| Revision as of 02:56, 21 September 2016 view sourceO (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers11,413 editsm Reverted edits by 124.176.25.35 (talk) to last version by 91.253.58.71← Previous edit | Revision as of 16:38, 21 September 2016 view source 168.8.213.110 (talk) ←Replaced content with 'its bad for you'Tag: blankingNext edit → | ||
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| A '''cigarette''' is a small cylinder of finely cut ] leaves rolled in thin paper for ]. The cigarette is ignited at one end causing the cigarette to smoulder and allowing smoke to be inhaled from the other end, which is held in or to the mouth; in some cases, a ] may be used, as well. Most modern manufactured cigarettes are ], save Camel Unfiltered, ], Pall Mall Unfiltered, and ], and also include reconstituted tobacco and other ].<ref name=WigandWHOReport>Wigand, J.S. </ref> | |||
| The term cigarette, as commonly used, refers to a tobacco cigarette, but can apply to similar devices other substances, such as ]. A cigarette is distinguished from a ] by its smaller size, use of processed leaf, and paper wrapping, which is normally white, though other colors and flavors are also available. Cigars are typically composed entirely of whole-leaf tobacco. | |||
| Rates of cigarette smoking vary widely throughout the world and have changed considerably since cigarettes were first widely used in the mid-19th century. While rates of smoking have over time leveled off or declined in the ], they continue to rise in ].<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5644a2.htm#fig |title=Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2006 |publisher=Cdc.gov |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|url=http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_20020528.htm |title=WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics |publisher=Wpro.who.int |date=2002-05-28 |accessdate=2009-11-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108181404/http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_20020528.htm |archivedate=November 8, 2009 }}</ref> | |||
| Cigarettes carry serious health risks, which are more prevalent than with other tobacco products. ], the primary psychoactive chemical in tobacco and therefore cigarettes, is ].<ref name=m11>http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/downloads/pdf/chi/chi24-4-pktguide.pdf</ref> About half of cigarette smokers die of tobacco-related disease<ref name="bmj.bmjjournals.com.331">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1136/bmj.38142.554479.AE| pmid = 15213107| year = 2004| last1 = Doll | first1 = R.| last2 = Peto | first2 = R.| last3 = Boreham | first3 = J.| last4 = Sutherland | first4 = I.| title = Mortality in relation to smoking: 50 years' observations on male British doctors| volume = 328| issue = 7455| pages = 1519| pmc = 437139| journal = BMJ (Clinical research ed.) }}</ref> and lose on average 14 years of life.<ref name="m11"/> Cigarette use by pregnant women has also been shown to cause ], including low birth weight, fetal abnormalities, and premature birth.<ref name="Smoking Deformities">{{cite web | title=Smoking While Pregnant Causes Finger, Toe Deformities | work=Science Daily | url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060106122922.htm| accessdate=March 6, 2007}}</ref> ] from cigarettes has been shown to be injurious to bystanders,<ref name="framework-treaty">{{cite web| url = http://www.who.int/tobacco/framework/WHO_FCTC_english.pdf | title = WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control | publisher = ] | quote = Parties recognize that scientific evidence has unequivocally established that exposure to tobacco has the potential to cause death, disease and disability | date = 2005-02-27 | accessdate = 2009-01-12 | format = PDF}}</ref><ref name="sg-report">{{cite web | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK44324/| title = The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke: A Report of the Surgeon General | publisher = ] | date = 2006-06-27 | accessdate = 2014-06-16| quote = Secondhand smoke exposure causes disease and premature death in children and adults who do not smoke}}</ref><ref name="calepa2005">{{cite web | url = http://repositories.cdlib.org/context/tc/article/1194/type/pdf/viewcontent/ | title = Proposed Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air Contaminant | date = 2005-06-24 | accessdate = 2009-01-12 | publisher = ]}}</ref><ref name="iarc-monograph">{{cite web | url = http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol83/index.php | title = Tobacco Smoke and Involuntary Smoking | publisher = ] | year = 2004 | accessdate= 2009-01-12 | quote = There is sufficient evidence that involuntary smoking (exposure to secondhand or 'environmental' tobacco smoke) has the potential to cause lung cancer in humans | format = PDF}}</ref> which has led to legislation that has prohibited smoking in many workplaces and public areas. Cigarettes produce an ] containing over 4,000 ]s, including nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and other harmful substances.<ref name=CsordasBernhard2013>{{cite journal|last1=Csordas|first1=Adam|last2=Bernhard|first2=David|title=The biology behind the atherothrombotic effects of cigarette smoke|journal=Nature Reviews Cardiology|volume=10|issue=4|year=2013|pages=219–230|issn=1759-5002|doi=10.1038/nrcardio.2013.8|pmid=23380975}}</ref> Over 50 of these are ].<ref name=Seget2012>{{cite journal |authors=Seget M, Karolczak D, Wilk M, Błaszczyk A, Szylberg Ł, Florek E, Marszałek A |title= |language=Polish |journal=Prz. Lek. |volume=69 |issue=10 |pages=904–7 |year=2012 |pmid=23421057}}</ref> Cigarettes are a frequent source of fires leading to loss of lives in private homes, which prompted both the ] and the United States to ban cigarettes that are not ] from 2011 onwards.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lexpansion.com/economie/actualite-high-tech/les-cigarettes-anti-incendie-seront-obligatoires-en-2011_160019.html|accessdate=January 2, 2010|title=Les cigarettes anti-incendie seront obligatoires en 2011|language=French|quote=According to a study made by European union in 16 European countries, 11,000 fires were due to cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. They caused 520 deaths and 1600 injuries.|newspaper=]|publisher=]|agency=]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,3540489,00.html|accessdate=January 2, 2010|title=European Union Pushes for Self-Extinguishing Cigarettes|newspaper=]|publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
| == History == | |||
| {{see also|History of tobacco}} | |||
| ], Mexico, depicting a Mayan priest smoking from a smoking tube]] | |||
| The earliest forms of cigarettes were similar to their predecessor, the cigar. Cigarettes appear to have had antecedents in Mexico and Central America around the 9th century in the form of reeds and smoking tubes. The ], and later the ]s, smoked tobacco and other psychoactive drugs in religious rituals and frequently depicted priests and deities smoking on pottery and temple engravings. The cigarette and the cigar were the most common methods of smoking in the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central and South America until recent times.<ref>Robicsek, Francis ''Smoke''; ''Ritual Smoking in Central America'' pp. 30–37</ref> | |||
| The North American, Central American, and South American cigarette used various plant wrappers; when it was brought back to Spain, maize wrappers were introduced, and by the 17th century, fine paper. The resulting product was called ''papelate'' and is documented in ]'s paintings ''La Cometa'', ''La Merienda en el Manzanares'', and ''El juego de la pelota a pala'' (18th century).<ref name=Goodman93>{{Cite book |author=Goodman, Jordan Elliot |title=Tobacco in history: the cultures of dependence |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=1993 |page=97 |isbn=978-0-415-04963-4 }}</ref> | |||
| By 1830, the cigarette had crossed into France, where it received the name ''cigarette''; and in 1845, the French state tobacco monopoly began manufacturing them.<ref name=Goodman93/> | |||
| Production climbed markedly when a cigarette-making machine was developed in the 1880s by ], which vastly increased the productivity of cigarette companies, which went from making about 40,000 hand-rolled cigarettes daily to around 4 million.<ref name=advertising>{{cite news|last=James |first=Randy |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1905530,00.html |title=A Brief History Of Cigarette Advertising |publisher=TIME |date=2009-06-15 |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> | |||
| In the English-speaking world, the use of tobacco in cigarette form became increasingly widespread during and after the ], when British soldiers began emulating their ] comrades and Russian enemies, who had begun rolling and smoking tobacco in strips of old newspaper for lack of proper cigar-rolling leaf.<ref name=Goodman93/> This was helped by the development of tobaccos suitable for cigarette use, and by the development of the ]. | |||
| ]'s ''La Cometa'', depicting a (foreground left) man smoking an early quasicigarette]] | |||
| Cigarettes may have been initially used in a manner similar to ]s, ]s, and ]s and not inhaled; for evidence, see the Lucky Strike ad campaign asking | |||
| consumers "Do You Inhale?" from the 1930s. As cigarette tobacco became milder and more acidic, inhaling may have become perceived as more agreeable. However, ] noticed in the 1830s (cf. ''Unter dem Halbmond'') that Ottomans (and he himself) inhaled the ] and ] from their pipes<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/buch/3038/30 |title=Projekt Gutenberg-DE - SPIEGEL ONLINE - Nachrichten - Kultur |publisher=Gutenberg.spiegel.de |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> (which are both initially sun-cured, acidic leaf varieties). | |||
| The widespread smoking of cigarettes in the Western world is largely a 20th-century phenomenon. At the start of the 20th century, the per capita annual consumption in the USA was 54 cigarettes (with less than 0.5% of the population smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year), and consumption there peaked at 4,259 per capita in 1965. At that time, about 50% of men and 33% of women smoked (defined as smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year).<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Tobacco Use, United States 1990-1999 |journal=Oncology (Williston Park) |volume=13 |issue=12 |date=December 1999}}</ref> By 2000, consumption had fallen to 2,092 per capita, corresponding to about 30% of men and 22% of women smoking more than 100 cigarettes per year, and by 2006 per capita consumption had declined to 1,691;<ref>Tobacco Outlook Report, Economic Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture</ref> implying that about 21% of the population smoked 100 cigarettes or more per year. | |||
| German doctors were the first to identify the link between smoking and ], which led to the first antitobacco movement in Nazi Germany.<ref>Roffo, A. H. (January 8, 1940). "Krebserzeugende Tabakwirkung (in German). Berlin: J. F. Lehmanns Verlag. Retrieved 2009-09-13.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| | doi = 10.2471/BLT.06.031682 | |||
| | last1 = Proctor | first1 = R. N. | |||
| | title = Angel H Roffo: The forgotten father of experimental tobacco carcinogenesis | |||
| | journal = Bulletin of the World Health Organization | |||
| | volume = 84 | |||
| | issue = 6 | |||
| | pages = 494–496 | |||
| | year = 2006 | |||
| | pmid = 16799735 | |||
| | pmc = 2627373 | |||
| }}</ref> During World War I and World War II, cigarettes were rationed to soldiers. During the Vietnam War, cigarettes were included with ] meals. In 1975, the U.S. government stopped putting cigarettes in military rations. During the second half of the 20th century, the adverse health effects of tobacco smoking started to become widely known and text-only health warnings became common on cigarette packets. | |||
| The United States has not implemented graphical cigarette warning labels, which are considered a more effective method to communicate to the public the dangers of cigarette smoking.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hammond D, Fong GT, McNeill A, Borland R, Cummings KM |title=Effectiveness of cigarette warning labels in informing smokers about the risks of smoking: findings from the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Four Country Survey |journal=Tob Control |volume=15 Suppl 3 |issue= Suppl 3|pages=iii19–25 |date=June 2006 |pmid=16754942 |doi=10.1136/tc.2005.012294 |url=http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/15/suppl_3/iii19 |pmc=2593056}}</ref> Canada, Mexico, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Thailand, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Australia, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru,<ref>ccpa.unc.edu</ref> Greece, the Netherlands,{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} New Zealand, Norway, Hungary, the United Kingdom, France, Romania, Singapore, Egypt, Nepal and Turkey, however, have both textual warnings and graphic visual images displaying, among other things, the damaging effects tobacco use has on the human body. | |||
| The cigarette has evolved much since its conception; for example, the thin bands that travel transverse to the "axis of smoking" (thus forming circles along the length of the cigarette) are alternate sections of thin and thick paper to facilitate effective burning when being drawn, and retard burning when at rest. Synthetic particulate filters may remove some of the tar before it reaches the smoker. | |||
| The "holy grail" for cigarette companies has been a cancer-free cigarette. On record, the closest historical attempt was produced by scientist James Mold. Under the name project TAME, he produced the XA cigarette. However, in 1978, his project was terminated.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/lifestyle/9509679/Will-smoking-ever-be-safe.html |title= Quest for a safer cigarette | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph |first=Will |last=Storr |date=2012-09-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/James_D._Mold |title= Project XA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/body/safer-cigarettes-history.html |title= Safer cigarette history}}</ref> | |||
| Since 1950, the average nicotine and tar content of cigarettes has steadily fallen. The fall in nicotine content has led to smokers inhaling larger volumes per puff.<ref>{{cite journal | title=The changing cigarette, 1950-1995 | last1=Hoffmann | first1=D | last2=Hoffmann | first2=D | journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health |date=March 1997 | volume=50 | issue=4 |pages=307–364 | pmid=9120872 | doi=10.1080/009841097160393}}</ref> | |||
| == Legislational == | |||
| === Smoking restrictions === | |||
| {{further|List of smoking bans}} | |||
| Many governments impose ], especially in public areas. The primary justification has been the negative health effects of ].<ref name=second>; First international treaty on public health, adopted by 192 countries and signed by 168. Its Article 8.1 states, "Parties recognize that scientific evidence has unequivocally established that exposure to tobacco causes death, disease and disability."</ref> Laws vary by country and locality. ] is currently the only country in the world to completely outlaw the cultivation, harvesting, production, and sale of tobacco and tobacco products under the ]. However, small allowances for personal possession are permitted as long as the possessors can prove that they have paid import duties.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gayatri Parameswaran |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/09/201292095920757761.html |title=Bhutan smokers huff and puff over tobacco ban - Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref> The Pitcairn Islands had previously banned the sale of cigarettes, but it now permits sales from a government-run store. The Pacific island of Niue hopes to become the next country to prohibit the sale of tobacco.<ref>{{cite news|last=Marks |first=Kathy |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/australasia/worlds-smallest-state-aims-to-become-the-first-smokefree-paradise-island-862977.html |title=World's smallest state aims to become the first smoke-free paradise island - Australasia - World |publisher=The Independent |date=2008-07-09 |accessdate=2013-01-02 |location=London}}</ref> Iceland is also proposing banning tobacco sales from shops, making it prescription-only and therefore dispensable only in pharmacies on doctor's orders.<ref>{{cite news|author=Helen Pidd |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/jul/04/iceland-considers-prescription-only-cigarettes |title=What a drag … Iceland considers prescription-only cigarettes | World news |publisher=The Guardian |date= 2011-07-04|accessdate=2013-01-02 |location=London}}</ref> New Zealand hopes to achieve being tobacco-free by 2025 and Finland by 2040. Singapore and the Australian state of Tasmania have proposed a 'tobacco free millennium generation initiative' by banning the sale of all tobacco products to anyone born in and after the year 2000. <!-- See: ], ], ], ]. --> | |||
| In March 2012, Brazil became the world's first country to ban all flavored tobacco including menthols. It also banned the majority of the estimated 600 additives used, permitting only eight. This regulation applies to domestic and imported cigarettes. Tobacco manufacturers have 18 months to remove the noncompliant cigarettes, 24 months to remove the other forms of noncompliant tobacco.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/fctc/implementation/news/news_brazil/en/index.html |title=WHO | Brazil - Flavoured cigarettes banned |publisher=Who.int |date=2012-03-13 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://citizen.typepad.com/eyesontrade/2012/04/brazils-flavored-cigarette-ban-now-targeted.html |title=Eyes on Trade: Brazil's flavored cigarette ban now targeted |publisher=Citizen.typepad.com |date=2012-04-16 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref> Under ], the consumption of cigarettes by ]s is prohibited.<ref>Dubai: The Complete Residents' Guide - Page 27, 2006</ref> In the ] the consumption, and even its possession is illegal.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gelvin|first1=James|title=The Arab Uprisings|date=2015|page=139}}</ref> | |||
| === Smoking age === | |||
| {{main article|Smoking age}} | |||
| Beginning on April 1, 1998, the sale of cigarettes and other tobacco products to people under the state purchase age has been prohibited by law in all 50 states of the United States. The purchasing age in the United States is 18 in 44 of the 50 states — but 19 in ], ], ], ], and ], ], and ] Counties in New York,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.nj.us/cgi-bin/governor/njnewsline/view_article.pl?id=2894 |title=NJ Office of the Governor - Press Releases - Codey Signs Two Major Bills into Law, Scoring Public Health Triumph for New Jersey |publisher=State.nj.us |accessdate=2012-03-25 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080413015539/http://www.state.nj.us/cgi-bin/governor/njnewsline/view_article.pl?id=2894 |archivedate=April 13, 2008 }}</ref><ref name=News10Now2006>] (19 December 2006), "". Retrieved December 19, 2006.</ref> and 21 in ], ], and more than 180 municipalities across the nation. The intended effect of this is to prevent older high school students from purchasing cigarettes for their younger peers. Legislation was pending as of 2004 in some other states. In ],<ref>Massachusetts General Laws, Chapter 270 (Crimes Against Public Health), Section 6 (Tobacco; sale or gift to minors) </ref> parents and guardians are allowed to give cigarettes to minors, but sales to minors are prohibited. | |||
| Similar laws exist in many other countries. In Canada, most of the provinces require smokers to be 19 years of age to purchase cigarettes (except for ] and the ], where the age is 18). However, the minimum age only concerns the purchase of tobacco, not use. Alberta, however, does have a law which prohibits the possession or use of tobacco products by all persons under 18, punishable by a $100 fine. Australia, New Zealand, Poland, and Pakistan have a nationwide ban on the selling of all tobacco products to people under the age of 18. | |||
| ]s in Austria must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a debit card or mobile phone verification.]] | |||
| Since 1 October 2007, it has been illegal for retailers to sell tobacco in all forms to people under the age of 18 in three of the UK's four constituent countries (England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland) (rising from 16). It is also illegal to sell lighters, rolling papers, and all other tobacco-associated items to people under 18. It is not illegal for people under 18 to buy or smoke tobacco, just as it was not previously for people under 16; it is only illegal for the said retailer to sell the item. The age increase from 16 to 18 came into force in Northern Ireland on 1 September 2008. In the ], bans on the sale of the smaller 10-packs and confectionery that resembles tobacco products (]s) came into force on May 31, 2007, in a bid to cut underaged smoking. | |||
| Most countries in the world have a legal vending age of 18. In Macedonia, Italy, Malta, Austria, Luxembourg, and Belgium, the age for legal vending is 16. Since January 1, 2007, all ]s in public places in Germany must attempt to verify a customer's age by requiring the insertion of a ]. Turkey, which has one of the highest percentage of smokers in its population,<ref name="NationMaster.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/hea_tob_tot_adu_smo-health-tobacco-total-adult-smokers |title = Total adult smokers by country |accessdate = 2008-06-04 |publisher = NationMaster.com}}</ref> has a legal age of 18. ], and requires purchasers to be 20 years of age (] in Japan is 20 years old).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html |title=CIA - The World Factbook - Japan |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> Since July 2008, Japan has enforced this age limit at cigarette vending machines through use of the ] ]. In other countries, such as Egypt, it is legal to use and purchase tobacco products regardless of age.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} Germany raised the purchase age from 16 to 18 on the 1 September 2007. | |||
| Some police departments in the United States occasionally send an underaged teenager into a store where cigarettes are sold, and have the teen attempt to purchase cigarettes, with their own or no ID. If the vendor then completes the sale, the store is issued a fine.<ref> {{wayback|url=http://www.abc.state.va.us/licensing/downloads/underagebuyer.pdf |date=20090326205920 }}</ref> Similar enforcement practices are regularly performed by ] officers in the UK, Israel, and <!-- the Gardaí Siochana, the police force of --> the Republic of Ireland.<ref name=BBCYouth>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/bristol/4205066.stm |title=UK | England | Bristol/Somerset | Retailers sell tobacco to youths |publisher=BBC News |date=2005-09-01 |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> | |||
| === Taxation === | |||
| {{See also|Cigarette taxes in the United States}} | |||
| Cigarettes are a significant source of tax revenue in many localities. This fact has historically been an impediment for health groups seeking to discourage cigarette smoking, since governments seek to maximize tax revenues. Furthermore, some countries have made cigarettes a state monopoly, which has the same effect on the attitude of government officials outside the health field.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/tobacco/stories/asia.htm |title=U.S. Aided Cigarette Firms in Conquests Across Asia |publisher=Washingtonpost.com |date=1996-11-17 |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref> In the United States, cigarettes are taxed substantially, but the states are a primary determinant of the total tax rate. Generally, states that rely on tobacco as a significant farm product tend to tax cigarettes at a low rate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.taxadmin.org/FTA/rate/cigarett.html |title=State Excise Tax Rates On Cigarettes (January 1, 2007) |publisher=Taxadmin.org |accessdate=2009-11-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091109195142/http://www.taxadmin.org/FTA/rate/cigarett.html |archivedate=November 9, 2009 }}</ref> Higher prices for cigarettes discourage smoking. Every 10% increase in the price of cigarettes reduced ] by about 7% and overall cigarette consumption by about 4%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tobaccofreekids.org/reports/prices/ |title=Higher Cigarette Taxes |publisher=Tobaccofreekids.org |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref> Thus, increased cigarette taxes are proposed as a means to reduce smoking. Coupled with the federal cigarette tax of $1.01 per pack, total cigarette-specific taxes range from $1.18 per pack in ] to $8.00 per pack in ]. States also charge sizable settlement payments to tobacco companies, and the federal government levies user fees to fund ] regulatory measures over tobacco. While these charges are not cigarette-specific, tobacco companies are ultimately forced to pass on those costs to their consumers. Lastly, most jurisdictions apply sales tax to the full retail price of cigarettes. | |||
| ===Fire-safe cigarette=== | |||
| {{main article|Fire safe cigarette}} | |||
| According to Simon Chapman, a professor of public health at the University of Sydney, the burning agents in cigarette paper are responsible for fires and reducing them would be a simple and effective means of dramatically reducing the ignition propensity of cigarettes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,3540489,00.html |title=European Union Pushes for Self-Extinguishing Cigarettes |publisher=Deutsche Welle |accessdate=2009-01-01}}</ref> Since the 1980s, prominent cigarette manufacturers such as ] and ] developed fire-safe cigarettes, but did not market them.{{citation needed|date=September 2010}} | |||
| The burn rate of cigarette paper is regulated through the application of different forms of microcrystalline ] to the paper.<ref name=burnRatePatent>{{cite web|url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5263999.html |title=Smoking article wrapper for controlling burn rate and method for making same - Philip Morris Incorporated |publisher=Freepatentsonline.com |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> Cigarette paper has been specially engineered by creating bands of different porosity to create "fire-safe" cigarettes. These cigarettes have a reduced idle burning speed which allows them to self-extinguish.<ref name=safeburingCigarettes>{{cite web|url=http://firesafecigarettes.org/itemDetail.asp?categoryID=48&itemID=1190&URL=About%20fire-safe%20cigarettes/What%20is%20a%20fire-safe%20cigarette |title=NFPA :: Safety Information :: For consumers :: Causes :: Smoking :: Coalition for Fire-Safe Cigarettes |publisher=Firesafecigarettes.org |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> This fire-safe paper is manufactured by mechanically altering the setting of the paper slurry.<ref name=bandedPaperPatent>{{cite web|url=http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5342484-fulltext.html |title=Method and apparatus for making banded smoking article wrappers - US Patent 5342484 Full Text |publisher=Patentstorm.us |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> | |||
| New York was the first U.S. state to mandate that all cigarettes manufactured or sold within the state comply with a fire-safe standard. Canada has passed a similar nationwide mandate based on the same standard. All U.S. states are gradually passing fire-safe mandates.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.firesafecigarettes.org/categoryList.asp?categoryID=77&URL=Legislative%20updates/Adoptions |title=States that have passed fire-safe cigarette laws |publisher=Fire Safe Cigarettes |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> | |||
| The European Union wishes to ban in 2011 cigarettes that are not fire-safe. According to a study made by the European Union in 16 European countries, 11,000 fires were due to people carelessly handling cigarettes between 2005 and 2007. This caused 520 deaths and 1,600 people injured.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexpansion.com/economie/actualite-high-tech/les-cigarettes-anti-incendie-seront-obligatoires-en-2011_160019.html |title=Les cigarettes anti-incendie seront obligatoires en 2011 |publisher=Lexpansion.com |language=French |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref> | |||
| === Cigarette advertising === | |||
| {{Main article|Tobacco advertising}} | |||
| In many parts of the world, tobacco advertising and sponsorship has been outlawed. The ban on tobacco advertising and sponsorship in the ] in 2005 has prompted Formula One management to look for races in areas that allow the tobacco-sponsored teams to display their ]. In the United States, advertising restrictions took effect on June 22, 2010. | |||
| In some jurisdictions, such as the Canadian provinces of ], ] and ], the retail store display of cigarettes is completely prohibited if persons under the legal age of consumption have access to the premises.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/health/a-legal-history-of-smoking-in-canada-1.982213 |title=A legal history of smoking in Canada |date=2012-11-09 |accessdate=2014-12-29 |publisher=CBC News |quote=On Jan. 19, 2005, The Supreme Court of Canada rules that Saskatchewan can reinstate a controversial law that forces store owners to keep tobacco products behind curtains or doors. The so-called "shower curtain law" was passed in 2002 to hide cigarettes from children, but was struck down a year later by an appeals court.}}</ref> In ], ], ], and ], Canada and the ] the display of tobacco is prohibited for everyone, regardless of age, as of 2010. This ] includes noncigarette products such as cigars and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080420/ont_cigs_080420 |title=Ontario set to ban cigarette display cases |date=2008-04-20 |accessdate=2009-01-31 |publisher=CTV News |quote=The new ban prevents all tobacco products from being displayed in any way and prohibits customers from even touching them before they're paid for.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/consult/_2006/tob-ret/4-draft-ebauche-eng.php |title=A Proposal to Regulate the Display and Promotion of Tobacco and Tobacco-Related Products at Retail |publisher=Hc-sc.gc.ca |accessdate=2009-11-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607113117/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/consult/_2006/tob-ret/4-draft-ebauche-eng.php |archivedate=June 7, 2011 }}</ref> | |||
| === Warning messages in packages === | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main article|Tobacco packaging warning messages}} | |||
| As a result of tight advertising and marketing prohibitions, tobacco companies look at the pack differently: they view it as a strong component in displaying brand imagery and a creating significant in-store presence at the point of purchase. Market testing shows the influence of this dimension in shifting the consumer’s choice when the same product displays in an alternative package. Studies also show how companies have manipulated a variety of elements in packs designs to communicate the impression of lower in tar or milder cigarettes, whereas the components were the same.<ref name="Binesh 2011">{{cite web|date=2011| last= Binesh| first= Fatemeh | title=The Importance of Cigarette Pack as Brand Image | url= http://www.medwelljournals.com/fulltext/?doi=ibm.2011.85.90}}</ref> | |||
| Some countries require cigarette packs to contain warnings about health hazards. The United States was the first,<ref name="nytimes 2010">{{cite news|newspaper=The New York Times|date=November 10, 2010| last= Harris | first= Gardiner | title= F.D.A. Unveils Proposed Graphic Warning Labels for Cigarette Packs | url= http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/11/health/policy/11tobacco.html}}</ref> later followed by other countries including Canada, most of Europe, Australia,<ref name="australia">Scollo, Michelle; Haslam, Indra (2008). . Tobacco in Australia. Cancer Council Victoria. Retrieved 2010-07-23.</ref> Pakistan,<ref name="pakistan">. Tobacco in Pakistan.</ref> India, Hong Kong, and Singapore. In 1985, Iceland became the first country to enforce graphic warnings on cigarette packaging.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1985-09-17/features/8502080902_1_abuse-dentists-iceland |title=Iceland Tough On Cigarettes - Sun Sentinel |publisher=Articles.sun-sentinel.com |date=1985-09-17 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Bardi |first=Jason |url=http://www.ucsf.edu/news/2012/11/13151/cigarette-pack-health-warning-labels-us-lag-behind-world |title=Cigarette Pack Health Warning Labels in US Lag Behind World |doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2012-050541 |publisher=www.ucsf.edu |date=2012-11-16 |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref> At the end of December 2010, new regulations from Ottawa increased the size of tobacco warnings to cover three-quarters of the cigarette package in Canada.<ref>Ottawa to increase size of tobacco warning to cover 3/4 of cigarette package http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Ottawa+increase+size+tobacco+warnings/4039002/story.html</ref> As of November 2010, 39 countries have adopted similar legislation.<ref name="nytimes 2010"/> | |||
| In February 2011, the Canadian government passed regulations requiring cigarette packs to contain 12 new images to cover 75% of the outside panel and eight new health messages on the inside panel with full color.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Tobacco+warning+labels+appear+interior+exterior+package/4312065/story.html |accessdate=February 19, 2011 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> | |||
| As of April 2011, Australian regulations require all packs to use a bland olive green, with 75% coverage on the front of the pack and all of the back consisting of graphic health warnings. The only features that differentiate one brand from another are the product name in a standard color, standard position, and standard font size and style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_asiapacific/view/1121281/1/.html |title=Australia unveils tough new cigarette pack rules |publisher=Channel NewsAsia |date=2011-04-07 |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> New Zealand, Canada, and the United Kingdom have considered similar policies.{{citation needed|date=August 2015}} | |||
| In response to these regulations, ], ] Inc., ] Plc., and ] attempted to sue the Australian government. On August 15, 2012, the High Court of Australia dismissed the suit and made Australia the first country to introduce brand-free ] with health warnings covering 90 and 70% of back and front packaging, respectively. This took effect on December 1, 2012.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-15/australia-top-court-upholds-tobacco-plain-packaging-legislation.html |title=Australia’s Top Court Backs Plain-Pack Tobacco Laws |date=August 15, 2012 | work=Bloomberg}}</ref> | |||
| == Construction == | |||
| [[File:Cigarette diagram.svg|thumb|Diagram of a cigarette<br /> 1. Filter made of 95% cellulose acetate<br /> | |||
| 2. Tipping paper to cover the filter<br /> | |||
| 3. Rolling paper to cover the tobacco<br /> | |||
| 4. Tobacco blend]] | |||
| Modern commercially manufactured cigarettes are seemingly simple objects consisting mainly of a tobacco blend, paper, ] glue to bond the outer layer of paper together, and often also a ]–based filter.<ref>Clean Virginia Waterways, , ]. Retrieved October 31, 2006.</ref> While the assembly of cigarettes is straightforward, much focus is given to the creation of each of the components, in particular the tobacco blend. A key ingredient that makes cigarettes more addictive is the inclusion of reconstituted tobacco, which has additives to make nicotine more volatile as the cigarette burns.<ref name=WigandWHOReport/> | |||
| === Paper === | |||
| {{Main article|Rolling paper}} | |||
| {{See also|List of rolling papers}} | |||
| The paper for holding the tobacco blend may vary in porosity to allow ventilation of the burning ember or contain materials that control the burning rate of the cigarette and stability of the produced ash. The papers used in tipping the cigarette (forming the mouthpiece) and surrounding the filter stabilize the mouthpiece from saliva and moderate the burning of the cigarette, as well as the delivery of smoke with the presence of one or two rows of small laser-drilled air holes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Composite List of Ingredients in Non-Tobacco Materials |url=http://www.jti.com/english/corp_responsibility/ingredients/ingredients_links/comp_tab_nonmat.aspx |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524200406/http://www.jti.com/english/corp_responsibility/ingredients/ingredients_links/comp_tab_nonmat.aspx |archivedate=May 24, 2008 }} www.jti.com. Retrieved November 2, 2006.</ref> | |||
| === Tobacco blend === | |||
| ]]] | |||
| The process of blending gives the end product a consistent taste from batches of tobacco grown in different areas of a country that may change in flavor profile from year to year due to different environmental conditions.<ref name=DEMerrill>David E. Merrill, (1994), . Video presentation at ], Richmond offices. Retrieved October 31, 2006.</ref> | |||
| Modern cigarettes produced after the 1950s, although composed mainly of shredded tobacco leaf, use a significant quantity of tobacco processing byproducts in the blend. Each cigarette's tobacco blend is made mainly from the leaves of flue-cured brightleaf, burley tobacco, and oriental tobacco. These leaves are selected, processed, and aged prior to blending and filling. The processing of brightleaf and burley tobaccos for tobacco leaf "strips" produces several byproducts such as leaf stems, tobacco dust, and tobacco leaf pieces ("small laminate").<ref name=DEMerrill/> To improve the economics of producing cigarettes, these byproducts are processed separately into forms where they can then be added back into the cigarette blend without an apparent or marked change in the cigarette's quality. The most common tobacco byproducts include: | |||
| * Blended leaf (BL) sheet: a thin, dry sheet cast from a paste made with tobacco dust collected from tobacco stemming, finely milled burley-leaf stem, and ]<ref name="PCL Sheet">{{cite web|url=http://g2public.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/batco/html/13000/13099/ |title=Legacy Tobacco Documents Library |publisher=G2public.library.ucsf.edu |accessdate=2012-03-25 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212175208/http://g2public.library.ucsf.edu/tobacco/batco/html/13000/13099/ |archivedate=February 12, 2009 }}</ref> | |||
| * Reconstituted leaf (RL) sheet: a paper-like material made from recycled tobacco fines, tobacco stems and "class tobacco", which consists of tobacco particles less than 30 ] in size (about 0.6 mm) that are collected at any stage of tobacco processing:<ref name=Gellatly>Grant Gellatly, {{cite web | title= Method and apparatus for coating reconstituted tobacco | url=http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4706692.html}}. Retrieved November 2, 2006.</ref> RL is made by extracting the soluble chemicals in the tobacco byproducts, processing the leftover tobacco fibers from the extraction into a paper, and then reapplying the extracted materials in concentrated form onto the paper in a fashion similar to what is done in ]. At this stage, ] additives are applied to make reconstituted tobacco an effective nicotine delivery system.<ref name=WigandWHOReport/> | |||
| * Expanded (ES) or improved stem (IS): ES is rolled, flattened, and shredded leaf stems that are expanded by being soaked in water and rapidly heated. Improved stem follows the same process, but is simply steamed after shredding. Both products are then dried. These products look similar in appearance, but are different in taste.<ref name=DEMerrill/> | |||
| In recent years, the manufacturers' pursuit of maximum profits has led to the practice of using not just the leaves, but also recycled tobacco offal<ref name=WigandWHOReport/> and the plant stem.<ref name=Pemberton>David Pemberton, {{cite web | title= Spies, Smoking & Radiation Sickness | url=http://www.ecigator.net/blog/spies-smoking-radiation-sickness}}</ref> The stem is first crushed and cut to resemble the leaf before being merged or blended into the cut leaf.<ref> {{wayback|url=http://www.dickinsonlegg.com/STS/STSframeset.htm |date=20090112005528 }}</ref> | |||
| According to data from the World Health Organization,<ref name="WHO Manufacturing Tobacco">{{cite web|title=13 Manufacturing Tobacco |url=http://www.who.int/tobacco/statistics/tobacco_atlas/en/ |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203212748/http://www.who.int/tobacco/statistics/tobacco_atlas/en/ |archivedate=December 3, 2011 }}. Retrieved May 11, 2011.</ref> the amount of tobacco per 1000 cigarettes fell from 2.28 pounds in 1960 to 0.91 pounds in 1999, largely as a result of reconstituting tobacco, fluffing, and additives. | |||
| A recipe-specified combination of brightleaf, burley-leaf, and oriental-leaf tobacco is mixed with various additives to improve its flavors. | |||
| === Additives === | |||
| Various additives are combined into the shredded tobacco product mixtures, with ]s such as ] or ], as well as flavoring products and enhancers such as ], ], tobacco extracts, and various sugars, which are known collectively as "casings". The leaf tobacco is then shredded, along with a specified amount of small laminate, expanded tobacco, BL, RL, ES, and IS. A perfume-like flavor/fragrance, called the "topping" or "toppings", which is most often formulated by ], is then blended into the tobacco mixture to improve the consistency in flavor and taste of the cigarettes associated with a certain ].<ref name=DEMerrill/> Additionally, they replace lost flavors due to the repeated wetting and drying used in processing the tobacco. Finally, the tobacco mixture is filled into cigarette tubes and packaged. | |||
| A list of 599 ], created by five major American cigarette companies, was approved by the Department of Health and Human Services in April 1994. None of these additives is listed as an ingredient on the cigarette pack(s). Chemicals are added for ] purposes and many boost the addictive properties of cigarettes, especially when burned.{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} | |||
| One of the chemicals on the list, ], helps convert bound nicotine molecules in tobacco smoke into free nicotine molecules. This process, known as ], enhances the effect of the nicotine on the smoker.{{Citation needed|date=October 2012}} | |||
| ===Cigarette tube=== | |||
| Cigarette tubes are prerolled cigarette paper usually with an acetate or paper ] at the end. They have an appearance similar to a finished cigarette, but are without any tobacco or smoking material inside. The length varies from what is known as King Size (84 mm) to 100s (100 mm).<ref name="ref1058918916">{{cite web|url=http://www.wikihow.com/Roll-Your-Own-Filter-Cigarettes|title=How to Roll Your Own Filter Cigarettes: 6 Steps (with Pictures)|publisher=wikihow.com|accessdate=2014-02-14}}</ref> | |||
| Filling a cigarette tube is usually done with a cigarette injector (also known as a shooter). Cone-shaped cigarette tubes, known as cones, can be filled using a packing stick or straw because of their shape. Cone smoking is popular because as the cigarette burns, it tends to get stronger and stronger. A cone allows more tobacco to be burned at the beginning than the end, allowing for an even flavor<ref name="ref-653500596">{{cite web|url=http://www.ryomagazine.com/july/filters.htm|title=Zig-Zag Filtered Cigarette Tubes, RYO Magazine, The Magazine of Roll Your Own Cigarettes, Reviews, the Premier filter tube, filtered cigarettes|publisher=ryomagazine.com|accessdate=2014-02-14}}</ref> | |||
| The United States Tobacco Taxation Bureau defines a cigarette tube as "Cigarette paper made into a hollow cylinder for use in making cigarettes."<ref name="ref-334491804">{{cite web|url=http://www.ttb.gov/forms_tutorials/glossary/glossary-text.html|title=Forms Tutorial: Glossary Text Version|publisher=ttb.gov|accessdate=2014-02-14}}</ref> | |||
| === Cigarette filter === | |||
| {{Main article||Cigarette filter}} | |||
| ] | |||
| === Cigarette butt === | |||
| ] | |||
| {{See also|Ashtray|Cigarette pack#Features}} | |||
| The common name for the remains of a cigarette after smoking is a cigarette butt. The butt is typically about 30% of the cigarette's original length. It consists of a tissue tube which holds a ] and some remains of tobacco mixed with ash. They are the most numerically frequent litter in the world.<ref name="Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology">{{cite journal |last1= Warne |first1= M. St. J. |year= 2005 |title= Variation in, and Causes of, Toxicity of Cigarette Butts to a Cladoceran and Microtox |journal= Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |volume= 50 |issue= 2 |pages= 205–212 |publisher= Springer |doi= 10.1007/s00244-004-0132-y |last2= Warne |first2= M. St. J. |last3= Pablo |first3= F. |last4= Patra |first4= R. |pmid= 16328625}}<!--|accessdate= 2012-01-01 --></ref> Cigarette butts accumulate outside buildings, on parking lots, and streets where they can be transported through storm drains to streams, rivers, and beaches.<ref name="longwood">Kathleen M. Register. "", ]. Retrieved 28 June 2011. First published in '']'', Volume 25, Number 2, August 2000.</ref> It is also called a fag-end or dog-end.<ref>The Nelson contemporary English dictionary - Page 187, W. T. Cunningham - 1977</ref> | |||
| In a recent trial the city of ], ], partnered with ] to create a system for recycling of cigarette butts. A reward of 1¢ per collected butt was offered to determine the effectiveness of a deposit system similar to that of beverage containers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/canada/penny-for-your-butts-vancouver-group-pushes-cigarette-butt-recycling-plan-1.1335827|title=Penny for your butts? Vancouver group pushes cigarette-butt recycling plan|work=CTVNews|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://vancouver.ca/news-calendar/cigarette-butt-collection-and-recycling.aspx|title=City and TerraCycle launch cigarette butt collection and recycling program|author=City of Vancouver|publisher=|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> | |||
| == Environmental impact == | |||
| Cigarette filters are made up of thousands of polymer chains of ], which has the chemical structure shown to the right. Once discarded into the environment, the filters create a large waste problem. Cigarette filters are the most common form of litter in the world, as approximately 5.6 trillion cigarettes are smoked every year worldwide.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Novotny TE, Lum K, Smith E |title=Cigarettes butts and the case for an environmental policy on hazardous cigarette waste |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=6 |pages=1691–705 |date=2009 |doi=10.3390/ijerph6051691|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Of those, an estimated 4.5 trillion cigarette filters become litter every year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.chron.com/sciguy/2010/05/the-world-litters-4-5-trillion-cigarette-butts-a-year-can-we-stop-this/|title=The world litters 4.5 trillion cigarette butts a year. Can we stop this?|publisher=]|accessdate=2014-09-16}}</ref> To develop an idea of the waste weight amount produced a year the table below was created. | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |+ Estimated waste produced from filters | |||
| ! Number of filters !! weight | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1 pack (20) || {{convert|0.12|oz|g}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | sold daily (15 billion) || {{convert|5,625,000|lbs|kg}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | sold yearly (5.6 trillion) || {{convert|2,100,000,000|lbs|kg}} | |||
| |- | |||
| | estimated trash (4.5 trillion) || {{convert|1,687,500,000|lbs|kg}} | |||
| |} | |||
| Discarded cigarette filters usually end up in the water system through drainage ditches and are transported by rivers and other waterways to the ocean. | |||
| === Aquatic life health concerns === | |||
| In the 2006 International Coastal Cleanup, cigarettes and cigarette butts constituted 24.7% of the total collected pieces of garbage, over twice as many as any other category, which is not surprising seeing the numbers in the table above of waste produced each year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/DocServer/Final_ICC_report_2007_release.pdf?docID=2841 |title=International Coastal Cleanup 2006 Report, page 8 |date= |accessdate=2009-11-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081126224658/http://www.oceanconservancy.org/site/DocServer/Final_ICC_report_2007_release.pdf?docID=2841 |archivedate=November 26, 2008 }}</ref> | |||
| Cigarette filters contain the chemicals filtered from cigarettes and can leach into waterways and ].<ref>{{cite web | title=CigaretteLitter.org| url=http://www.cigarettelitter.org| accessdate=2007-05-28}}</ref> The toxicity of used cigarette filters depends on the specific tobacco blend and additives used by the cigarette companies. After a cigarette is smoked, the filter retains some of the chemicals, and some of which are considered ].<ref name="Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology" /> When studying the environmental impact of cigarette filters, the various chemicals that can be found in cigarette filters are not studied individually, due to its complexity. Researchers instead focus on the whole cigarette filter and its LD<sub>50</sub>. LD<sub>50</sub> is defined as the lethal dose that kills 50% of a sample population. This allows for a simpler study of the toxicity of cigarettes filters. One recent study has looked at the toxicity of smoked cigarette filters (smoked filter + tobacco), smoked cigarette filters (no tobacco), and unsmoked cigarette filters (no tobacco). The results of the study showed that for the LD<sub>50</sub>of both marine topsmelt (''Atherinops affinis'') and freshwater ] (''Pimephales promelas''), smoked cigarette filters + tobacco are more toxic than smoked cigarette filters, but both are severely more toxic than unsmoked cigarette filters.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sluaghter E, Gersberg RM, Watanabe K, Rudolph J, Stransky C, Novotny TE |title=Toxicity of cigarette butts, and their chemical components, to marine and freshwater fish |journal=Tobacco Control |volume=20 |pages=25–29 |date=2011 | doi = 10.1136/tc.2010.040170 }}</ref> | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |+ LD<sub>50</sub> of cigarette filters to marine life (cigarette per liter) | |||
| ! Cigarette type !! Marine topsmelt !! Fathead minnow | |||
| |- | |||
| | Smoked cigarette filter (smoked filter + tobacco) || 1.0 || 1.0 | |||
| |- | |||
| | Smoked cigarette filters (no tobacco) || 1.8 || 4.3 | |||
| |- | |||
| | Unsmoked cigarette filters (no tobacco) || 5.1 || 13.5 | |||
| |} | |||
| === Other health concerns === | |||
| Toxic chemicals are not the only human health concern to take into considerations; the others are cellulose acetate and carbon particles that are breathed in while smoking. These particles are suspected of causing lung damage.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Pauly JL, Mepani AB, Lesses JD, Cummings KM, Streck RJ |title=Cigarettes with defective filters marketed for 40 years: what Philip Morris never told smokers |journal=Tob Control |volume=11 |issue= Suppl 1|pages=I51–61 |date=March 2002 |pmid=11893815 |pmc=1766058 |doi=10.1136/tc.11.suppl_1.i51 |url=http://tobaccocontrol.bmj.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11893815 |quote=}}</ref> | |||
| The next health concern is that of plants. Under certain growing conditions, plants on average grow taller and have longer roots than those exposed to cigarette filters in the soil. A connection exists between cigarette filters introduced to soil and the depletion of some soil nutrients over a period time. | |||
| Another health concern to the environment is not only the toxic carcinogens that are harmful to the wildlife, but also the filters themselves pose an ingestion risk to wildlife that may presume filter litter as food.<ref>{{Cite journal |author= Dahlberg ER|title=Cigarette Filters With Vegetation, soil, and Subterranean Environment |publisher=Hamline University |location=Saint Paul, Minnesota|date=April 11, 2006}}</ref> | |||
| The last major health concern to make note of for marine life is the toxicity that deep marine topsmelt and fathead minnow pose to their predators. This could lead to toxin build-up (]) in the food chain and have long reaching negative effects. | |||
| Smoldering cigarette filters have also been blamed for triggering fires from residential areas<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.smh.com.au/national/cigarette-butt-causes-1m-house-fire-20080914-4g27.html |title=Cigarette butt 'causes $1m house fire' |publisher=News.smh.com.au |date=2008-09-14 |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref> to major ]s and ] which has caused major property damage and also death<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cigarettelitter.org/index.asp?PageName=Fires |title=The Facts About Cigarette Butts and Litter - Fire Danger |publisher=CigaretteLitter.Org |date= |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Perkin |first=Corrie |url=http://www.news.com.au/story/0,27574,25027063-1243,00.html |title=Cigarette butt blamed for West Bendigo fire; two dead, 50 homes lost | Victoria |publisher=News.com.au |date=2009-02-09 |accessdate=2009-11-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225072926/http://www.news.com.au/story/0,27574,25027063-1243,00.html |archivedate=February 25, 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nswfb.nsw.gov.au/page.php?id=327 |title=Can cigarette butts start bushfires? - NSW Fire Brigades |publisher=Nswfb.nsw.gov.au |date=2007-06-21 |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref> as well as disruption to services by triggering alarms and warning systems.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2009/01/15/2466967.htm |title=Discarded cigarette butt causes airport chaos - ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) |publisher=Abc.net.au |date=2009-01-15 |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref> | |||
| === Degradation === | |||
| Once in the environment, cellulose acetate can go through ] and ].<ref name=bat>{{cite web|url=http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__3MNFEN.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/4572237B0C2D456CC1257314004EF667 |title=British American Tobacco - Cigarettes |publisher=Bat.com |date= |accessdate=2012-03-25 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303205818/http://www.bat.com/group/sites/UK__3MNFEN.nsf/vwPagesWebLive/4572237B0C2D456CC1257314004EF667 |archivedate=March 3, 2012 }}</ref><ref name=chicagotribune>{{cite web|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2008-06-18/features/0806170174_1_cigarette-butts-secondhand-beach-house|title=Kicking butts|accessdate=2014-09-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Puls J, Wilson SA, Holter D |title=Degradation of Cellulose Acetate-Based Materials: A Review |journal=Journal of Polymers and the Environment |volume=19 |pages=152–165 |date=2011 |doi=10.1007/s10924-010-0258-0}}</ref> Several factors go into determining the rate of both degradation process. This variance in rate and resistance to biodegradation in many conditions is a factor in littering<ref> {{wayback|url=http://www.ceredigion.gov.uk/index.cfm?articleid=5364 |date=20090108193818 }}</ref> and environmental damage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.longwood.edu/cleanva/ciglitterarticle.htm |title=Bulletin of the American Littoral Society, Volume 26, Number 2, August 2000 |publisher=Longwood.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-11-13}}</ref> | |||
| === Biodegradation === | |||
| ] | |||
| The first step in the biodegradation of cellulose acetate is the deactylation of the acetate from the polymer chain (which is the opposite of ]). An acetate is a negative ion with the chemical formula of C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>. Deacetylation can be performed by either chemical hydrolysis or ]. Chemical hydrolysis is the cleavage of a chemical bond by addition of water. In the reaction, water (H<sub>2</sub>O) reacts with the ] functional group attached the cellulose polymer chain and forms an ] and ]. The alcohol is simply the cellulose polymer chain with the acetate replaced with an alcohol group. The second reaction is exactly the same as chemical hydrolysis with the exception of the use of an ] enzyme. The enzyme, found in most plants, ] the ] shown below.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Acetylesterase-mediated deacetylation of pectin impairs cell elongation, pollen germination, and plant reproduction |publisher=American Society of Plant Biologists|date=January 2012 |pmid=22247250|doi=10.1105/tpc.111.092411|volume=24|pmc=3289554|journal=Plant Cell|pages=50–65 | last1 = Gou | first1 = JY | last2 = Miller | first2 = LM | last3 = Hou | first3 = G | last4 = Yu | first4 = XH | last5 = Chen | first5 = XY | last6 = Liu | first6 = CJ}}{{dead link|date=July 2015}}</ref> | |||
| :acetic ester + H<sub>2</sub>O {{eqm}} alcohol + acetate | |||
| In the case of the enzymatic reaction, the two substrates (reactants) are again ] and H<sub>2</sub>O, the two ] of the reaction are ] and ]. This reaction is exactly the same as the chemical hydrolysis. Both of these products are perfectly fine in the environment. Once the acetate group is removed from the cellulose chain, the polymer can be readily degraded by ], which is another enzyme found in ], ], and ]. Cellulases break down the cellulose molecule into monosaccharides ("simple sugars") such as beta-], or shorter ] and ]. ]These simple sugars are not harmful to the environment and are in fact are a useful product for many plants and animals. The breakdown of cellulose is of interest in the field of biofuel.<ref></ref> Due to the conditions that affect the process, large variation in the degradation time of cellulose acetate occurs. | |||
| === Factors in biodegradation === | |||
| The duration of the biodegradation process is cited as taking as little as one month<ref name=bat/> to as long as 15 years or more, depending on the environmental conditions. The major factor that affects the biodegradation duration is the availability of acetylesterase and cellulase enzymes. Without these enzymes, biodegradation only occurs through chemical hydrolysis and stops there. Temperature is another major factor, if the organisms that contain the enzymes are too cold to grow, then biodegradation is severely hindered. Availability of oxygen in the environment also affects the degradation. Cellulose acetate is degraded within 2–3 weeks under ] assay systems of '']'' enrichment cultivation techniques and an activated sludge wastewater treatment system.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Buchanan CM, Garder RM, Komarek RJ |title=Aerobic biodegradation of cellulose acetate |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |volume=47 |pages=1709–1719 |date=1993 |doi=10.1002/app.1993.070471001}}</ref> It is degraded within 14 weeks under ] conditions of incubation with special cultures of fungi.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Rivard CJ, Adney WS, Himmel ME, Mitchell DJ, Vinzant TB, Grohmann K, Moens L, Chum H |title=Effects of Natural Polymer Acetlation on the anaerobic Dioconversion to Methane and Carbon Dioxide |journal=Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology |volume=34/35 |pages=725–736 |date=1992 |doi=10.1007/bf02920592}}</ref> Ideal conditions were used for the degradation (i.e. right temperature, and available organisms to provide the enzymes). Thus, filters last longer in places with low oxygen concentration (ex. swamps and bogs). Overall, the biodegraditon process of cellulose acetate is not an instantaneous process. | |||
| === Photodegradation === | |||
| The other process of degradation is ], which is when a molecular bond is broken by the absorption of photon radiation (i.e. light). Due to cellulose acetate carbonyl groups, the molecule naturally absorbs light at 260 nm,<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Hon NS |title=Photodegradation of Cellulose Acetate Fibers |journal=Journal of Polymer Science Part A: Polymer Chemistry |volume=15 |pages=725–744 |date=1977 |doi=10.1002/pol.1977.170150319}}</ref> but it contains some impurities which can absorb light. These impurities are known to absorb light in the far UV light region (< 280 nm).<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Hosono K, Kanazawa A, Mori H, Endo T |title=Photodegradation of Cellulose Acetate film in the presence of bensophenone as a photosensitizer |journal=Journal of Applied Polymer Science |volume=105 |pages=3235–3239 |date=2007 |doi=10.1002/app.26386}}</ref> The atmosphere filters radiation from the sun and allows radiation of > 300 nm only to reach the surface. Thus, the primary photodegradation of cellulose acetate is considered insignificant to the total degradation process, since cellulose acetate and its impurities absorb light at shorter wavelengths. Research is focused on the secondary mechanisms of photodegradation of cellulose acetate to help make up for some of the limitations of biodegradation. The secondary mechanisms would be the addition of a compound to the filters that would be able to absorb natural light and use it to start the degradation process. The main two areas of research are in photocatalytic oxidation<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allergyclean.com/news/uvpcoformaldehyde.htm|title=Study on Photocatalytic Oxidation (PCO) Raises Questions About Formaldehyde as a Byproduct in Indoor Air|publisher=|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> and photosensitized degradation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/458153/photosensitization|title=photosensitization - chemistry|work=Encyclopedia Britannica|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> Photocatalytic oxidation uses a species that absorbs radiation and creates hydroxyl radicals that react with the filters and start the breakdown. Photosensitized degradation, though, uses a species that absorbs radiation and transfers the energy to the cellulose acetate to start the degradation process. Both processes use other species that absorbed light > 300 nm to start the degradation of cellulose acetate.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}} | |||
| === Solution and remediation projects === | |||
| ] | |||
| Several options are available to help reduce the environmental impact of cigarette butts. Proper disposal into receptacles leads to decreased numbers found in the environment and their effect on the environment. Another method is making fines and penalties for littering filters; many governments have sanctioned stiff penalties for littering of cigarette filters; for example, ] imposes a penalty of $1,025 for littering cigarette filters.<ref>{{cite web | |||
| | publication-date = 2004-06-01 | |||
| | url = http://www.ecy.wa.gov/news/2004news/2004-097.html | |||
| | publisher = State of Washington Department of Ecology | |||
| | location = Washington| title = Accidents, fires: Price of littering goes beyond fines}}</ref> Another option is developing better biodegradable filters; much of this work relies heavily on the research in the secondary mechanism for photodegradation as stated above, but a new research group has developed an acid tablet that goes inside the filters, and once wet enough, releases acid that speeds up the degradation to around two weeks.<ref>{{cite web | date = 2012-08-14|url = http://www.environmentalhealthnews.org/ehs/newscience/2012/06/2012-0725-biodegradable-cigarette-filters | title = No more butts: biodegradable filters a step to boot litter problem | publisher = Environmental Health News}}</ref> The research is still only in test phase and the hope is soon it will go into production. The next option is using cigarette packs with a compartment in which to discard cigarette butts, implementing monetary deposits on filters, increasing the availability of butt receptacles, and expanding public education. It may even be possible to ban the sale of filtered cigarettes altogether on the basis of their adverse environmental impact.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/6/5/1691/html |title=Cigarette Butts and the Case for an Environmental Policy on Hazardous Cigarette Waste |accessdate=2009-09-21}}</ref> Recent research has been put into finding ways to use the filter waste to develop a desired product. One research group in South Korea has developed a simple one-step process that converts the cellulose acetate in discarded cigarette filters into a high-performing material that could be integrated into computers, handheld devices, electrical vehicles, and wind turbines to store energy. These materials have demonstrated superior performance as compared to commercially available carbon, grapheme, and carbon nanotubes. The product is showing high promise as a green alternative for the waste problem.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Minzae L, Gil-Pyo K, Hyeon DS, Soomin P, Jongheop Y |title=Preparation of energy storage material derived from a used cigarette filter for a supercapacitor electrode |journal=IOP Science |volume=25 |page=34 |date=2014 }}</ref> | |||
| <!-- == Prices == | |||
| {|class="wikitable sortable" border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3| | |||
| |- | |||
| !nowrap|'''Country/Territory''' | |||
| !nowrap|'''USD/20 pack''' | |||
| !nowrap|'''€/20 pack''' | |||
| !nowrap|'''Local currency/20 pack''' | |||
| !nowrap|'''Date of price''' | |||
| !nowrap|'''Sources''' | |||
| |- | |||
| |Ireland | |||
| |10.50 | |||
| |10.00 | |||
| |€10.00 | |||
| |2012-07-16 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |United Kingdom | |||
| |12 | |||
| |9.40 | |||
| |£7.50 | |||
| |2012-03-21 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |New Zealand | |||
| |13.13 | |||
| |10.10 | |||
| |NZ$16 | |||
| |2013-01-01 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Philippines | |||
| |1 | |||
| |0.75 | |||
| |Php.50 | |||
| |2013-06-05 | |||
| |- | |||
| |Poland | |||
| |4.75 | |||
| |3.70 | |||
| |15.50 PLN | |||
| |2013-05-18 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |U.S. (]) | |||
| |12.50 | |||
| |9.80 | |||
| |$12.50 | |||
| |2012-06-26 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |U.S. (]) | |||
| |4.60 | |||
| |3.50 | |||
| |$4.56 | |||
| |2013-04-11 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Australia | |||
| |17.80 | |||
| |14.10 | |||
| |A$20 (A$25/ 25 pack) | |||
| |2014-08-31 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Norway | |||
| |15.50 | |||
| |12.20 | |||
| |NOK90 | |||
| |2012-05-12 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Singapore | |||
| |10 | |||
| |8 | |||
| |$12.00 | |||
| |2014-09-25 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Malaysia | |||
| |3.97 | |||
| |3.10 | |||
| |13.00 RM | |||
| |2014-09-25 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |South Africa | |||
| |3.11 | |||
| |2.33 | |||
| |R31.00 | |||
| |2013-06-14 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Thailand | |||
| |2.15 | |||
| |1.55 | |||
| |Baht 65.00 | |||
| |2014-09-02 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Canada (]) | |||
| |10.75 | |||
| |7.92 | |||
| |C$11.20 ($14/25 pack) | |||
| C$9.60 ( 20 pack) British Columbia | |||
| | | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Indonesia | |||
| |1.59 | |||
| |1.24 | |||
| |Rp 19,075 | |||
| |2014-09-25 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |Romania | |||
| |4.4 | |||
| |3.4 | |||
| |15 RON | |||
| |2014-09-09 | |||
| | | |||
| |- | |||
| |India | |||
| |2.9 | |||
| |2.57 | |||
| |INR 220 | |||
| |2015-01-21 | |||
| | | |||
| |} --> | |||
| == Consumption == | |||
| {{expand section|date=June 2014}} | |||
| ] supermarket cigarette counter in ], Australia: In January 2011, Australia prohibited the display of cigarettes in retail outlets countrywide.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/tobacco-display-ban-from-tomorrow-20101230-19b5h.html | title = Tobacco display ban from tomorrow | accessdate = 2012-06-28 | last = Willingham | first = Richard | date = 31 Dec 2010 | work = The Age(Melbourne) | publisher = ]}}</ref>]] | |||
| As of 2002, about 5.5 trillion cigarettes were produced globally, and were smoked by over 1.1 billion people, or greater than one-seventh of the world population. While smoking rates have leveled off or declined in developed nations, they continue to rise in developing parts of the world. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% of adults.<ref name=autogenerated1/> In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.<ref name=autogenerated2/> | |||
| Smoking rates in Australia have dropped 4.9% in the year that ended in March 2014. Consumption of cigarettes and tobacco dropped 7.6% in the first quarter in Australia, and 0.1% of the nation’s gross domestic product was clipped from the cut in household consumption of cigarettes. Australia is cutting their overall smoking consumption faster than most of the developed world, in part due to landmark legislation passed banning logos on cigarette cartons, and instead replacing labels with graphic images of sick or dying cigarette smokers and dire health warnings in front of the images. This legislation, passed in 2011, is called Australia’s Plain Packaging Act, and was fought in the country’s High Court by manufacturers of tobacco products. | |||
| The legislation has significantly reduced consumption in Australia, and could serve as precedent for many other governments currently expanding restrictive legislation on cigarette and tobacco use. An independent review made by one of Britain’s most prominent doctors, Cyril Chantler, may be one of the first steps for Britain to follow Australia in cutting its overall household consumption. In his report, he notes that “standardized packaging would serve to reduce the rate of children taking up smoking.” Ireland’s health minister, James Reilly, has said the government has passed a draft bill in 2014 on plain packaging. In New Zealand, a bill has been presented to parliament in which the government’s associate health minister said “takes away the last means of promoting tobacco as a desirable product.”<ref>http://www.nytimes.com/2014/06/12/business/international/australias-graphic-cigarette-pack-warnings-appear-to-work.html?_r=0</ref> | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |+ Smoking prevalence by sex (2000) | |||
| |- | |||
| ! | |||
| ! colspan="2" | Percent smoking | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Region | |||
| ! Men | |||
| ! Women | |||
| |- | |||
| | Africa || 29% || 4% | |||
| |- | |||
| | United States || 35% || 22% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Eastern Mediterranean || 35% || 4% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Europe || 46% || 26% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Southeast Asia || 44% || 4% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Western Pacific || 60% || 8% | |||
| |} | |||
| <small>Source: ] estimates, 2000</small> | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |+ Leading consumers of cigarettes (1998)<ref>Cigarette numbers from WHO , population from: China: China Population Information and Research Center (estimate?), USA: US Census estimate , Japan: National Statistics Center intercensal estimate , Russia: Population Reference Bureau , Indonesia: average of 1995 and 2000 figures from Statistics Indonesia , all accessed on 2 August 2008. Per capita consumption given to 3 significant figures. {{wayback|url=http://www.who.int/tobacco/en/atlas8.pdf |date=20150421020514 }}</ref> | |||
| ! Country !! Population<br />(millions) !! Cigarettes consumed<br />(billions) !! Cigarettes consumed<br />(per capita) | |||
| |- | |||
| | China || 1,248 || 1,643 || 1,320 | |||
| |- || | |||
| | USA || 270 || 451 || 1,670 | |||
| |- || | |||
| | Japan || 126 || 328 || 2,600 | |||
| |- || | |||
| | Russia || 146 || 258 || 1,760 | |||
| |- || | |||
| | Indonesia || 200 || 215 || 1,070 | |||
| |} | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |+ Smoking prevalence in the U.S. (2006)<ref>{{Cite journal |title=State-specific prevalence of cigarette smoking among adults and quitting among persons aged 18-35 years--United States, 2006 |journal=MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. |volume=56 |issue=38 |pages=993–6 |date=September 2007 |pmid=17898692 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5638a2.htm |publisher=] |author1= Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Rank | |||
| ! State | |||
| ! % | |||
| ! Rank | |||
| ! State | |||
| ! % | |||
| ! Rank | |||
| ! State | |||
| ! % | |||
| ! Rank | |||
| ! State | |||
| ! % | |||
| |- | |||
| | 1 | |||
| | KY | |||
| | 28.6 | |||
| | 14 | |||
| | SC | |||
| | 22.3 | |||
| | 27 | |||
| | KS | |||
| | 20.0 | |||
| | 40 | |||
| | AZ | |||
| | 18.1 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 2 | |||
| | WV | |||
| | 25.7 | |||
| | 15 | |||
| | NV | |||
| | 22.2 | |||
| | 28 | |||
| | GA | |||
| | 20.0 | |||
| | 41 | |||
| | VT | |||
| | 18.0 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 3 | |||
| | OK | |||
| | 25.7 | |||
| | 16 | |||
| | NC | |||
| | 22.1 | |||
| | 29 | |||
| | ND | |||
| | 19.6 | |||
| | 42 | |||
| | DC | |||
| | 17.9 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 4 | |||
| | MS | |||
| | 25.1 | |||
| | 17 | |||
| | DE | |||
| | 21.7 | |||
| | 30 | |||
| | VA | |||
| | 19.3 | |||
| | 43 | |||
| | CO | |||
| | 17.9 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 5 | |||
| | AK | |||
| | 24.2 | |||
| | 18 | |||
| | WY | |||
| | 21.6 | |||
| | 31 | |||
| | RI | |||
| | 19.3 | |||
| | 44 | |||
| | MA | |||
| | 17.8 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 6 | |||
| | IN | |||
| | 24.1 | |||
| | 19 | |||
| | PA | |||
| | 21.5 | |||
| | 32 | |||
| | MT | |||
| | 19.0 | |||
| | 45 | |||
| | MD | |||
| | 17.8 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 7 | |||
| | AR | |||
| | 23.7 | |||
| | 20 | |||
| | IA | |||
| | 21.5 | |||
| | 33 | |||
| | NH | |||
| | 18.7 | |||
| | 46 | |||
| | HI | |||
| | 17.5 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 8 | |||
| | LA | |||
| | 23.4 | |||
| | 21 | |||
| | FL | |||
| | 21.0 | |||
| | 34 | |||
| | NE | |||
| | 18.6 | |||
| | 47 | |||
| | WA | |||
| | 17.1 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 9 | |||
| | MO | |||
| | 23.3 | |||
| | 22 | |||
| | ME | |||
| | 20.9 | |||
| | 35 | |||
| | OR | |||
| | 18.5 | |||
| | 48 | |||
| | CT | |||
| | 17.0 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 10 | |||
| | AL | |||
| | 23.3 | |||
| | 23 | |||
| | WI | |||
| | 20.8 | |||
| | 36 | |||
| | NY | |||
| | 18.3 | |||
| | 49 | |||
| | ID | |||
| | 16.8 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 11 | |||
| | TN | |||
| | 22.6 | |||
| | 24 | |||
| | IL | |||
| | 20.5 | |||
| | 37 | |||
| | MN | |||
| | 18.3 | |||
| | 50 | |||
| | CA | |||
| | 14.9 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 12 | |||
| | OH | |||
| | 22.5 | |||
| | 25 | |||
| | SD | |||
| | 20.4 | |||
| | 38 | |||
| | TX | |||
| | 18.1 | |||
| | 51 | |||
| | UT | |||
| | 9.8 | |||
| |- | |||
| | 13 | |||
| | MI | |||
| | 22.4 | |||
| | 26 | |||
| | NM | |||
| | 20.2 | |||
| | 39 | |||
| | NJ | |||
| | 18.1 | |||
| | | |||
| | | |||
| | | |||
| |} | |||
| == Lights == | |||
| {{main article|Lights (cigarette type)}} | |||
| Cigarettes labeled as “Lights”, “Milds”, or “Low-tar” are considered to have a “lighter”, less pronounced flavor than regular cigarettes.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}} These cigarette brands may also contain lower levels of tar, ], or other chemicals inhaled by the smoker.<ref name=netcom>{{cite web|url=http://pw1.netcom.com/~rdavis2/cigra.html|accessdate=5 October 2011|title=NICOTINE, TAR, AND CO CONTENT OF DOMESTIC CIGARETTES}}</ref> | |||
| The filter design is one of the main differences between light and regular cigarettes, although not all cigarettes contain perforated holes in the filter anymore. In some light cigarettes, the filter is perforated with small holes that theoretically diffuse the ] smoke with clean air. In regular cigarettes, the filter does not include these perforations. In ultralight cigarettes, the filter’s perforations are larger, and in theory, these larger holes produce an even smaller smoke-to-air ratio. | |||
| The majority of major cigarette manufacturers offer a light, low-tar, and/or mild cigarette brand. Due to recent U.S. legislation prohibiting the use of these descriptors, tobacco manufacturers are turning to color-coding to allow consumers to differentiate between regular and light brands.<ref name="Koch">Koch 2009</ref> | |||
| The scientific evidence is that switching from regular to light or low-tar cigarettes does not reduce the health risks of smoking or lower the smoker’s exposure to the nicotine, tar, and carcinogens present in cigarette smoke.<ref name="National">U.S. National 2004</ref><ref name="Benowitz">Benowitz 2005, p. 1</ref><ref>NCI’s Smoking 2007, p.7</ref> | |||
| == Notable cigarette brands == | |||
| {{main article|List of cigarette brands}} | |||
| ], one of the most well-known cigarette brands.]] | |||
| {{Colbegin|4}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| *American Spirit | |||
| *] | |||
| * Ardath | |||
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| *Berkeley | |||
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| *Sovereign | |||
| *Sterling | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
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| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| *Windsor Blue | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{Colend}} | |||
| == Cigarette alternative == | |||
| {{Main article|Electronic cigarette}} | |||
| {{further|Safety of electronic cigarettes | Electronic cigarette aerosol and e-liquid}} | |||
| ] | |||
| <!-- Definition and Construction --> | |||
| Electronic cigarettes are ]-powered ]s that simulate the feeling of ], but without ].<ref name=Caponnetto2012>{{cite journal |last1=Caponnetto |first1=Pasquale |last2=Campagna |first2=Davide |last3=Papale |first3=Gabriella |last4=Russo |first4=Cristina |last5=Polosa |first5=Riccardo |title=The emerging phenomenon of electronic cigarettes |journal=Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine |volume=6 |issue=1 |year=2012 |pages=63–74 |issn=1747-6348 |doi=10.1586/ers.11.92 |pmid=22283580}}</ref> Their use is commonly called "vaping".<ref name="Orellana-Barrios2015">{{cite journal |last1 = Orellana-Barrios |first1 = Menfil A. |last2 = Payne |first2 = Drew |last3 = Mulkey |first3 = Zachary |last4 = Nugent |first4 = Kenneth |title = Electronic cigarettes-a narrative review for clinicians |journal = The American Journal of Medicine |year = 2015 |issn = 0002-9343 |doi = 10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.01.033 |pmid = 25731134}}</ref> The user activates the e-cigarette by taking a puff or pressing a button.<ref name=Orellana-Barrios2015/><ref name="Rahman2014">{{cite journal |authors = Rahman MA, Hann N, Wilson A, Worrall-Carter L|title = Electronic cigarettes: patterns of use, health effects, use in smoking cessation and regulatory issues|journal = Tob Induc Dis|volume = 12|issue = 1|pages = 21|year = 2014|doi = 10.1186/1617-9625-12-21|pmc = 4350653|pmid = 25745382}}</ref> Some look like traditional cigarettes, but they come in many variations.<ref name=Grana2014>{{cite journal |last=Grana |first=R |author2=Benowitz, N |author3=Glantz, SA |title=E-cigarettes: a scientific review. |journal=Circulation |date=13 May 2014 |volume=129 |issue=19 |pages=1972–86 |doi=10.1161/circulationaha.114.007667 |pmc=4018182 |pmid=24821826}}</ref><ref name=Pepper2013>{{cite journal |last1=Pepper |first1=J. K. |last2=Brewer |first2=N. T. |title=Electronic nicotine delivery system (electronic cigarette) awareness, use, reactions and beliefs: a systematic review |journal=Tobacco Control |volume=23 |issue=5 |year=2013 |pages=375–384 |issn=0964-4563 |doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2013-051122 |pmid=24259045}}</ref> Most are reusable but there are also disposable versions called first generation cigalikes.<ref name=Bhatnagar2014>{{cite journal |last1=Bhatnagar |first1=A. |last2=Whitsel |first2=L.P. |last3=Ribisl |first3=K.M. |last4=Bullen |first4=C. |last5=Chaloupka |first5=F. |last6=Piano |first6=M.R. |last7=Robertson| first7=R.M. |last8=McAuley |first8=T. |last9=Goff |first9=D. |last10=Benowitz |first10=N. |title=Electronic Cigarettes: A Policy Statement From the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation |date=24 August 2014 |volume=130 |issue=16 |pages=1418–1436 |url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/content/130/16/1418.full|doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000000107 |pmid=25156991}}</ref> There are also second, third, and fourth generation devices.<ref name=McRobbie2014>{{cite web |url=http://www.ncsct.co.uk/usr/pub/e-cigarette_briefing.pdf |title=Electronic cigarettes |author=Hayden McRobbie |pages=1–16 |publisher=National Centre for Smoking Cessation and Training |date=2014}}</ref><ref name=Farsalinos2014>{{cite journal |vauthors=Farsalinos KE, Spyrou A, Tsimopoulou K, Stefopoulos C, Romagna G, Voudris V | title=Nicotine absorption from electronic cigarette use: Comparison between first and new-generation devices |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=4 |pages=4133 |year=2014 |doi=10.1038/srep04133 |pmc=3935206 |pmid=24569565}}</ref><ref name=Farsalinos2015>{{cite web |author1=Konstantinos Farsalinos |title=Electronic cigarette evolution from the first to fourth generation and beyond |url=https://gfn.net.co/downloads/2015/Plenary%203/Konstantinos%20Farsalinos.pdf |website=gfn.net.co |page=23 |publisher=Global Forum on Nicotine |accessdate=23 September 2015}}</ref> Instead of ], the user inhales an ], commonly called ].<ref name=Cheng2014>{{cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=T. |title=Chemical evaluation of electronic cigarettes |journal=Tobacco Control |volume=23 |issue=Supplement 2 |year=2014 |pages=ii11–ii17 |issn=0964-4563 |doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2013-051482 |pmc=3995255 |pmid=24732157}}</ref> E-cigarettes typically have a ] that atomizes a ] known as ].<ref name=Weaver2014>{{cite journal |last1=Weaver |first1=Michael |last2=Breland |first2=Alison |last3=Spindle |first3=Tory |last4=Eissenberg |first4=Thomas |title=Electronic Cigarettes |journal=Journal of Addiction Medicine |volume=8 |issue=4 |year=2014 |pages=234–240 |issn=1932-0620 |doi=10.1097/ADM.0000000000000043 |pmid=25089953}}</ref> E-liquids usually contain ], ], ], and ].<ref name=Cooke2015>{{cite journal |last1=Cooke |first1=Andrew |last2=Fergeson |first2=Jennifer |last3=Bulkhi |first3=Adeeb |last4=Casale |first4=Thomas B. |title=The Electronic Cigarette: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly |journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice |volume=3 |issue=4 |year=2015 |pages=498–505 |issn=2213-2198 |doi=10.1016/j.jaip.2015.05.022 |pmid=26164573}}</ref><ref name=Kacker2014>{{cite journal |last1=Oh |first1=Anne Y. |last2=Kacker |first2=Ashutosh |title=Do electronic cigarettes impart a lower potential disease burden than conventional tobacco cigarettes?: Review on e-cigarette vapor versus tobacco smoke |journal=The Laryngoscope |date=December 2014 |volume=124 |issue=12 |pages=2702–2706 |doi=10.1002/lary.24750 |pmid=25302452}}</ref><ref name=Brandon2015>{{cite journal |last1=Brandon |first1=T.H. |last2=Goniewicz |first2=M.L. |last3=Hanna |first3=N.H. |last4=Hatsukami |first4=D.K. |last5=Herbst |first5=R.S. |last6=Hobin |first6=J.A. |last7=Ostroff |first7=J.S. |last8=Shields |first8=P.G. |last9=Toll |first9=B.A. |last10=Tyne |first10=C.A. |last11=Viswanath |first11=K. |last12=Warren |first12=G.W. |title=Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems: A Policy Statement from the American Association for Cancer Research and the American Society of Clinical Oncology |journal=Clinical Cancer Research |url=http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/early/2015/01/08/1078-0432.CCR-14-2544.full.pdf+html |year=2015 |volume=21 |pages=514–525 |issn=1078-0432 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-2544 |pmid=25573384}}</ref><ref name=Cochrane2014/> | |||
| <!-- Health effects --> | |||
| The benefits and the ] are uncertain.<ref name=EbbertAgunwamba2015>{{cite journal |last1=Ebbert |first1=Jon O. |last2=Agunwamba |first2=Amenah A. |last3=Rutten |first3=Lila J. |title=Counseling Patients on the Use of Electronic Cigarettes |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |volume=90 |issue=1 |year=2015 |pages=128–134 |issn=0025-6196 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.11.004 |pmid=25572196}}</ref><ref name=Siu2015>{{cite journal |last1=Siu |first1=A.L. |title=Behavioral and Pharmacotherapy Interventions for Tobacco Smoking Cessation in Adults, Including Pregnant Women: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force Recommendation Statement. |journal=Annals of Internal Medicine |date=22 September 2015 |pmid=26389730 |doi=10.7326/M15-2023 |volume=163 |pages=622–34}}</ref>><ref name=Harrell2014>{{cite journal |last1=Harrell |first1=P.T. |last2=Simmons |first2=V.N. |last3=Correa |first3=J.B. |last4=Padhya |first4=T.A. |last5=Brandon |first5=T.H. |title=Electronic Nicotine Delivery Systems ("E-cigarettes"): Review of Safety and Smoking Cessation Efficacy.|journal=Otolaryngology—head and neck surgery : official journal of American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery |date= 4 June 2014 |pmid=24898072 |doi=10.1177/0194599814536847 |volume=151 |pages=381–393}}</ref> There is tentative evidence that they can help people ],<ref name=Cochrane2014>{{cite journal |last1=McRobbie |first1=Hayden |last2=Bullen |first2=Chris |last3=Hartmann-Boyce |first3=Jamie |last4=Hajek |first4=Peter |last5=McRobbie |first5=Hayden |title=Electronic cigarettes for smoking cessation and reduction |journal=The Cochrane Library |year=2014 |volume=12 |pages=CD010216 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010216.pub2 |pmid=25515689}}</ref> but they have not been proven better than regulated medication.<ref name=Harrell2014/> Their usefulness in ] is unclear,<ref name=Drummond2014>{{cite journal |last1=Drummond |first1=M.B. |last2=Upson |first2=D |title=Electronic cigarettes: Potential harms and benefits |journal=Annals of the American Thoracic Society |date=February 2014 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=236–42 |doi=10.1513/annalsats.201311-391fr |pmid=24575993}}</ref> but they could form part of future strategies to ].<ref name=Kacker2014/><ref name=Caponnetto2013>{{cite journal |title=Electronic cigarette: a possible substitute for cigarette dependence |journal=Monaldi archives for chest disease |date=Mar 2013 |author1=Caponnetto P. |author2=Russo C. |author3=Bruno C.M. |author4=Alamo A. |author5=Amaradio M.D. |author6=Polosa R. |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=12–19 |pmid=23741941 |doi=10.4081/monaldi.2013.104}}</ref> Their safety risk to users is similar to that of ].<ref name=Caponnetto2013/> Regulated ] are safer than e-cigarettes,<ref name=Drummond2014/> but e-cigarettes are probably safer than smoking.<ref name=Golub2015>{{cite journal |last1=Golub |first1=Justin S. |last2=Samy |first2=Ravi N. |title=Preventing or reducing smoking-related complications in otologic and neurotologic surgery |journal=Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery |volume=23 |issue=5 |year=2015 |pages=334–340 |issn=1068-9508 |doi=10.1097/MOO.0000000000000184 |pmid=26339963}}</ref> | |||
| <!-- Safety --> | |||
| Non-smokers who use e-cigarettes risk ]<ref name=WHOPosition2014>{{cite web|last1=WHO|title=Electronic nicotine delivery systems|url=http://apps.who.int/gb/fctc/PDF/cop6/FCTC_COP6_10-en.pdf|accessdate=28 August 2014}}</ref> The ] has a low level of ], and contamination with various chemicals has been identified in the product.<ref name="Bertholon2013">{{cite journal|last1=Bertholon|first1=J.F.|last2=Becquemin|first2=M.H.|last3=Annesi-Maesano|first3=I.|last4=Dautzenberg|first4=B.|title=Electronic Cigarettes: A Short Review|journal=Respiration|year=2013|issn=1423-0356|doi=10.1159/000353253|pmid=24080743|volume=86|pages=433–8}}</ref> E-cigarette vapor contains fewer toxic substances,<ref name="Grana2014" /> and lower concentrations of potential toxic substances than ].<ref name="Fernandez2015">{{cite journal|last1 = Fernández|first1 = Esteve|last2 = Ballbè|first2 = Montse|last3 = Sureda|first3 = Xisca|last4 = Fu|first4 = Marcela|last5 = Saltó|first5 = Esteve|last6 = Martínez-Sánchez|first6 = Jose M.|title = Particulate Matter from Electronic Cigarettes and Conventional Cigarettes: a Systematic Review and Observational Study|journal = Current Environmental Health Reports|year = 2015|issn = 2196-5412|doi = 10.1007/s40572-015-0072-x|pmid = 26452675|volume=2|pages=423–9}}</ref> Metal parts of e-cigarettes in contact with the e-liquid can contaminate it with metals.<ref name="FarsalinosPolosa2014">{{cite journal|last1=Farsalinos|first1=K. E.|last2=Polosa|first2=R.|title=Safety evaluation and risk assessment of electronic cigarettes as tobacco cigarette substitutes: a systematic review|journal=Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety|volume=5|issue=2|year=2014|pages=67–86|issn=2042-0986|doi=10.1177/2042098614524430|pmc=4110871|pmid=25083263}}</ref> Normal usage of e-cigarettes generates very low levels of ].<ref name="PolosaCampagna20152">{{cite journal|last1 = Polosa|first1 = R|last2 = Campagna|first2 = D|last3 = Caponnetto|first3 = P|title = What to advise to respiratory patients intending to use electronic cigarettes.|journal = Discovery medicine|date = September 2015|volume = 20|issue = 109|pages = 155–61|pmid = 26463097}}</ref> A 2015 review found that later-generation e-cigarettes set at higher power may generate equal or higher levels of formaldehyde compared to smoking.<ref name="Orellana-Barrios20153">{{cite journal |last1 = Orellana-Barrios|first1 = Menfil A.|last2 = Payne|first2 = Drew|last3 = Mulkey|first3 = Zachary|last4 = Nugent|first4 = Kenneth|title = Electronic cigarettes-a narrative review for clinicians|journal = The American Journal of Medicine|year = 2015|issn = 0002-9343|doi = 10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.01.033|pmid = 25731134}}</ref> A 2015 review found that these levels were the result of overheating under test conditions that bear little resemblance to common usage.<ref name="PolosaCampagna20152" /> No serious ]s from e-cigarettes have been reported in trials.<ref name=Cochrane2014/> Less serious adverse effects include throat and mouth inflammation, vomiting, nausea, and cough.<ref name=Grana2014/> The long-term effects of e-cigarette use are unknown.<ref name=Orellana-Barrios2015/><ref name=Rahman2014/> | |||
| Insufficient data are available to determine the impact on ] from e-cigarettes.<ref name=Callahan2014>{{cite journal|last1=Callahan-Lyon|first1=P.|title=Electronic cigarettes: human health effects|journal=Tobacco Control|volume=23|issue=Supplement 2|year=2014|pages=ii36–ii40|issn=0964-4563|doi=10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2013-051470|pmid=24732161}}</ref> The potential harm to bystanders from e-cigarettes is unknown.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.lung.org/stop-smoking/tobacco-control-advocacy/federal/e-cigarettes.html | title=American Lung Association Statement on E-Cigarettes | publisher=American Lung Association | date=25 August 2014}}</ref> No long-term data are available.<ref name=Hajek2014>{{cite journal|last1=Hajek|first1=P|last2=Etter|first2=JF|last3=Benowitz|first3=N|last4=Eissenberg|first4=T|last5=McRobbie|first5=H|title=Electronic cigarettes: review of use, content, safety, effects on smokers and potential for harm and benefit.|url=http://tobonline.com/Media/Default/Article/Addiction-%20Hajek%2014.pdf|journal=Addiction (Abingdon, England)|date=31 July 2014|pmid=25078252|doi=10.1111/add.12659|volume=109|issue=11|pages=1801–10}}</ref> A ] published in 2014 by the ] concluded e-cigarettes emit airborne contaminants that may be inhaled by the user and those nearby.<ref name=AIHA2014/> Due to this possible risk, they urged restriction of their use indoors, similar to smoking bans, until research has shown the aerosol does not significantly harm others in the area.<ref name=AIHA2014>{{cite web|title=White Paper: Electronic Cigarettes in the Indoor Environment|url=http://tobacco.ucsf.edu/sites/tobacco.ucsf.edu/files/u9/AIHA-Electronc%20Cig%20Document_Final.pdf|publisher=American Industrial Hygiene Association|date=October 19, 2014}}</ref> A 2014 review indicated that the levels of inhaled contaminants from the e-cigarette vapor are not of significant health concern for human exposures by the standards used in workplaces to ensure safety.<ref name=Bur2014>{{cite journal|last1=Burstyn|first1=I|title=Peering through the mist: systematic review of what the chemistry of contaminants in electronic cigarettes tells us about health risks.|journal=BMC Public Health|date=9 January 2014|volume=14|page=18|pmid=24406205|doi=10.1186/1471-2458-14-18|pmc=3937158}}</ref> The ] <!-- (BMA) --> reported in 2013 that "concerns that the use of e-cigarettes could threaten the norm of not smoking in public places and workplaces."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://bma.org.uk/news-views-analysis/news/2013/january/ecigarettes-not-proven-quitting-aid-says-bma | title=E-cigarettes not proven quitting aid, says BMA | work=British Medical Association | date=30 January 2013}}</ref> The use of e-cigarettes in a smoke-free area could expose nonusers to toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |authors=Grana RA, Ling PM |title="Smoking revolution": a content analysis of electronic cigarette retail websites |journal=Am J Prev Med |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=395–403 |year=2014 |doi=10.1016/j.amepre.2013.12.010 |pmid=24650842 |pmc=3989286}}</ref> The effect on bystanders would likely be much less harmful than traditional cigarettes.<ref name=Hajek2014/> | |||
| == Health effects == | |||
| === Smokers === | |||
| {{Main article|Health effects of tobacco}} | |||
| ] collection]] | |||
| ], the primary psychoactive chemical in cigarettes, is highly addictive.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.heart.org/HEARTORG/GettingHealthy/QuitSmoking/QuittingSmoking/Why-is-it-so-hard-to-quit_UCM_324053_Article.jsp |title=Why is it so hard to quit? |publisher=Heart.org |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> The resulting use of tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally.<ref name="isbn92-4-159628-7">{{cite book | author = World Health Organization | title = WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic 2008: The MPOWER Package | edition = | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | year = 2008 | pages = | isbn = 92-4-159628-7 | url = http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf }}{{Page needed|date=November 2010}}</ref> Smoking leads most commonly to diseases affecting the heart, liver, and lungs, being a major risk factor for ], ]s, ] (COPD) (including ] and ]), and ] (particularly ], ], and ]). It also causes peripheral vascular disease and ]. On average, each cigarette smoked is estimated to shorten life by 11 minutes.<ref name="m11"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/583722.stm |title=HEALTH | Cigarettes 'cut life by 11 minutes' |publisher=BBC News |date=1999-12-31 |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bmj.com/content/320/7226/53.1.full |title=Time for a smoke? One cigarette reduces your life by 11 minutes |publisher=BMJ |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> Starting smoking earlier in life and smoking cigarettes higher in ] increases the risk of these diseases. The ] <!-- (WHO) --> estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004<ref name="isbn92-4-156371-0">{{cite book | author = World Health Organization | title = The Global Burden of Disease | edition = 2004 Update | publisher = World Health Organization | location = Geneva | year = 2008 | pages = | isbn = 92-4-156371-0 }}</ref> and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century.<ref name="urlwww.who.int">{{cite web | url = http://www.who.int/entity/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_prevalence_data_2008.pdf | title = WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic | year = 2008 | work = | publisher = World Health Organization }}</ref> Cigarettes produce an aerosol containing over 4,000 chemical compounds, including nicotine, carbon monoxide, acrolein, and oxidant substances.<ref name=CsordasBernhard2013/> Over 50 of these are ]s.<ref name=Seget2012/> | |||
| The most important chemical compounds ] are those that produce DNA damage since such damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer.<ref name="pmid18403632">{{vcite2 journal |vauthors=Kastan MB |title=DNA damage responses: mechanisms and roles in human disease: 2007 G.H.A. Clowes Memorial Award Lecture |journal=Mol. Cancer Res. |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=517–24 |year=2008 |pmid=18403632 |doi=10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-08-0020 |url=}}</ref><ref name=BernsteinPrasad>Bernstein C, Prasad AR, Nfonsam V, Bernstein H. (2013). DNA Damage, DNA Repair and Cancer, New Research Directions in DNA Repair, Prof. Clark Chen (Ed.), ISBN 978-953-51-1114-6, InTech, http://www.intechopen.com/books/new-research-directions-in-dna-repair/dna-damage-dna-repair-and-cancer{{page needed|date=November 2014}}</ref> Cunningham et al.<ref name=Cunningham>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cunningham FH, Fiebelkorn S, Johnson M, Meredith C |title=A novel application of the Margin of Exposure approach: segregation of tobacco smoke toxicants |journal=Food Chem. Toxicol. |volume=49 |issue=11 |pages=2921–33 |year=2011 |pmid=21802474 |doi=10.1016/j.fct.2011.07.019 |url=}}</ref> combined the microgram weight of the compound in the smoke of one cigarette with the known ] effect per microgram to identify the most ] compounds in cigarette smoke. The seven most important carcinogens in tobacco smoke are shown in the table, along with DNA alterations they cause. | |||
| {| class="wikitable sortable" | |||
| |+'''The most ] cancer causing chemicals in cigarette smoke''' | |||
| !width="75"|Compound | |||
| !width="75"|Micrograms per cigarette | |||
| !width="225"|Effect on DNA | |||
| !width="10"| Ref. | |||
| |- | |||
| |Acrolein | |||
| |align="right"|122.4 | |||
| |Reacts with deoxyguanine and forms DNA crosslinks, DNA-protein crosslinks and DNA adducts | |||
| |<ref name="pmid20158384">{{cite journal |vauthors=Liu XY, Zhu MX, Xie JP |title=Mutagenicity of acrolein and acrolein-induced DNA adducts |journal=Toxicol. Mech. Methods |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=36–44 |year=2010 |pmid=20158384 |doi=10.3109/15376510903530845 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| |Formaldehyde | |||
| |align="right"|60.5 | |||
| |DNA-protein crosslinks causing chromosome deletions and re-arrangements | |||
| |<ref name="pmid11971987">{{cite journal |vauthors=Speit G, Merk O |title=Evaluation of mutagenic effects of formaldehyde in vitro: detection of crosslinks and mutations in mouse lymphoma cells |journal=Mutagenesis |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=183–7 |year=2002 |pmid=11971987 |doi= 10.1093/mutage/17.3.183|url=}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| |Acrylonitrile | |||
| |align="right"|29.3 | |||
| |Oxidative stress causing increased ] | |||
| |<ref name="pmid19546159">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pu X, Kamendulis LM, Klaunig JE |title=Acrylonitrile-induced oxidative stress and oxidative DNA damage in male Sprague-Dawley rats |journal=Toxicol. Sci. |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=64–71 |year=2009 |pmid=19546159 |pmc=2726299 |doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfp133 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| |1,3-butadiene | |||
| |align="right"|105.0 | |||
| |Global loss of DNA methylation (an ] effect) as well as DNA adducts | |||
| |<ref name="pmid21602187">{{cite journal |vauthors=Koturbash I, Scherhag A, Sorrentino J, Sexton K, Bodnar W, Swenberg JA, Beland FA, Pardo-Manuel Devillena F, Rusyn I, Pogribny IP |title=Epigenetic mechanisms of mouse interstrain variability in genotoxicity of the environmental toxicant 1,3-butadiene |journal=Toxicol. Sci. |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=448–56 |year=2011 |pmid=21602187 |pmc=3155089 |doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfr133 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| |Acetaldehyde | |||
| |align="right"|1448.0 | |||
| |Reacts with deoxyguanine to form DNA adducts | |||
| |<ref name="pmid21604744">{{cite journal |vauthors=Garcia CC, Angeli JP, Freitas FP, Gomes OF, de Oliveira TF, Loureiro AP, Di Mascio P, Medeiros MH |title=-Acetaldehyde promotes unequivocal formation of 1,N2-propano-2'-deoxyguanosine in human cells |journal=J. Am. Chem. Soc. |volume=133 |issue=24 |pages=9140–3 |year=2011 |pmid=21604744 |doi=10.1021/ja2004686 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| |Ethylene oxide | |||
| |align="right"|7.0 | |||
| |Hydroxyethyl DNA adducts with adenine and guanine | |||
| |<ref name="pmid19477295">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tompkins EM, McLuckie KI, Jones DJ, Farmer PB, Brown K |title=Mutagenicity of DNA adducts derived from ethylene oxide exposure in the pSP189 shuttle vector replicated in human Ad293 cells |journal=Mutat. Res. |volume=678 |issue=2 |pages=129–37 |year=2009 |pmid=19477295 |doi=10.1016/j.mrgentox.2009.05.011 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| |Isoprene | |||
| |align="right"|952.0 | |||
| |Single and double strand breaks in DNA | |||
| |<ref name="pmid17317274">{{cite journal |vauthors=Fabiani R, Rosignoli P, De Bartolomeo A, Fuccelli R, Morozzi G |title=DNA-damaging ability of isoprene and isoprene mono-epoxide (EPOX I) in human cells evaluated with the comet assay |journal=Mutat. Res. |volume=629 |issue=1 |pages=7–13 |year=2007 |pmid=17317274 |doi=10.1016/j.mrgentox.2006.12.007 |url=}}</ref> | |||
| |} | |||
| "<ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| | doi = 10.1016/S0166-4328(00)00206-0 | |||
| | last1 = Fratiglioni | first1 = L. | |||
| | last2 = Wang | first2 = H. X. | |||
| | title = Smoking and Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease: Review of the epidemiological studies | |||
| | journal = Behavioural Brain Research | |||
| | volume = 113 | |||
| | issue = 1–2 | |||
| | pages = 117–120 | |||
| | year = 2000 | |||
| | pmid = 10942038 | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| "Ulcerative colitis is a condition of nonsmokers in which nicotine is of therapeutic benefit."<ref>{{Cite journal | |||
| | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.00847.x | |||
| | last1 = Green | first1 = J. T. | |||
| | last2 = Richardson | first2 = C. | |||
| | last3 = Marshall | first3 = R. W. | |||
| | last4 = Rhodes | first4 = J. | |||
| | last5 = McKirdy | first5 = H. C. | |||
| | last6 = Thomas | first6 = G. A. | |||
| | last7 = Williams | first7 = G. T. | |||
| | title = Nitric oxide mediates a therapeutic effect of nicotine in ulcerative colitis | |||
| | journal = Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics | |||
| | volume = 14 | |||
| | issue = 11 | |||
| | pages = 1429–1434 | |||
| | year = 2000 | |||
| | pmid = 11069313 | |||
| }}</ref> A recent review of the available scientific literature concluded that the apparent decrease in Alzheimer disease risk may be simply because smokers tend to die before reaching the age at which it normally occurs. "Differential mortality is always likely to be a problem where there is a need to investigate the effects of smoking in a disorder with very low incidence rates before age 75 years, which is the case of Alzheimer's disease", it stated, noting that smokers are only half as likely as nonsmokers to survive to the age of 80.<ref name="alzheimer-almeida">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00016.x | title = Smoking as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease: contrasting evidence from a systematic review of case-control and cohort studies | year = 2002 |vauthors=Almeida OP, Hulse GK, Lawrence D, Flicker L | journal = Addiction | volume = 97 | pages = 15–28| pmid = 11895267 | issue = 1 }}</ref> | |||
| === Second-hand smoke === | |||
| ] is a mixture of smoke from the burning end of a cigarette, and the smoke exhaled from the lungs of smokers. It is involuntarily inhaled, lingers in the air hours after cigarettes have been extinguished, and can cause a wide range of adverse health effects, including cancer, ], and ].<ref name="ALASecondhandSmokeFactSheet">{{cite web|url=http://www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLUK9O0E&b=35422#one |title=Secondhand Smoke |date=June 2007 |work= |publisher=American Lung Association |accessdate=2012-05-06 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016220328/http://www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLUK9O0E&b=35422 |archivedate=October 16, 2009 }}</ref> Nonsmokers who are exposed to second-hand smoke at home or work increase their heart disease risk by 25–30% and their lung cancer risk by 20–30%. Second-hand smoke has been estimated to cause 38,000 deaths per year, of which 3,400 are deaths from lung cancer in nonsmokers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tobaccofreefloridanewsroom.com/?cat=6 |title="Tobacco-Free Florida", ''Centers for Disease Control & Prevention Fact Sheets'' |publisher=Tobaccofreefloridanewsroom.com |accessdate=2013-01-02}}</ref> Sudden infant death syndrome, ear infections, respiratory infections, and asthma attacks can occur in children who are exposed to second-hand smoke.<ref name="Secondhand Smoke">{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.org/Cancer/CancerCauses/TobaccoCancer/secondhand-smoke |title=Secondhand Smoke |publisher=Cancer.org |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref><ref name="NCI">{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Tobacco/ETS |title=Secondhand Smoke and Cancer - National Cancer Institute |publisher=Cancer.gov |date=2005-08-18 |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref><ref name="Smoking and Tobacco">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/secondhand_smoke/general_facts/index.htm |title=CDC - Fact Sheet - Secondhand Smoke Facts - Smoking & Tobacco Use |publisher=Cdc.gov |accessdate=2012-03-25}}</ref> Scientific evidence shows no level of exposure to second-hand smoke is safe.<ref name="Secondhand Smoke"/><ref name="NCI"/> | |||
| == Smoking cessation == | |||
| {{main article|Smoking cessation}} | |||
| Smoking cessation (quitting smoking) is the process of discontinuing the practice of inhaling a ] substance.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ped/content/ped_10_13x_guide_for_quitting_smoking.asp| title=Guide to quitting smoking| publisher=]| date=2011-01-31| accessdate=2011-02-15}}</ref> | |||
| Smoking cessation can be achieved with or without assistance from healthcare professionals or the use of medications.<ref name=Chapman-MacKenzie>{{cite journal|title=The global research neglect of unassisted smoking cessation: causes and consequences|vauthors=Chapman S, MacKenzie R |date=2010-02-09|journal=PLoS Medicine|publisher=Public Library of Science|url=http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000216|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000216|pmid=20161722|volume=7|issue=2|pages=e1000216|pmc=2817714}}</ref> Methods that have been found to be effective include interventions directed at or through health care providers and health care systems; medications including ] (NRT) and ]; individual and group counselling; and web-based or stand-alone computer programs. Although stopping smoking can cause short-term side effects such as reversible weight gain, smoking cessation services and activities are cost-effective because of the positive health benefits. | |||
| At the University of Buffalo, researchers found out that fruit and vegetable consumption can help a smoker cut down or even quit smoking<ref>{{cite news|title=Fruits And Vegetables May Help Smokers Quit -- And Stay Off -- Tobacco|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/06/10/fruits-vegetables-quit-smoking-smokers-tobacco_n_1581465.html | work=Huffington Post | date=2012-06-10|first=Amanda L.|last=Chan}}</ref> | |||
| * A growing number of countries have more ex-smokers than smokers.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite journal|title=The Global Research Neglect of Unassisted Smoking Cessation: Causes and Consequences|author1=Chapman, Simon |author2=MacKenzie, Ross|date=February 9, 2010|journal=PLoS Medicine|publisher=Public Library of Science|url=http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000216|doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000216|pmid=20161722|volume=7|issue=2|pages=e1000216|pmc=2817714}}</ref> | |||
| * Early "failure" is a normal part of trying to stop, and more than one attempt at stopping smoking prior to longer-term success is common.<ref name=Chapman-MacKenzie /> | |||
| * NRT, other prescribed pharmaceuticals, and professional counselling or support also help many smokers.<ref name=Chapman-MacKenzie /> | |||
| * However, up to three-quarters of ex-smokers report having quit without assistance ("cold turkey" or cut down then quit), and cessation without professional support or medication may be the most common method used by ex-smokers.<ref name=Chapman-MacKenzie /> | |||
| Tobacco contains nicotine. Smoking cigarettes can lead to ].<ref name=Benowitz2010>{{Cite journal | author = Benowitz NL | last2 = Benowitz | first2 = Neal L. | title = Nicotine addiction | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 362 | issue = 24 | pages = 2295–303 | year = 2010 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra0809890 | pmid = 20554984 | pmc = 2928221}}</ref>{{rp|2300–2301}} The addiction begins when nicotine acts on ]s to release ]s such as ], ], and ].<ref name=Benowitz2010/>{{rp|2296}} Cessation of smoking leads to symptoms of nicotine withdrawal such as anxiety and irritability.<ref name=Benowitz2010/>{{rp|2298}} Professional smoking cessation support methods generally endeavour to address both nicotine addiction and nicotine withdrawal symptoms. | |||
| The number of nicotinic receptors in the brain returns to the level of a nonsmoker between 6 and 12 weeks after quitting.<ref>{{cite web|title=Abstinent Smokers' Nicotinic Receptors Take More Than a Month to Normalize|url=http://www.drugabuse.gov/news-events/nida-notes/2009/10/abstinent-smokers-nicotinic-receptors-take-more-than-month-to-normalize}}</ref> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| {{Col-begin}} | |||
| {{Col-break}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{Col-break}} | |||
| ;Similar products | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{Col-end}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| == Further reading == | |||
| * {{Cite journal |vauthors=Bogden JD, Kemp FW, Buse M |title=Composition of tobaccos from countries with high and low incidences of lung cancer. I. Selenium, polonium-210, Alternaria, tar, and nicotine |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=27–31 |date=January 1981 |pmid=6935462 |display-authors=etal | doi = 10.1093/jnci/66.1.27 }} | |||
| * {{Cite journal |author=Hecht SS |title=Tobacco smoke carcinogens and lung cancer |journal=J. Natl. Cancer Inst. |volume=91 |issue=14 |pages=1194–210 |date=July 1999 |pmid=10413421 |url=http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10413421 |doi=10.1093/jnci/91.14.1194}} | |||
| * {{Cite book |author1=Zhou, Xun Yu |author2=Gilman, Sander L. |title=Smoke: a global history of smoking |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-86189-200-3 }} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Commons|Cigarette|Cigarette}} | |||
| * - Smoking and Health Database | |||
| * | |||
| * - Canada | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{Cigarettes}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 16:38, 21 September 2016
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