-senateurs-votent-la-suspension-de-la-commercialisation-des-biberons-au-bisphenol-a_1324041_3244.html|title=Les sénateurs votent la suspension de la commercialisation des biberons au Bisphenol A|date=24 March 2010|work=Le Monde |language=French |accessdate=24 March 2010}}</ref> The National Assembly (Lower House) approved the text on 23 June 2010, which has been applicable law since 2 July 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT000022414734&dateTexte= |title=Détail d'un texte |language=fr |publisher=Legifrance.gouv.fr |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> On 12 October 2011, the French National Assembly voted a law forbidding the use of Bisphenol A in products aimed at less than 3-year-old children for 2013, and 2014 for all food containers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.liberation.fr/depeches/01012365279-bisphenol-a-l-assemblee-vote-l-interdiction-dans-les-contenants-alimentaires |title=L'Assemblée unanime interdit les contenants alimentaires avec du bisphénol A – Libération |work=Libération |language=French |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref>

On 9 October 2012, the French Senate adopted unanimously the law proposition to suspend manufacture, import, export and marketing of all food containers that include bisphenol A for 2015. The ban of bisphenol A in 2013 for food products designed for children less than 3-years-old was maintained.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.senat.fr/les_actus_en_detail/article/bisphenol-a.html |title=Le Sénat a adopté une proposition de loi visant au retrait des conditionnements alimentaires en bisphénol A – Sénat |work=Sénat |language=French |accessdate=31 October 2012}}</ref>

====Germany====
On 19 September 2008, the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung, BfR) stated that there was no reason to change the current risk assessment for bisphenol&nbsp;A on the basis of the Lang Study.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bfr.bund.de/cm/216/neue_studien_zu_bisphenol_a_stellen_die_bisherige_risikobewertung_nicht_in_frage.pdf |format=PDF |title=Neue Studien zu Bisphenol A stellen die bisherige Risikobewertung nicht in Frage |work=Bundesinstitut für Risikobewertung |language=German |date=19 September 2008 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref>

In October 2009, the German environmental organization ] requested a ban on BPA for children's products, especially ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bund.net/nc/bundnet/presse/pressemitteilungen/detail/zurueck/pressemitteilungen/artikel/schnuller-geben-hormonell-wirksames-bisphenol-a-ab-bund-fordert-verbot-der-chemikalie-fuer-babyarti |title=Schnuller geben hormonell wirksames Bisphenol A ab. BUND fordert Verbot der Chemikalie für Babyartikel |language=German |accessdate=15 October 2009}}</ref> and products that make contact with food.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.derwesten.de/nachrichten/wp/2009/10/1/news-135346902/detail.html |title=Chemikalie in Schnullern entdeckt |date=1 October 2009 |language=German |accessdate=2 October 2009}}</ref> In response, some manufacturers voluntarily removed the problematic pacifiers from the market.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medizinauskunft.de/artikel/aktuell/2009/04_11_bisphenol_a.php |date=4 November 2009 |language=German |title=Bisphenol-A: Kehrtwende |work=MedizinAuskunft |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719060727/http://www.medizinauskunft.de/artikel/aktuell/2009/04_11_bisphenol_a.php |archivedate=19 July 2011 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>

====Netherlands====
On 6 November 2008, the Dutch Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (VWA) stated in a newsletter that baby bottles made from polycarbonate plastic do not release measurable concentrations of bisphenol&nbsp;A and therefore are safe to use.<ref>{{dead link|date=October 2011}}</ref>

====Switzerland====
In February 2009, the Swiss Federal Office for Public Health, based on reports of other health agencies, stated that the intake of bisphenol&nbsp;A from food represents no risk to the consumer, including newborns and infants. However, in the same statement, it advised for proper use of polycarbonate baby bottles and listed alternatives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bag.admin.ch/themen/lebensmittel/04861/06170/index.html?lang=de |title=Bisphenol A |publisher=Bundesamt für Gesundheit |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref>

====Sweden====
By May 26, 1995, the Swedish Chemicals Agency asked for a BPA ban in baby bottles, but the Swedish Food Safety Authority prefers to await the expected European Food Safety Authority's updated review. The Minister of Environment said to wait for the EFSA review but not for too long.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dagenshandel.se/dh/DagensH.nsf/0/CEEB5E81FEE99BDFC1257720002F04A9 |title=Minister kör över Livsmedelsverket |language=Swedish |publisher=Dagens Handel |date=11 May 2010 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref><ref> 10 May 2010. accessdate 13 May 2010.</ref>
From March 2011 it is prohibited to manufacture babybottles containing bisphenol A and from July 2011 they can not be bought in stores. On 12 April 2012, the Swedish government announced that Sweden will ban BPA in cans containing food for children under the age of three.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sweden acts on endocrine disruptor Bisphenol A|url=http://www.chemsec.org/news/news-2012/915-sweden-acts-on-endocrine-disruptor-bisphenol-a|publisher=ChemSec|accessdate=16 April 2012}}</ref>

====United Kingdom====
In December 2009, responding to a letter from a group of seven scientists that urged the UK Government to "adopt a standpoint consistent with the approach taken by other Governments who have ended the use of BPA in food contact products marketed at children",<ref>{{cite news | last = Smith | first = Rebecca | title = Ban chemical linked to cancer in baby bottles: campaigners | newspaper=The Daily Telegraph | date = 1 December 2009 | accessdate=16 February 2010 | url = http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US_Acts_On_BPA_And_Baby%20_Bottles.php}}</ref> the UK Food Standards Agency reaffirmed, in January 2009, its view that "exposure of UK consumers to BPA from all sources, including ], was well below levels considered harmful".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nomorebpa.org.uk/news/US_Acts_On_BPA_And_Baby%20_Bottles.php | title=US Acts on BPA and Baby Bottles while UK Food Standards Agency dismisses concerns | date=18 January 2009 | publisher=Breast Cancer UK | accessdate=16 February 2010}}</ref>

===Turkey===
As of 10 June 2011, Turkey banned the use of BPA in baby bottles and other PC items produced for babies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2011/06/20110610-8.htm |title=Başbakanlık Mevzuatı Geliştirme ve Yayın Genel Müdürlüğü |publisher=Resmigazete.gov.tr |accessdate=23 October 2011|language=Turkish}}</ref>

===Japan===
Between 1998 and 2003, the canning industry voluntarily replaced its BPA-containing epoxy resin can liners with BPA-free polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in many of its products. For other products, it switched to a different epoxy lining that yielded much less migration of BPA into food than the previously used resin.{{clarify|date=March 2014}} In addition, polycarbonate tableware for school lunches was replaced by BPA-free plastics. As a result of these changes, Japanese risk assessors have found that virtually no BPA is detectable in canned foods or drinks, and blood levels of BPA in the Japanese people have declined up to 50% in one study.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ewg.org/node/20938 |title=Bisphenol A: Toxic Plastics Chemical in Canned Food: Companies reduced BPA exposures in Japan |work=Environmental Working Group |accessdate=3 February 2012}}</ref>

== US public health regulatory history ==

] introduced a 'BPA-Free Kids Act of 2008' to the U.S. Senate seeking to ban BPA in any product designed for use by children and require the ] to conduct a study about the health effects of BPA exposure.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bill Text 110th Congress (2007-2008) S.2928.IS|url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c110:S.2928:|work=Thomas|publisher=Library of Congress|accessdate=23 March 2014|author=Charles Schumer |author2=Diane Feinstein |author3=Hillary Clinton |author4=Richard Durbin |author5=John Kerry |author6=Robert Menendez)|date=April 29, 2008}}</ref> It was reintroduced in 2009 in both Senate and House, but died in committee each time.<ref name="Erler_Novak_2010"/>

In 2008, the FDA reassured consumers that current limits were safe, but convened an outside panel of experts to review the issue. The ] was released, and co-author David Melzer presented the results of the study before the FDA panel.<ref name="WaPoDos">{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/09/16/ST2008091601215.html?sid=ST2008091601215&s_pos=list|title=Study Links Chemical BPA to Health Problems|last=Layton|first=Lindsey|date=16 September 2008|work=The Washington Post |pages=A03|accessdate=17 September 2008}}</ref> An editorial accompanying the Lang study's publication criticized the FDA's assessment of bisphenol&nbsp;A: "A fundamental problem is that the current ADI for BPA is based on experiments conducted in the early 1980s using outdated methods (only very high doses were tested) and insensitive assays. More recent findings from independent scientists were rejected by the FDA, apparently because those investigators did not follow the outdated testing guidelines for environmental chemicals, whereas studies using the outdated, insensitive assays (predominantly involving studies funded by the chemical industry) are given more weight in arriving at the conclusion that BPA is not harmful at current exposure levels."<ref name="JAMAVS"/> The FDA was criticized that it was "basing its conclusion on two studies while downplaying the results of hundreds of other studies."<ref name="WaPoDos"/> ], president of the ], criticized the FDA in her testimony at the FDA's public meeting on the draft assessment of bisphenol&nbsp;A for use in food contact applications, that "At the very least, the FDA should require a prominent warning on products made with BPA".<ref>Szabo, Liz. "". ''USA Today''. 17 September 2008. Retrieved 29 October 2008</ref><ref>{{cite news| title = Statement of Diana Zuckerman, PhD At the FDA Public Meeting on its Draft Assessment of Bisphenol A for Use in Food Contact Applications| url = http://www.center4research.org/BPA.html| accessdate =15 July 2009 |date=16 September 2008| author=]}}</ref> --><!--irrelevant In contrast, the American Chemistry Council, the manufacturing industry's lobby group, was skeptical of the latest study.<ref name="WaPoDos"/>-->

In March 2009 ] became the first county to pass legislation to ban baby beverage containers made with bisphenol&nbsp;A.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.northshoreoflongisland.com/Articles-i-2009-03-05-78665.112114-sub_County_bans_baby_bottle_plastic_with_BPA.html |title=County bans baby bottle plastic with BPA |publisher=northshoreoflongisland.com |author=Karen Forman |date=5 March 2009 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> By March 2009, legislation to ban bisphenol&nbsp;A had been proposed in both House and Senate.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/13/AR2009031303507.html |title=Bills Would Ban BPA From Food and Drink Containers |work=The Washington Post |date=14 March 2009 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref>
In the same month, Rochelle Tyl, author of two studies used by FDA to assert BPA safety in August 2008, said those studies did not claim that BPA is safe, because they were not designed to cover all aspects of the chemical's effects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.contracostatimes.com/nationandworld/ci_12123743 |title=Scientists reject FDA assertion of BPA's safety |author=Meg Kissinger and Susanne Rust |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416164151/http://www.contracostatimes.com/nationandworld/ci_12123743 |archivedate=16 April 2009 |work=Contra Costa Times |date=11 April 2009 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> In May 2009, ] and Chicago were the first US jurisdictions to pass regulations limiting or banning BPA.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.startribune.com/lifestyle/44586267.html|title=State bans chemical in baby bottles|last=Sternberg|first=Bob von|date=8 May 2009|work=Star Tribune|accessdate=11 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2009/may/14/local/chi-chicago-bpa-baby-bottles-14may14|title=Chicago BPA ban: Chicago bans sale of baby bottles, sippy cups with dangerous chemical ... linked to diabetes, cancer and other illnesses |date=14 May 2009 |work=Chicago Tribune |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100324090304/http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2009/may/14/local/chi-chicago-bpa-baby-bottles-14may14 |archivedate=24 March 2010 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref> In June 2009, the FDA announced its decision to reconsider the BPA safety levels.<ref>{{cite news|last=Favole|first=Jared A.|url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124405286248681991.html|title=FDA to Revisit Decision on Safety of BPA|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=3 June 2009|accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> Grassroots political action led ] to become the first US state to ban bisphenol&nbsp;A not only from infant formula and baby food containers, but also from any reusable food or beverage container.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehour.com/story/470418|title=Connecticut first state to ban BPA |last=Bodach|first=Jill|date=5 June 2009|work=The Hour|publisher=The Hour Publishing Co.|accessdate=9 September 2009}}</ref> In July 2009, the California Environmental Protection Agency's Developmental and Reproductive Toxicity Identification Committee in the ] unanimously voted against placing Bisphenol&nbsp;A on the state's list of chemicals that are believed to cause reproductive harm. The panel was concerned over the growing scientific evidence showing BPA's reproductive harm in animals, found that there was insufficient data of the effects in humans.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.latimes.com/business/nationworld/wire/sns-ap-us-california-bpa,0,3478515.story|title=Calif. regulators will not list Bisphenol A under Prop. 65, call for more study|accessdate=19 July 2009 | deadurl=yes|work=Los Angeles Times}} {{Dead link|date=August 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> Critics pointed out that the same panel failed to add ] to the list until 2006, and only one chemical was added to the list in the last three years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/greenspace/2009/07/bisphenol-a-california.html |title=California won't warn public about bisphenol A |work=Los Angeles Times |date=17 July 2009 |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> In September, the US Environmental Protection Agency announced that it was evaluating BPA for an action plan development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/ecactionpln.html |title=Existing Chemical Action Plans |accessdate=1 October 2009}}</ref> In October, the ] announced $30,000,000 in ] grants to study the health effects of BPA. This money was supposed to result in many ] publications.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sarewitz D | title = World view: A tale of two sciences | journal = Nature | volume = 462 | issue = 7273 | page = 566 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19956236 | doi = 10.1038/462566a }}</ref>

On 15 January 2010, the FDA expressed "some concern", the middle level in its scale of concerns, about the potential effects of BPA on the brain, behavior, and prostate gland in fetuses, infants, and young children, and announced that it was taking reasonable steps to reduce human exposure to BPA in the food supply. However, the FDA was not recommending that families change the use of infant formula or foods, as it saw the benefit of a stable source of good nutrition as outweighing the potential risk from BPA exposure.<ref name="U.S. Food and Drug Administration"/> On the same date, the ] released information to help parents to reduce children's BPA exposure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hhs.gov/safety/bpa/|title=Bisphenol A (BPA) Information for Parents|date=15 January 2010|publisher=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services|accessdate=15 January 2010}}</ref> As of 2010 many US states were considering some sort of BPA ban.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://content.usatoday.com/communities/greenhouse/post/2010/02/bans-sought-for-chemical-bpa-in-baby-toddler-products/1|title=Bans sought for chemical BPA in baby, toddler products|last=Koch|first=Wendy|date=16 February 2010|work=USA Today|accessdate=17 February 2010}}</ref>

In June 2010 the 2008–2009 Annual Report of the President's Cancer Panel was released and recommended: "Because of the long latency period of many cancers, the available evidence argues for a ] to these diverse chemicals, which include (...) bisphenol&nbsp;A".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/advisory/pcp/pcp08-09rpt/PCP_Report_08-09_508.pdf |title=Annual Report for 2008–2009 |last=Reuben|first=Suzanne H.|date=April 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602131450/http://deainfo.nci.nih.gov/advisory/pcp/pcp08-09rpt/PCP_Report_08-09_508.pdf?|archivedate=2 June 2010|publisher=National Cancer Institute|accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref> In August 2010, the Maine Board of Environmental Protection voted unanimously to ban the sale of baby bottles and other reusable food and beverage containers made with bisphenol A as of January 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://new.bangordailynews.com/2010/06/18/politics/maine-board-weighs-bpa-bottle-ban/ |title=Maine board weighs BPA bottle ban – Maine Politics – Bangor Daily News |publisher=New.bangordailynews.com |date=18 June 2010 |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> In February 2011, the newly elected governor of Maine, ], gained national attention when he spoke on a local TV news show saying he hoped to repeal the ban because, "There hasn't been any science that identifies that there is a problem" and added: "The only thing that I've heard is if you take a plastic bottle and put it in the microwave and you heat it up, it gives off a chemical similar to estrogen. So the worst case is some women may have little beards."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bangordailynews.com/2011/02/22/politics/gov-lepage-dismisses-dangers-of-bpa/ |title=LePage dismisses BPA dangers; 'worst case is some women may have little beards' |author=Kevin Miller |work=Health & Fitness – Bangor Daily News |date=22 February 2011 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/02/23/maine-gov-paul-lepage-on-_n_827208.html |work=Huffington Post | title=Maine Gov. Paul LePage On BPA: 'Worst Case Is Some Women May Have Little Beards' | date=23 February 2011}}</ref> In April 2011, the Maine legislature passed a bill to ban the use of BPA in baby bottles, sippy cups, and other reusable food and beverage containers, effective 1 January 2012. Governor LePage refused to sign the bill.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://managementconsulted.com/core-content/dictionary/ |title=BPA Phase-Out Becomes Maine Law |publisher=Good Chemistry |date=25 April 2011 |accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref>

In October 2011, California banned BPA from baby bottles and toddlers' drinking cups, effective 1 July 2013.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/greenspace/2011/10/bpa-ban-signed-by-california-governor-jerry-brown.html | work=Los Angeles Times | title=Greenspace | date=5 October 2011}}</ref> By 2011, 26 states had proposed legislation that would ban certain uses of BPA. Many bills died in committee.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Shader, Maggie|title=California Joins 10 Other States in Banning BPA From Infant Feeding Containers|work=Consumer News|date= 6 October 2011|publisher=Consumerreports.org}}</ref> In July 2011, the ] (AMA) declared feeding products for babies and infants that contain BPA should be banned. It recommended better federal oversight of BPA and clear labeling of products containing it. It stressed the importance of the FDA to "actively incorporate current science into the regulation of food and beverage BPA-containing products."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ama-assn.org/amednews/2011/07/04/prsg0704.htm|title= AMA supports tighter restrictions on products containing BPA|date=4 July 2011|author=American Medical Association}}</ref>

In 2012, the FDA concluded an assessment of scientific research on the effects of BPA and stated in the March 2012 Consumer Update that "the scientific evidence at this time does not suggest that the very low levels of human exposure to BPA through the diet are unsafe" although recognizing "potential uncertainties in the overall interpretation of these studies including route of exposure used in the studies and the relevance of animal models to human health. The FDA is continuing to pursue additional research to resolve these uncertainties."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm297954|title=FDA Continues to Study BPA| work=FDA Consumer Updates|date=March 2012|accessdate=4 April 2012}}</ref> Yet on 17 July 2012, the FDA banned BPA from baby bottles and sippy cups. A FDA spokesman said the agency's action was not based on safety concerns and that "the agency continues to support the safety of BPA for use in products that hold food."<ref name="huffpo"/> Since manufacturers had already stopped using the chemical in baby bottles and sippy cups, the decision was a response to a request by the ], the chemical industry's main trade association, who believed that a ban would boost consumer confidence.<ref>{{cite news|author=Sabrina Tavernise| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/science/fda-bans-bpa-from-baby-bottles-and-sippy-cups.html|title= F.D.A. Makes It Official: BPA Can't Be Used in Baby Bottles and Cups|work= NYTimes|date= July 17, 2012}}</ref> The ban was criticized as "purely cosmetic" by the Environmental Working Group, which stated that "If the agency truly wants to prevent people from being exposed to this toxic chemical associated with a variety of serious and chronic conditions it should ban its use in cans of infant formula, food and beverages." The ] called the move inadequate saying, the FDA needs to ban BPA from all food packaging.<ref name="commondreams"/>

As of 2014, 12 states have banned BPA from children's bottles and feeding containers.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Bisphenol A|url=http://www.saferstates.com/2010/01/bisphenol-a.html#.Uy5TLqJWj3A|work=Safer States|accessdate=23 March 2014|date=January 24, 2013}}</ref>

== Chemical manufacturers reactions to bans ==
In March 2009 the six largest US producers of baby bottles decided to stop using bisphenol&nbsp;A in their products.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/05/AR2009030503285.html |title=No BPA For Baby Bottles In U.S. |work=The Washington Post |author=Lyndsey Layton |date=6 March 2009 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref> The same month ], a producer of gasoline and chemicals, refused to sell BPA to companies for use in food and water containers for children younger than 3, saying it could not be certain of the compound's safety.<ref>{{cite news | author=Matthew Perrone |title=Sunoco restricts sales of chemical used in bottles |work=The Seattle Times |date=12 March 2009 |url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2008848960_apbpasunoco.html |accessdate=3 February 2012}}</ref>
In May 2009, Lyndsey Layton from the Washington Post accused manufacturers of food and beverage containers and some of their biggest customers of the ''public relations and lobbying strategy to block government BPA bans''. She noted that, "Despite more than 100 published studies by government scientists and university laboratories that have raised health concerns about the chemical, the Food and Drug Administration has deemed it safe largely because of two studies, both funded by a chemical industry trade group".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/05/30/AR2009053002121.html |title=Strategy Being Devised To Protect Use of BPA |work=The Washington Post |date= 31 May 2009|accessdate=23 October 2011 |first=Lyndsey |last=Layton}}</ref> In August 2009 the '']'' investigative series into BPA and its effects showed the ] plans of a major public relations blitz to promote BPA, including plans to attack and discredit those who report or comment negatively on BPA and its effects.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogreports/54195297.html |title=BPA industry fights back |author=Meg Kissinger and Susanne Rust |work=] |date=22 August 2009 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jsonline.com/watchdog/watchdogreports/54195302.html |title='Watchdog' advocates for BPA |author=Susanne Rust and Meg Kissinger |work=Milwaukee Journal Sentinel |date=22 August 2009 |accessdate=2 February 2012}}</ref>

===BPA free, unknown substitute===
The chemical industry over time responded to criticism of BPA by promoting "BPA-free" products. For example, in 2010, ] announced it had found a "BPA-free alternative" can liner that works with tomatoes. It said it would begin using the BPA-free alternative in tomato products sold by its organic foods subsidiary Muir Glen with that year's tomato harvest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greenbiz.com/news/2010/04/19/general-mills-pull-bpa-organic-tomato-cans |title=General Mills to Pull BPA from Organic Tomato Cans, GreenerDesign|publisher=Greenbiz.com |date=19 April 2010 |accessdate=23 October 2011}}</ref> As of 2014, General Mills has refused to state which alternative chemical it uses, and whether it uses it on any of its other canned products.<ref name=BCF />

===BPA free, epoxyfree===
A minority of companies have stated what alternative compound(s) they use. Following an inquiry by Representative ] (D-Mass)<ref name=BCF /> seventeen companies replied, xxx said they were going BPA-free. None of the companies said they are or were going to use ]; only four stated the alternative to BPA that they will be using. ] stated in 2013 "alternate liners for tomatoes are ]...New aerosol cans are lined with ]", ] stated that only their "beans are canned with a liner of an "oleoresinous c-enamel that does not contain the endocrine disruptor BPA. ] is a mixture of oil and resin extracted from plants such as pine or balsam fir", ] will use "modified ] and/ or ] ... by June 2014 for our canned soups, beans, and vegetables", ] stated in 2011 it "intend to replace epoxy linings in all our food containers…. We have prioritized baby foods", and in 2012 "no BPA in any plastic containers we use".<ref name= BCF>{{cite web|title=Corporate Positions on BPA|url=http://www.breastcancerfund.org/big-picture-solutions/make-our-products-safe/cans-not-cancer/corporate-bpa-positions.html|publisher=Breast CancerFund|accessdate=21 March 2014}}</ref>

===BPA substitute BPS===
Some "BPA free" plastics are made from epoxy containing a compound called ] (BPS). BPS shares a similar structure and versatility to BPA and has been used in numerous products from currency to thermal receipt paper. Widespread human exposure to BPS was confirmed in an analysis of urine samples taken in the U.S., Japan, China, and five other Asian countries.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Liao C, Liu F, Kannan K | title = Bisphenol S, a New Bisphenol Analogue, in Paper Products and Currency Bills and Its Association with Bisphenol A Residues | journal = Environ. Sci. Technol. | volume = 46 | issue = 12 | pages = 6515–6522 | date = May 16, 2012 | pmid = 22591511 | doi = 10.1021/es300876n | url = http://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/es300876n | accessdate = 21 March 2014 |bibcode = 2012EnST...46.6515L }}</ref> Researchers found BPS in all the receipt paper, 87 percent of the paper currency and 52 percent of recycled paper they tested. The study found that people may be absorbing 19 times more BPS through their skin than the amount of BPA they absorbed, when it was more widely used.<ref name=time/>
In a 2011 study researchers looked at 455 common plastic products and found that 70% tested positive for estrogenic activity. After the products had been washed or microwaved the proportion rose to 95%. The study concluded: "Almost all commercially available plastic products we sampled, independent of the type of resin, product, or retail source, leached chemicals having reliably-detectable EA , including those advertised as BPA-free. In some cases, BPA-free products released chemicals having more EA than BPA-containing products."<ref name=time>{{cite news |last=Walsh |first=Bryan |url=http://healthland.time.com/2011/03/08/study-even-bpa-free-plastics-leach-endrocrine-disrupting-chemicals/ |title=Study: Even 'BPA-Free' Plastics Leach Endrocrine-Disrupting Chemicals |work=]|date=2011-03-08 |accessdate=2014-02-01}}</ref> A systematic review published in 2015 found that "based on the current literature, BPS and BPF are as hormonally active as BPA, and have endocrine disrupting effects."<ref name="National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences">{{cite web | url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/advpub/2015/3/ehp.1408989.acco.pdf | title=Bisphenol S and F: A Systematic Review and Comparison of the Hormonal Activity of Bisphenol A Substitutes | publisher=National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences | date=5 March 2015 | accessdate=8 May 2015 | author=Rochester, Johanna R., Bolden, Ashley L.}}</ref>

=== Phenol-based substitutes ===
Among potential substitutes for BPA, phenol-based chemicals closely related to BPA have been identified. The non-extensive list includes bisphenol E (BPE), bisphenols B (BPB), 4-cumylphenol (HPP) and bisphenol F (BPF).<ref name="Pivnenko 39–47"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite journal | author = Kabiersch G, Rajasärkkä J, Ullrich R, Tuomela M, Hofrichter M, Virta M, Hatakka A, Steffen K | title = Fate of bisphenol A during treatment with the litter-decomposing fungi Stropharia rugosoannulata and Stropharia coronilla | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 83 | issue = 3 | pages = 226–32 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 21295326 | doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.12.094 | url = }}
* {{cite journal | author = Myers JP, vom Saal FS, Akingbemi BT, Arizono K, Belcher S, Colborn T, Chahoud I, Crain DA, Farabollini F, Guillette LJ, Hassold T, Ho SM, Hunt PA, Iguchi T, Jobling S, Kanno J, Laufer H, Marcus M, McLachlan JA, Nadal A, Oehlmann J, Olea N, Palanza P, Parmigiani S, Rubin BS, Schoenfelder G, Sonnenschein C, Soto AM, Talsness CE, Taylor JA, Vandenberg LN, Vandenbergh JG, Vogel S, Watson CS, Welshons WV, Zoeller RT | title = Why public health agencies cannot depend on good laboratory practices as a criterion for selecting data: the case of bisphenol A | journal = Environ. Health Perspect. | volume = 117 | issue = 3 | pages = 309–15 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19337501 | pmc = 2661896 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.0800173 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commonscats|Bisphenol A}}
* NIOSH, partly updated in October 2005, retrieved 8 April 2015
* FDA, November 2014, retrieved 8 April 2015
* FDA, undated, retrieved 8 April 2015
* Polycarbonate/BPA Global Group, American Chemistry Council, retrieved 8 April 2015
* ] by ], retrieved 8 April 2015 (200 articles)(open access)
* ChemSub Online, retrieved 8 April 2015
* Brochure, 2 pages, 2009, Massachusetts Department of Public Health, retrieved 8 April 2015
* February 19, 2008 By David Biello, www.scientificamerican.com, retrieved 8 April 2015
* ''Endocrine/Estrogen Letter'' Vol. 9, No. 2&3 (174&175) 2003, 31 pages, retrieved 8 April 2015
* Attempt to regulate BPA in California defeated, ''The Economist'', 22 August 2008
* Lyndsey Layton. Washington Post, 23 February 2010. retrieved 8 April 2015
* Richard Sharpe, Toxicological Sciences (2010) 114 (1): 1-4. doi: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp299 (open access)retrieved 8 April 2015
* in , October 24, 2014.
*{{dead link|date=April 2015}} News commentary on BPA Containing Products
*{{dead link|date=April 2015}} US FDA statement, 2008
* {{dead link|date=April 2015}} gforceproducts.com, July 30 2009


{{Carcinogen}}
{{Consumer Food Safety}}
{{HealthIssuesOfPlastics}}
{{Xenoestrogens}}
{{Estrogenics}}
{{Androgenics}}

{{Authority control}}

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Revision as of 13:20, 21 January 2016

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