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{{Feminist philosophy sidebar}} |
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'''Male privilege''' is a concept used to examine the social, economic, and political ] or rights that are made available to ] solely on the basis of their ]. A man's access to these benefits may also depend on other characteristics such as ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Phillips |first1= Debby A. |authorlink1= |last2= Phillips |first2= John R. |authorlink2=|editor1-first= Jodi |editor1-last= O'Brien |editor1-link= |others= |title= Encyclopedia of Gender and Society |url= |edition= |series= |volume= Volume Two |year= 2009 |publisher= ] |location= Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn= 978-1-4129-0916-7 |page= |pages= 683–684 |chapter= Privilege, Male |chapterurl= }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Coston |first1= Bethany M. |last2= Kimmel |first2= Michael |year= 2012 |title= Seeing Privilege Where It Isn't: Marginalized Masculinities and the Intersectionality of Privilege |journal= Journal of Social Issues |volume= 68 |issue= 1 |pages= 97–111 |publisher= |doi= 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01738.x |url= http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01738.x/full |accessdate= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= McIntosh |first1= Peggy |authorlink1= Peggy McIntosh |last2= |first2= |authorlink2= |editor1-first= Michael |editor1-last= Kimmel |editor1-link= Michael Kimmel |editor2-first= Abby L. |editor2-last= Ferber |others= |title= Privilege: A Reader |date= |year= 2003 |publisher= ] |location= Boulder, Colorado |isbn= 978-0-8133-4056-2 |page= |pages= 3–25 |chapter= White Privilege and Male Privilege}}</ref> |
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The use of male pronouns in language to refer to both sexes is often cited as an example, as well as the preference for sons in some cultures. |
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Male privilege is often examined alongside the concept of ] within the ] movement, while some ] activists dispute the existence of male privilege and patriarchy in modern western society. |
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== Terminology == |
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In legal cases alleging discrimination, "sex" is usually preferred as the determining factor rather than "gender", because it refers to biology rather than socially constructed ] which are more open to interpretation and dispute.<ref>Render, Meredith. (2006) "Misogyny, Androgyny, and Sexual Harassment: Sex Discrimination in a Gender-Deconstructed World". ''Harvard Journal of Law & Gender''. Vol. 29(1) (Winter). pp99–150. |
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p102</ref> In "Defining Male and Female: Intersexuality and the Collision Between Law and Biology", Julie Greenberg explains that although gender and sex are separate concepts, they are interlinked in that ] often results from stereotypes based on what is expected of members of each sex.<ref>Greenberg, Julie A. (1999). "Defining Male and Female: Intersexuality and the Collision Between Law and Biology". ''Arizona Law Review''. Vol. 41. 265.</ref> In '']'', ] distinguishes sex and gender: |
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{{quote|The word ‘gender’ has acquired the new and useful connotation of cultural or attitudinal characteristics (as opposed to physical characteristics) distinctive to the sexes. That is to say, gender is to sex as feminine is to female and masculine is to male.<ref>''J.E.B. v. Ala. ex rel. T.B.'', 114 S. Ct. 1419, 1436 n.1 (1994)</ref>}} |
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Thus, biologically "male" privilege is only one of the many ] that may exist within a given society.<ref name="Foucault1976">{{cite book|last=Foucault|first=Michel |title=The History of Sexuality, Volume I|year=1976|publisher=Vintage|isbn=0-679-72469-9}}</ref> The term "male privilege" does not apply to a solitary occurrence of the use of power, but rather describes one of many systemic power structures that are interdependent and interlinked throughout societies and cultures.<ref name="Narayan">{{cite book|last=Narayan|first=Uma|title=Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third-World Feminism.|year=1997|publisher=London: Routledge|isbn=0-415-91419-1}}</ref> |
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==Context== |
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{{Globalize/US |date=October 2016 |discuss=Talk:Male privilege#Globalize}} |
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], a feminist literary scholar, has discussed male privilege with respect to ], stating that "the denial of men's over-privileged state takes many forms". Privilege is not a result of a concerted effort to oppress those of the opposite gender, however, the inherent benefits that males gain from the systemic bias put women at an innate disadvantage. Male privilege may be viewed as an invisible package filled with unearned privileges that are constantly at work, but which are unspoken and most people remain oblivious to. The benefits of this unspoken privilege are often described as special provisions, tools, relationships, or various other opportunities. In fact this privilege may actually negatively affect men's development as human beings, and few men question society’s constructs or that the existing structure of advantages may be challenged or changed. Some people dispute the existence of male privilege and claim that specifically male privilege within the realm of white privilege is a myth perpetuated by feminists and that both men and women have privileges and disadvantages.<ref>{{cite book|last1=McIntosh|first1=Peggy|title=White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Backpack|date=1988|publisher=Wellesley College|location=Wellesley|pages=1–19}}</ref> |
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As discussed by Paula Rothernberg in her novel ''Invisible Privilege: A Memoir About Race, Class, and Gender'', male privilege often takes institutionalized and embedded forms from which men may directly benefit. These instances of male privilege systems may attribute to male over empowerment and can help explain man’s sense of centrality in some of the most powerful institutions. An example of male privilege in institutionalized academic settings can be observed by the prevalence of men in how curriculums are formed and history and literature is taught across the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rothernber|first1=Paula S.|title=Invisible Privilege: A Memoir About Race, Class, and Gender|date=2000|publisher=U of Kansas}}</ref> Historically, all those who have held the title of ] have been male. American government on the national level, including the ] and the ], is predominantly male.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/economies/#economy=USA|title=Economies|newspaper=Global Gender Gap Report 2016|language=en-US|access-date=2017-01-30}}</ref> |
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==Gender neutrality in English== |
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{{Further information|Gender neutrality in English | Gender-neutrality in languages with grammatical gender | Gender-neutrality in languages without grammatical gender}} |
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Some linguistic conventions have privileged men and the male perspective and suggested that maleness is the societal norm.<ref name=wildman>{{Cite book |title= Privilege revealed: how invisible preference undermines America |last= Wildman |first= S. M. |publisher= ] |location= New York |year= 1996 |page= 15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LK-aQDstH6kC&pg=PA15 |isbn= 978-0-8147-9303-9 }}</ref><ref name=rasta>{{Cite book |last= Barnett |first= M. |title= Rastafari in the new millennium: a Rastafari reader |location= Syracuse, NY |publisher= ] |year= 2012 |page= 234–235 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=IYYg_Q3IKeIC&pg=PA234 }}</ref><ref name=bwh>{{Cite book |last1= Briscoe |first1= F. |last2= Arriaza |first2= G. |last3= Henze |first3= R. C. |title= The power of talk: how words change our lives |location= Thousand Oaks, Calif. |publisher= ] |year= 2009 |page= 21 |isbn= 978-1-4129-5601-7 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=BsmoJYf0LT4C&pg=PT33 }}</ref> In English, nouns such as "man" or "mankind"<ref name=rjm>{{Cite book |last1= Roman |first1= C. |last2= Juhasz |first2= S. |last3= Miller |first3= C. |title= The women and language debate: a sourcebook |location= New Brunswick, N.J. |publisher= ] |year= 1994 |page = 451 |isbn= 978-0-8135-2011-7 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jGWYW_LVmN8C&pg=PA451}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Davies |first= D. |title= Varieties of modern English: an introduction |location= Harlow |publisher= ] |year= 2005 |isbn= 978-0-582-36996-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=sIgr91OV2kYC&pg=PA78 |pages= 78–79}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Cunningham |first= G. B. |title= Diversity in sport organizations |location= Scottsdale, Ariz. |publisher= Holcomb Hathaway |year= 2007 |isbn= 978-1-890871-77-2 |page= 122 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Anderson |first= K. J. |title= Benign bigotry: the psychology of subtle prejudice |location= Cambridge, UK |publisher= ] |year= 2010 |page= 203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_STPJNHE5fAC&pg=PA203 |isbn= 978-0-521-70259-1}}</ref> and forms of address like "you guys" are routinely used for women while it is not accepted to refer to men as women.<ref name=kleinman>{{Cite journal |last= Kleinman |first= S. |title= Why sexist language matters |journal= ] |year= 2002 |volume= 25 |issue= 2 |pages= 299– 304 |doi= 10.1023/A:1015474919530}}</ref> Associating a man with something feminine and calling him girl or sissy is usually considered an insult.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Rosenberg |first= R. |year= 2001 |title= Women's studies: an interdisciplinary anthology |location= New York |publisher= ] |isbn= 978-0-8204-4443-7 |page= 78 }}</ref> Expressions like "freshmen" or occupational titles such as "chairman" are supposed to apply to both sexes<ref name=bwh/><ref name=kleinman/> and many prestigious occupations are implicitly associated with men so that people use modifiers such as "woman doctor" or "lady doctor" to signal deviations from the norm that doctors are usually men.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1= Flood |first1= M. |authorlink1= Michael Flood |last2= Pease |first2= B. |title= Undoing men's privilege and advancing gender equality in public sector institutions |journal= Policy and Society |volume= 24 |issue= 4 |year= 2005 |pages= 199–138 |doi= 10.1016/S1449-4035(05)70123-5 |url= http://www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood%20Pease,%20Undoing%20men%27s%20priv.pdf |accessdate= April 17, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last= Powell |first= B. |title= Counted out: same-sex relations and Americans' definitions of family |location= New York |publisher= ] |year= 2010 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ07GrUh-fsC&pg=PA172 |page= 172 |isbn= 978-0-87154-687-6 }}</ref> Male images and exclusively male language for ] such as referring to ] as "he" or "father" have been argued to have reinforced male privilege.<ref name=lindley/><ref name=obrien/><ref name=chandler/><ref name=lorenzen/> Men's greater resemblance to God has been used to justify men's religious and cultural position.<ref name=lindley>{{Cite book |last= Lindley |first= S. H. |editor1-last= Keller |editor1-first= R. S. |editor2-last= Ruether |editor2-first= R. R. |editor3-last= Cantlon |editor3-first= M |title= Encyclopedia of women and religion in North America |location= Bloomington |publisher= ] |year= 2006 |isbn= 978-0-253-34685-8 |chapter= Gender and social roles |chapterurl= https://books.google.com/books?id=EoJrHDirVQUC&pg=PA26 |page= 26 }}</ref><ref name=obrien>{{Cite book |last= O'Brien |first= J. M. |title= Challenging prophetic metaphor: theology and ideology in the prophets |location= Louisville, KY |publisher= Westminster John Knox |year= 2008 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=nqKJ7XPpnbQC&pg=PA72 |page= 72 |isbn= 978-0-664-22964-1 }}</ref><ref name=chandler>{{Cite book |last= Chandler |first= K. J. |title= How to become a 'blackman': exploring African American masculinities and the performance of gender |location= Detroit |publisher= Wayne State University |year= 2007 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2U6guwPOZVoC&pg=PA184 |page= 184 }}</ref><ref name=lorenzen>{{Cite book |last= Lorenzen |first= L. F. |title= The college student's introduction to the Trinity |location= Collegeville, Minn. |publisher= Liturgical Press |year= 1999 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=PLYZtKCT0fgC&pg=PA73 |page= 73| isbn= 978-0-8146-5518-4 }}</ref> |
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Similarly, the third-person singular pronoun "]" is used as a sex-indefinite, ] form for all people (e.g. "anyone can do it if he tries") whereas the use of "she" to refer to people in general is not allowed.<ref name=wildman/><ref name=bwh/><ref name=kleinman/> Masculine generics were first introduced by ] in the 19th century who argued that "he" was the only correct sex-indefinite referent.<ref name=henley/><ref name=bodine/><ref name=hegarty/> Prior to that, singular "they" and "he or she" had been widely used in written and spoken English.<ref name=henley/><ref name=bodine/><ref name=hegarty/> In 1850 a special ] was passed in the ] that legally proscribed singular "they" and "he or she" in favor of "he", especially to shorten the language used in Acts of Parliament.<ref name=henley>{{Cite book |last= Henley |first= N. M. |editor-last= Penfield |editor-first= J |title= Women and language in transition |year= 1987 |location= Albany |publisher= ] |page= 13 |isbn= 978-0-88706-485-2 |chapter= This new species that seeks a new language: On sexism in language and language change |chapterurl= https://books.google.com/books?id=Q440jZBUpsMC&pg=PA13 }}</ref><ref name=bodine>{{Cite journal |last= Bodine |first= A. |title= Androcentrism in prescriptive grammar: Singular 'they', sex indefinite 'he', and 'he or she' |journal= Language and Society |volume= 4 |issue= 2 |year= 1975 |pages= 129– 146 |doi= 10.1017/S0047404500004607 }}</ref><ref name=hegarty>{{Cite journal |last1= Hegarty |first1= P. |last2= Buechel |first2= C. |title= Androcentric reporting of gender differences in APA journals 1965–2004 |journal= Review of General Psychology |volume= 10 |issue= 4 |pages= 377–389 |url= http://www.apastyle.org/manual/related/hegarty-and-buechel.pdf |accessdate= April 15, 2013 |doi= 10.1037/1089-2680.10.4.377 }}</ref> |
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Other languages also have similar issues with gender neutrality; both languages ] and ].{{clarify|date=February 2016}} |
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==Global perspective== |
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Within the book ''The Agony of Masculinity'', Pierre Orelus uses his personal life experience growing up in the Caribbean in order to create "a form of self-critical reflection and interrogation to talk about ... maleness, heterosexism, and homophobia". Orelus speaks of how society shaped his development and taught him to "be a man". The patriarchal practices passed from generation to generation perpetuate ] and ], which both contribute to the extent of freedom enjoyed by men. In some areas, such as in Haiti, the stereotype and societal definition of being a man leads to many instances of domestic abuse and the use of women as sexual objects. This abuse stems from a sense of justification in part due to male privilege and how the patriarchal norms encourage male dominance over women. |
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Additionally, men benefit from some common double standards while women suffer. For instance, Orelus describes how women who were caught cheating were beaten, shamed, insulted, and reviled. On the other hand, when men cheated they were praised and their status rose.{{Dubious|date=May 2016}} Ironically, men who were known to be smooth talkers who had past experience with sexual exploiting women have a greater appeal to women in the Haitian communities. By the same token, these so-called freedoms of male privilege can become barriers as some men may feel pressured by societal norms to conform to certain expectations associated with the stereotypical male gender role. |
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However, Orelus also mentions how male privilege may actually be detrimental to males' social development and gaining a sense of self. Since in a strictly traditionally sense men are often considered more knowledgeable and able-bodied than their female counterparts, in many cultures men must struggle to maintain this expectation. Men who cannot live up to these societal standards are prone to face criticism, lose respect from their peers, and have a lower sense of self.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Orelus|first1=Pierre W.|title=Unmasking Male, Heterosexual, and Racial Privileges: From Naive Complicity to Critical Awareness and Praxis|journal=Counterpoints|date=2010|volume=351|pages=17–62|jstor=42980551}}</ref> |
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==Son-preference== |
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{{Main article|Sex selection}} |
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In many societies including ] and ] male offspring are privileged and favored over female children.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1= Ryju |editor-first1= S. |editor-last2= Lahiri-Dutt |title= Doing gender, doing geography: emerging research in India |location= New Delhi |publisher= Routledge |year= 2011 |page= 212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EB63--z4zK0C&pg=PT212 |isbn= 978-0-415-59802-6}}</ref><ref name=weiner>{{Cite book |editor-last1= Weiner |editor-first1= M. |editor-last2= Varshney |editor-first2= A. |editor-last3= Almond |editor-first3= G. A. |title= India and the politics of developing countries |location= Thousand Oaks, Calif. |publisher= SAGE Publications |year= 2004 |page= 187 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ls38Az4-J64C&pg=PA187 |isbn= 978-0-7619-3287-1 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last= Joseph |editor-first= W. A. |title= Politics in China: an introduction |location= Oxford |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2010 |page= 308 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kk80evDTZIYC&pg=PA308&lpg=PA308 |isbn= 978-0-19-533530-9 }}</ref><ref name=lai-wan>{{Cite journal |last1= Lai-wan |last2= Eric |first2= B. |last3= Hoi-yan |first1= C. C. |title= Attitudes to and practices regarding sex selection in China |journal= Prenatal Diagnosis |volume= 26 |issue= 7 |year= 2006 |pages= 610–613 |doi= 10.1002/pd.1477}}</ref> Some manifestations of son preference and the devaluation of women are eliminating unwanted daughters through neglect, maltreatment, abandonment, as well as female ] and ] despite laws that prohibit infanticide and ]<ref name=lai-wan/><ref name=singh>{{Cite journal |url= http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2915/stories/20120810291502200.htm |title= Man's world, legally |last= Singh |first= K. |journal= ] |volume= 29 |issue= 15 |year= 2012 |accessdate= May 13, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last1= Koop |editor-first1= C. E. |editor-link1= C. Everett Koop |editor-last2= Pearson |editor-first2= C. E. |editor-last3= Schwarz |editor-first3= M. R. |title= Critical issues in global health |location= San Francisco, Calif. |publisher= Wiley |year= 2002 |page= 224 |isbn= 978-0-7879-6377-4 |quote= Across the world, male privilege is also variously reflected in giving sons preferential access to health care, sex- selective abortion, female infanticide, or trafficking in women.}}</ref> In India some of these practices have contributed to skewed sex ratios in favor of male children at birth and in the first five years.<ref name=weiner/> Other examples of privileging male offspring are special "praying for a son" ceremonies during pregnancy, more ceremony and festivities following the birth of a boy, listing and introducing sons before daughters, and common felicitations that associate good fortune and well-being with the number of sons.<ref>{{Cite book |last= Croll |first= E. |title= Endangered daughters: discrimination and development in Asia |chapter= Ethnographic voices: disappointing daughters |chapterurl= https://books.google.com/books?id=npGRm5pNRl0C&pg=PA70 |location= London |publisher= Routledge |year= 2000 |pages= 70–105 |isbn= 978-0-203-17021-2}}</ref> |
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Reasons given for preferring sons to daughters include sons' role in religious family rites, which daughters are not permitted to perform, and the belief that sons are permanent members of the birth family whereas daughters belong to their husband's family after marriage in accordance with ] tradition. Other reasons include ] customs whereby only sons can carry on the family name, the obligation to pay ] to a daughter's husband or his family, and the expectation that sons will support their birth parents financially while it is regarded as undesirable or shameful to receive financial support from daughters.<ref name=lai-wan/><ref name=singh/> |
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==Criticism== |
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Some ] dispute that men as a group have institutional power and privilege<ref>{{cite journal |last = Kimmel |first = M. S. |year= 1987 |title= Men's Responses to Feminism at the Turn of the Century |journal= Gender & Society |volume= 1 |issue= 3 |pages= 261–283 |publisher= |doi= 10.1177/089124387001003003 |pmid= |pmc= |url= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Clatterbaugh |first= K. |authorlink= Kenneth Clatterbaugh |editor-last = Flood | editor-first = M. | editorlink = Michael Flood |title= International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities | year = 2007 |publisher= ] |location= London |isbn= 978-0-415-33343-6 | chapter= Men's rights |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh7y6ELc90YC&pg=PA430 |page= 430–433}}</ref> and believe that men are often victimized and disadvantaged relative to women.<ref>{{cite journal |last= Messner |first= M. A. |authorlink= Michael Messner |year= 1998 |title= The Limits of the "Male Sex Role": An Analysis of the Men's Liberation and Men's Rights Movement's Discourse |journal= ] |volume= 12 |issue= 3 |pages= 255–276 |publisher= |doi= 10.1177/0891243298012003002 |pmid= |pmc= |url= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Dunphy |first1= R. |authorlink1= |last2= |first2= |authorlink2= |editor1-first= |editor1-last= |editor1-link= |others= |title= Sexual Politics: An Introduction |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NVPQkt0bVpAC&pg=PA88 |year= 2000 |publisher= ] |location= Edinburgh |isbn= 978-0-7486-1247-5 |page=88}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Flood |first= M. |authorlink= Michael Flood |title= International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities | year = 2007 |publisher= Psychology Press |location= London |isbn= 978-0-415-33343-6 | chapter= Men's movement |chapterurl= http://www.xyonline.net/sites/default/files/Flood,%20Men's%20Movements,%20IEMM%202007.pdf |pages= 418–422}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Clatterbaugh |first= K. |editor-last = Flood | editor-first = M. |title= International Encyclopedia of Men and Masculinities | year = 2007 |publisher= ] |location= London |isbn= 978-0-415-33343-6 | chapter= Anti-feminism |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=jh7y6ELc90YC&pg=PA21#v=onepage&q&f=false |page= 21}}</ref> For example, men's rights activists ] and ] believe that men are disadvantaged and discriminated against and that power is an illusion for most men. In response, Sarah Maddison of the ] said that these men "mobilize discourses of power as relating purely to individual experience, with little conceptualization of social structures or spaces beyond those involved in daily personal and family life (although even within the family gendered power relationships are often invisible or denied)."<ref>{{cite journal |last= Maddison |first= S. |authorlink= |year= 1999 |title= Private Men, Public Anger: The Men's Rights Movement in Australia |journal= Journal of Interdisciplinary Gender Studies |volume= 4 |issue= 2 |pages= 39–52 |publisher= |doi= |pmid= |pmc= |url= http://newcastle.edu.au/Resources/Schools/Humanities%20and%20Social%20Science/JIGS/JIGSV4N2_039.pdf |accessdate= }}</ref> |
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==See also== |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist|2}} |
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==Further reading== |
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*Blau, Francine & Ferber, Marianne. (1992). ''The Economics of Women, Men and Work''. 5th edition 2005. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-185154-3. |
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*{{Cite journal |last= Branscombe |first= N. R. |title= Thinking about one's gender group's privileges or disadvantages: consequences for well-being in women and men |year= 1998 |journal= ] |volume= 37 |issue= 2 |pages= 167–184 |doi= 10.1111/j.2044-8309.1998.tb01163.x }} |
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*Jacobs, Michael P. (1997). "Do Gay Men Have a Stake in Male Privilege?" In: ''Homo Economics: Capitalism, Community, and Lesbian and Gay Life''. Gluckman, Amy & Reed, Betsy (eds.). Taylor & Francis Books Ltd. ISBN 0-415-91379-9. |
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*{{Cite journal |last= Kolb |first= K. H. |year= 2007 |title= 'Supporting our black men': reproducing male privilege in a black student political organization |journal= Sociological Spectrum |volume= 27 |issue= 3 |pages= 257–274 |doi= 10.1080/02732170701206106 |url= http://www2.furman.edu/academics/sociology/Faculty/Kolb/Documents/Kolb%20-%20Supporting%20Our%20Black%20Men.pdf |accessdate= }} |
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*{{Cite journal |last1= Noble |first1= C. |last2= Pease |first2= B. |title= Interrogating male privilege in the human services and social work education |year= 2011 |journal= Women in Welfare Education |volume= 10 |issue= 1 |pages= 29–38 |doi= |url= http://www.aaswwe.asn.au/download/2011/WIWE_10_2011.pdf |accessdate= }} |
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*{{Cite journal |last1= Pratto |first= F. |last2= Stewart |first2= A. L. |year= 2012 |title= Group dominance and the half-blindness of privilege |journal= Journal of Social Issues |volume= 68 |issue= 1 |pages= 28–45 |doi= 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01734.x }} |
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*{{Cite journal |last1= Schmitt |first1= M. T. |last2= Branscombe |first2= N. R. |title= The meaning and consequences of perceived discrimination in disadvantaged and privileged groups |journal= European Review of Social Psychology |volume= 12 |issue= 1 |year= 2002 |pages= 167–1999 |doi= 10.1080/14792772143000058 | url= http://www.heart-intl.net/HEART/070106/TheMeaningandConsequences.htm |accessdate= }} |
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{{Discrimination}} |
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}} |
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] |
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] |
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] |
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] |
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] |
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.svg)
