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fee of at least $125.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/wild_horse_and_burro/What_We_Do/wild_horse_and_burro0/how_to_adopt.html|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Land Management|title=How to Adopt a Wild Horse or Burro|accessdate=2011-07-04}}</ref> In order to prevent the later sale of mustangs as horse meat, adopted mustangs are still protected under the Act, and cannot be sold in the first year except when certain very specific criteria are met. As of 2010, nearly 225,000 mustangs have been adopted.<ref name=Mangum77/>
{{About|the horse|the automobile|Ford Mustang|and|Shelby Mustang|the military aircraft|North American P-51 Mustang|other uses}}
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<!-- Begin Infobox horse. The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: -->
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{{Infobox horse
|name= Mustang
|image=Mustanggelding.jpg
|image_caption=Mustang adopted from the BLM
|image2=Arizona 2004 Mustangs.jpg
|image_caption2=Free-roaming mustangs
|features=Small, compact, good bone, very hardy
|altname=
|nickname=
|country= North America
}}
<!-- End Infobox horse info. Article Begins Here -->

The '''mustang''' is a free-roaming ] of the ] west that first descended from horses brought to the ] by the ]. Mustangs are often referred to as ]s, but because they are descended from once-domesticated horses, they are properly defined as ]s. The original mustangs were ]s, but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang, resulting in varying ]. In the 21st century, mustang herds vary in the degree to which they can be traced to original ]s. Some contain a greater genetic mixture of ranch stock and more recent breed releases, while others are relatively unchanged from the original Iberian stock, most strongly represented in the most isolated populations.

In 1971, the ] recognized that "wild free-roaming horses and burros are living symbols of the historic and pioneer spirit of the West, which continue to contribute to the diversity of life forms within the Nation and enrich the lives of the American people."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.all-creatures.org/alert/alert-20110920.pdf|title=The Wild and Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act of 1971, as amended|accessdate=April 26, 2012}}</ref> The free-roaming mustang population is managed and protected by the ] (BLM). Controversy surrounds the sharing of land and resources by the free-ranging mustangs with the ] of the ] industry, and also with the methods with which the federal government manages the wild population numbers. A policy of rounding up excess population and offering these horses for adoption to private owners has been inadequate to address questions of population control, and many animals now live in temporary holding areas, kept in captivity but not adopted to permanent homes. Advocates for mustangs also express concerns that the animals may be sold for ]. Additional debate centers on the question of whether mustangs—and horses in general—are a ] or an introduced ]. Many methods of population management are used, including the adoption by private individuals of horses taken from the range.

==Etymology and usage==
Mustangs are often referred to as ]s, but since all free-roaming horses now in the Americas descended from horses that were once domesticated, a more proper term is ]s.<ref> The Nature of Horses</ref> Unlike ], the only ] wild horse, the mustang descended from domesticated horses.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.amnh.org/explore/science-bulletins/bio/documentaries/the-last-wild-horse-the-return-of-takhi-to-mongolia/article-when-is-wild-actually-feral|title = When Is "Wild" Actually "Feral"?|accessdate = May 25, 2015|publisher = American Museum of Natural History|series = The Last Wild Horse: The Return of Takhi to Mongolia Bio Feature}}</ref>

According to the '']'' (OED), the English word "mustang" comes from two essentially synonymous ] words, ''mestengo'' (or ''mesteño'') and ''mostrenco.'' Both words referred to horses and cattle defined as "wild, having no master."{{efn|Another source defines ''mostrenco'' as "wild, stray, ownerless".<ref>Corominas, J. and J.A. Pascual 1981 ''Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico'' Madrid: Gredos s.v. "mostrenco"</ref>}} ''Mesteño'' was derived from ''mesta'', associations of ], and one of their jobs was to deal with strayed cattle. The OED states that the origin of ''mostrenco'' is "obscure,"<ref name="OED">{{cite book|last1=Simpson|first1=prepared by J.A.|title="Mustang" - The Oxford English dictionary|date=1989|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0198612222|page=139|edition=2.}}</ref> The Spanish word in turn may possibly originate from the ] expression ''mixta'', referring to beasts of uncertain ownership, which were distributed by ranchers' associations called '']s'' in ].<ref name=etymoonline>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=mustang|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|work=etymonline.com|accessdate=21 May 2015}}</ref> It has no connection with the Mustang region of Tibet.

"Mustangers" were usually ]s in the US and '']s'' or '']'' in Mexico who caught, broke and drove free-ranging horses to market in the Spanish and later Mexican, and still later American territories of what is now Northern ], ], ] and ]. They caught the horses that roamed the ] and the ] of California, and later in the ], from the 18th century to the early 20th century.<ref>C. Allan Jones, ''Texas Roots: Agriculture and Rural Life Before the Civil War'', Texas A&M University Press, 2005, pp. 74–75</ref><ref>Frank Forrest Latta, ''Joaquín Murrieta and His Horse Gangs'', Bear State Books, Santa Cruz, 1980, p. 84</ref><!--another weak paragraph that needs improvement and replacement, but keep until then-->

==Characteristics and ancestry==
] and ] with ]]]
{{See also|List of BLM Herd Management Areas}}
<!--this paragraph for general info-->
The original mustangs were ]s, but many other breeds and types of horses contributed to the modern mustang, resulting in varying ]. Mustangs of all body types are described as ] and having good endurance. They may be of any ].<ref name=Hendricks>{{cite book|last1=Hendricks|first1=Bonnie L.|title=International encyclopedia of horse breeds|date=2007|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman|isbn=9780806138848|pages=18–19; 301–303 |edition=Pbk. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CdJg3qXssWYC |accessdate=29 May 2015}}</ref> Throughout all the ]s managed by the ], light riding horse type predominates, though a few horses with ] characteristics also exist, mostly kept separate from other mustangs and confined to specific areas.<ref name=OklaState>{{cite web|title=Breeds of Livestock - Mustang (Horse) |url=http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/mustang/index.html|website=Department of Animal Science - Oklahoma State University|accessdate=29 May 2015|date=May 7, 2002}}</ref> Some herds show the signs of the introduction of ] or other light racehorse-types into herds, a process that also led in part to the creation of the ].<ref name=NGS2014March>{{cite web|last1=Twombly|first1=Matthew|last2=Baptista|first2=Fernando G|title=Return of a Native|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2014/03/horse-tribes/journey-interactive|website=National Geographic|accessdate=June 11, 2015|date=March 2014}}</ref>

<!--this AMA bit is a good breed standard so long as the caveat is kept-->
The now-defunct American Mustang Association developed a breed standard for those mustangs that carry ] traits associated with the early Spanish horses. These include a well-proportioned body with a clean, refined head with wide forehead and small muzzle. The facial profile may be straight or slightly convex. ] are moderate in height and the shoulder is to be "long and sloping." The standard considers a very short ], deep girth and muscular coupling over the loins as desirable. The ] is rounded, neither too flat nor goose-rumped. The tail is low-set. The legs are to be straight and sound. ] are round and dense.<ref name=Hendricks/> Dun color and ] are particularly common amongst horses of Spanish type.<ref name=Massingham>{{cite book|last1=Pomeranz|first1=Lynne|last2=Massingham|first2=Rhonda|title=Among wild horses a portrait of the Pryor Mountain mustangs|date=2006|publisher=Storey Publishing|location=North Adams, MA|isbn=9781612122137|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ww8P6xsTUPsC}}</ref> Height varies across the west, but most are small, generally {{hands|14|to|15}}, and not taller than {{hands|16}}, even in herds with draft or Thoroughbred ancestry.{{efn|Some horses in the Pryor range are said to be under {{hands|14}},<ref name=Massingham/> Horses estimated at up to {{hands|16}} are found at HMA such as Devils Garden Wild Horse Territory, California,<ref name=DevilsGarden>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/prog/wild_horse_and_burro/hma-main/HMA-CA-252.html|title=Devils Garden Wild Horse Territory, Wild Horses & Burros, Bureau of Land Management California|date=24 October 2013|work=blm.gov|accessdate=4 June 2015}}</ref> and Challis HMA, Idaho.<ref name=Challis/>}}

<!--this paragraph for analysis of all the various sources-->
The mustang of the modern west has several different breeding populations today which are genetically isolated from one another and thus have distinct traits traceable to particular herds. Genetic contributions to today's free-roaming mustang herds include assorted ranch horses that escaped to or were turned out on the public lands, and estray horses used by the ].{{efn|Examples include the Herd Management Areas in California and Idaho.<ref name=CaliforniaBLM>{{cite web|title=California–Wild Horses & Burros|url=http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/prog/wild_horse_and_burro.html|website=Bureau of Land Management|accessdate=1 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="Idaho BLM">{{cite web|title=Idaho's Wild Horse Program|url=http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/wild_horses_.html|website=Bureau of Land Management|accessdate=1 June 2015}}</ref> }} For example, in Idaho some Herd Management Areas (HMA) contain animals with known descent from ] and ] stallions turned out with feral herds.<ref name="Idaho Black MtnHMA">{{cite web|title=Idaho's Wild Horse Program |url=http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/wild_horses_/hmas/black_mountain_hma.html |website=Bureau of Land Management |accessdate=1 June 2015}}</ref> The herds located in two HMAs in central Nevada produce ]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/nv/st/en/fo/battle_mountain_field/blm_programs/wild_horse_and_burro/battle_mountain_field/rocky_hills_hma.html|title=ROCKY HILLS HMA|date=9 January 2008|work=blm.gov|accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/nv/st/en/fo/battle_mountain_field/blm_programs/wild_horse_and_burro/battle_mountain_field/callaghan_hma.html|title=CALLAGHAN HMA|date=9 January 2008|work=blm.gov|accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref> Others, such as certain bands in Wyoming, have characteristics consistent with ] breeds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/wy/st/en/programs/Wild_Horses/hma/dividebasin.html|title=dividebasin|date=5 March 2013|work=blm.gov|accessdate=4 June 2015}}</ref>

<!--this paragraph mostly about the science and where the old Spanish type is still extant-->
Several bands have had ] testing and are verified to have significant Spanish ancestry. These include the ], the ],<ref name=OklaState/><!--source on both Kiger and Cerbat--> and the ].<ref name="Cothran2010">{{cite web |url=http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/mt/field_offices/billings/wild_horses.Par.71769.File.dat/GeneticAnalysis2010.pdf| title=Genetic Analysis of the Pryor Mountains HMA, MT |last=Cothran |first=E. Gus|website=Department of Veterinary Integrative Bioscience Texas A&M University}}</ref><ref name="PryorCenter">{{cite web|title=Colors and Conformation|url=http://www.pryormustangs.org/colors_conformation.shtml|website=Pryor Mountain Wild Mustang Center|accessdate=30 May 2015}}</ref> Horses in several other HMAs retain Spanish horse traits, such as ] coloration and ].{{efn|''See'', e.g. High Rock<ref name=highrock>http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/prog/wild_horse_and_burro/hma-main/CA-264.html</ref> and Carter Reservoir HMAs, California,<ref name="BLM Carter">{{cite web|title=Carter Reservoir Herd Management Area (CA-269)|url=http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/prog/wild_horse_and_burro/hma-main/HMA-CA-269.html|website=Bureau of Land Management|accessdate=4 June 2015}}</ref> Twin Peaks HMA, Ca/NV,<ref name=twinpeaks>http://www.blm.gov/ca/st/en/prog/wild_horse_and_burro/hma-main/HMA-CA-242.html</ref> Black Mountain HMA, ID,<ref name=IDblackmtn>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/wild_horses_/hmas/black_mountain_hma.html|title=Black Mountain HMA|date=18 March 2015|work=blm.gov|accessdate=4 June 2015}}</ref>}} Other genetic herd studies, such as one done in 2002 on the bands in the ] area, show a very mixed blend of Spanish, North American gaited horse, draft horse and ] influences.<ref name=Challis>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/id/st/en/prog/wild_horses_/hmas/challis_hma.html|title=Challis HMA|date=12 August 2013|work=blm.gov|accessdate=4 June 2015}}</ref> A 2010 study of the Pryor herd also showed that those mustangs shared genetic traits with other domestic horse breeds, presenting strong evidence that modern "wild" horses were not descended from a prehistoric subspecies that had survived in North America from prehistoric times.<ref name="Cothran2010"/>
]

Some breeders of domestic horses consider the mustang herds of the west to be ] and of inferior quality. However, supporters of the mustang argue that the animals are merely small due to their harsh living conditions and that ] has eliminated many traits that lead to weakness or inferiority.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} In contrast, a few researchers have advanced an argument that mustangs should be legally classified as "wild" rather than "feral". They argue that, due to the presence of '']'' on the North American continent until the end of the ] era, horses were once a native species and should still be considered as such, defined as "wild"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livescience.com/animals/080724-nhm-wild-horses.html |title=The Surprising History of America's Wild Horses |publisher=Livescience.com |date=2008-07-24 |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> rather than viewed as an ] that draws resources and attention away from true native species.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/02/wild-horses/fuller-text/5 |title=Wild Horses |work=National Geographic |date=February 2009 |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref>

==History==

===Prehistory===
{{Main article|Horses in the United States#Evolution}}

The horse family ] and the genus '']'' evolved in North America.<ref name = "Weinstock2005"/> Fossil evidence dating to the ]<ref name="macfadden">{{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/2412774 | last1 = MacFadden | first1 = B. J. | year = 1976 | title = Cladistic analysis of primitive equids with notes on other perissodactyls| journal = Syst. Zool | volume = 25 | issue = 1| pages = 1–14 | jstor = 2412774 }}</ref> Studies using ] as well as DNA of recent individuals shows there once were two closely related horse species in North America, the wild horse (''Equus ferus''), and '']'' or "New World stilt-legged horse" (taxonomically assigned to various names).<ref name = "Weinstock2005">{{cite journal |last=Weinstock |first=J. |year=2005 |title=Evolution, systematics, and phylogeography of pleistocene horses in the New World: A molecular perspective |journal=] |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=e241 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030241 |url=http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030241 |accessdate=2008-12-19 |pmc=1159165 |quote= |pmid=15974804|display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref name = "AncientDNA">{{cite journal |last=Orlando |first=L. |year=2008 |title=Ancient DNA Clarifies the Evolutionary History of American Late Pleistocene Equids |journal=] |volume=66 |issue= 5|pages=533–538 |doi=10.1007/s00239-008-9100-x |url= |quote= |pmid=18398561|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Horses existed in Canada as recently as 12,000 years ago,<ref>{{Cite book | last = Singer | first = Ben | title = A brief history of the horse in America | publisher = Canadian Geographic Magazine | date = May 2005 | url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/Magazine/ma05/indepth/#cnd | accessdate =October 16, 2009}}</ref> and a 1992 study produced evidence that horses existed in the Americas until 8,000–10,000 years ago.<ref name = "Azzaroli1992">{{cite journal |last=Azzaroli |first=A. |year=1992 |title=Ascent and decline of monodactyl equids: a case for prehistoric overkill |journal=Ann. Zool. Finnici |volume=28 |pages=151–163 |url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf28/anz28-151-163.pdf}}</ref>

Today, the only ] true "]" is the ], native to Mongolia.<ref name = "Weinstock2005"/> The genus ''Equus'' in North America died out at the end of the last ], possibly due to a changing climate or the impact of newly arrived human hunters.<ref name=NGSnews> ''National Geographic News,'' May 1, 2006.</ref> Thus at the beginning of the ], there were no equids in the Americas at all.<ref>Bennett, pp. 329-330</ref>

===Return 1493–1600 ===
Horses first returned to the Americas with the ]s, beginning with ], who imported horses from ] to the ] on his second voyage in 1493.<ref name=Bennett14>Bennett, p. 14</ref> Domesticated horses came to the mainland with the arrival of ] in 1519.<ref>Bennett, p. 193</ref> By 1525, Cortés had imported enough horses to create a nucleus of horse-breeding in Mexico.<ref>Bennett, p. 205</ref>

One hypothesis held that horse populations north of Mexico originated in the mid-1500s with the expeditions of ], ] or ], but it has been refuted.<ref name=HainesJan1938>Haines, "Plains Indians," January 1938</ref><ref name="Bennett329-331">Bennett, pp. 329-331</ref> Horse breeding in sufficient numbers to establish a self-sustaining population developed in what today is the southwestern United States starting in 1598 when ] founded ]. From 75 horses in his original expedition, he expanded his herd to 800, and from there the horse population increased rapidly.<ref name="Bennett329-331"/>
]

While the Spanish also brought horses to Florida in the 16th century,<ref>Bennett, 345</ref> the ] and ]s of what is now the southeastern United States are believed to be descended from western mustangs that moved east, and thus Spanish horses in Florida did not influence the mustang.<ref name="Bennett329-331"/>

===17th and 18th century dispersal===
] people readily integrated use of the horse into their cultures. They quickly adopted the horse as a primary means of transportation. Horses replaced the dog as a ] and changed Native cultures in terms of warfare, trade, and even diet—the ability to run down ] allowed some people to abandon agriculture for hunting from horseback.<ref name="Lobell">{{cite web|last1=Lobell|first1=Jarrett A.|last2=Powell|first2=Eric A.|title=The Story of the Horse|url=http://www.archaeology.org/issues/180-1507/features/3351-horses-return-to-the-new-world|website=Archaeology|accessdate=26 September 2016|page=33|date=July–August 2015}}</ref>

Santa Fe became a major trading center in the 1600s.<ref name=HainesJan1938-117>Haines, "Plains Indians," January 1938 p 117</ref> Although Spanish laws prohibited Native Americans from riding horses, the Spanish used Native people as servants, and some were tasked to care for livestock, thus learning horse-handling skills.<ref name=HainesJul1938-430>Haines, "Northward Spread" July 1938 p 430</ref> Oñates' colonists also lost many of their horses.<ref>De Steiguer, p 70</ref> Some wandered off because the Spanish generally did not keep them in fenced enclosures,<ref name="Bennett330">Bennett, p 330</ref> and Native people in the area captured some of these ]s.<ref name=SIhorsenation>{{cite web|title=Horses Spread Across the Land|url=http://www.nmai.si.edu/exhibitions/horsenation/spread.html|website=A Song for the Horse Nation|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|accessdate=June 14, 2015}}</ref> Other horses were traded by Oñates' settlers for food, women or other goods.<ref name="Bennett329-331" /> Initially, horses obtained by Native people were simply eaten, along with any cattle that were captured or stolen.<ref name=Dobie36>Dobie, p. 36</ref> But as individuals with horse-handling skills fled Spanish control, sometimes with a few trained horses, the local tribes began using horses for riding and as pack animals. By 1659, settlements reported being raided for horses, and in the 1660s the "Apache"{{efn|"Apache" was a Pueblo word meaning "enemy," and some early accounts referred to all hostile tribes generically as "Apaches" regardless of which tribe was involved.<ref name=Dobie36/>}} were trading human captives for horses.<ref name=HainesJul1938-431>Haines, "Northward Spread" July 1938 p 431</ref> The ] of 1680 also resulted in large numbers of horses coming into the hands of Native people, the largest one-time influx in history.<ref name=SIhorsenation/>

From the ], horses were traded to the ], ] and ]. The ] acquired horses and provided them to the ].<ref name=SIHorseTrading>{{cite web|title=Horse Trading Among Nations |url=http://www.nmai.si.edu/exhibitions/horsenation/trading.html|website=A Song for the Horse Nation|publisher=Smithsonian Institution|accessdate= June 14, 2015}}</ref> The ] and ] became traders who distributed horses and horse culture from New Mexico to the northern plains.<ref name=Britannica46>{{cite book|title=American Indians of California, the Great Basin, and the Southwest | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=adObAAAAQBAJ |editor=Kuiper, Kathleen| publisher=Britannica Educational Publications |date=2011 | page=46}}</ref> West of the ], horses distribution moved north quite rapidly along the western slopes of the ], skirting desert regions<ref name=HainesJan1938-117 /> such as the ] and the western ].<ref name=Britannica46 />{{efn|Horses did not arrive in the Great Basin until the 1850s.<ref name=Britannica46 />}} Horses reached what today is southern ] by 1690.<ref name=HainesJul1938-430/> The ] people in the ] valley had horses in 1700.<ref name=Bennett388>Bennett, p 388</ref>{{efn|The ] occupied the interior of the Great Basin, and did not have access to horses until after 1850.<ref name=Britannica46 />}} By 1730, they reached the ] and were east of the Continental divide in the northern Great Plains.<ref name=HainesJul1938-430/> The ] of ] had horses by 1750.<ref name=McKnight511/> The ] in particular became master horse breeders, and developed one of the first distinctly American ], the ]. Most other tribes did not practice extensive amounts of ], though they sought out desirable horses through acquisition and quickly ] those with undesirable traits.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} By 1769, most ] had horses.<ref name=Bennett388/><ref name=Dobie41>Dobie, p. 41</ref>

In this period, ] were also a source of estray and stolen livestock, particularly in what today is Texas and California.<ref>De Steiguer, pp 73-74</ref> The Spanish brought horses to California for use at their missions and ranches, where permanent settlements were established in 1769.<ref name=Dobie41/> Horse numbers grew rapidly, with a population of 24,000 horses reported by 1800.<ref>Bennett, p. 374</ref> By 1805, there were so many horses in California that people began to simply kill unwanted animals to reduce overpopulation.<ref name=DeSteiguer76>De Steiguer, p 76</ref> However, due to the barriers presented by mountain ranges and deserts, the California population did not significantly influence horse numbers elsewhere at the time.<ref name=Dobie41/>{{efn | It was there and the southern Great Plains where Dobie stated the "Spanish horses found vast American ranges corresponding in climate and soil to the arid lands of Spain, northern Africa and Arabia in which they originated".<ref>Dobie, ''The Mustangs'' p. 23</ref>}} Horses in California were described as being of "exceptional quality."<ref name=DeSteiguer76/>

In the upper ] and ] regions, the French were another source of horses. Although horse trading with native people was prohibited, there were individuals willing to indulge in illegal dealing, and as early as 1675, the ] had horses. Animals identified as "Canadian," "French", or "Norman" were located in the Great Lakes region, with a 1782 census at ] listing over 1000 animals.<ref name="Bennett384-5"/> By 1770, Spanish horses were found in that area,<ref name=HainesJul1938-430/> and there was a clear zone from Ontario and Saskatchewan to ] where Canadian-type horses, particularly the smaller varieties, ] with mustangs of Spanish ancestry. French-Canadian horses were also allowed to roam freely, and moved west, particularly influencing horse herds in the northern plains and inland northwest.<ref name="Bennett384-5">Bennett, pp 384-385</ref>
]

Although horses were brought from Mexico to Texas as early as 1542, a stable population did not exist until 1686, when ]'s expedition arrived with 700 horses. From there, later groups brought up thousands more, deliberately leaving some horses and cattle to fend for themselves at various locations, while others strayed.<ref>De Steiguer, p 74</ref> By 1787, these animals had multiplied to the point that a roundup gathered nearly 8,000 "free-roaming mustangs and cattle."<ref>De Steiguer, p 75</ref> West-central Texas, between the ] and ], was said to have the most concentrated population of feral horses in the Americas.<ref name=McKnight511/> Throughout the west, horses escaped human control and formed feral herds, and by the late 1700s, the largest numbers were found in what today are the states of Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico.<ref name=McKnight511>McKnight, pp 511-13</ref>

===19th century===
An early 19th century reference to mustangs by American sources came from ] in 1808, who noted passing herds of "mustangs or wild horses." In 1821, ] noted in his journal that he had seen about 150 mustangs.<ref name=OED/>{{efn|The OED cites ''Sources Mississ.'' III. 273 for Pike, and "Journal, 5 Sept." for Austin in ''Texas State Hist. Assoc Q.'' (1904) VII. 300.<ref name=OED/>}} ], in his ], recalled seeing in 1846 an immense herd between the Nueces and Rio Grande rivers in Texas. "As far as the eye could reach to our right, the herd extended. To the left, it extended equally. There was no estimating the number of animals in it; I have no idea that they could all have been corralled in the state of ], or ], at one time." <ref>{{cite book |last= Grant|first= Ulysses|date= |title= Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant|url= |location= |publisher= Dover Publications, Inc.|page= 28,29|isbn= 0-486-28587-1|author-link= }}</ref>

Estimates of when the peak population of mustangs occurred and total numbers vary widely between sources. No comprehensive census of feral horse numbers was ever performed until the time of the ] and any earlier estimates, particularly prior to the 20th century, are speculative.<ref name=Myths>{{cite web|last1=Gorey|first1=Tom|title=Myths and Facts |url=http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/whbprogram/history_and_facts/myths_and_facts.html |website=Bureau of Land Management |accessdate=February 6, 2015 |date=August 15, 2014}}</ref> Some sources simply state that "millions" of mustangs once roamed western North America.<ref name="Ryden129">Ryden, ''America's Last Wild Horses'' p. 129</ref><ref>Wyman ''Wild Horse'' p. 91</ref> In 1959, geographer Tom L. McKnight{{efn|Tom L. McKnight c. 1929–2004, PhD Wisconsin 1955, professor of geography, UCLA.<ref name="McKnight Obit">{{cite web|title=Tom McKnight obituary|url=http://www.aag.org/cs/membership/tributes_memorials/mr/mcknight_tom|website=Association of American Geographers|accessdate=28 June 2015|date=2004}}</ref>}} suggested that the population peaked in the late 1700s or early 1800s, and the "best guesses apparently lie between two and five million".<ref name=McKnight511 /> Historian ] hypothesized that the population peaked around the end of the ] in 1848, stating, "My own guess is that at no time were there more than a million mustangs in Texas and no more than a million others scattered over the remainder of the West."<ref>Dobie p. 108</ref> J. Edward de Steiguer{{efn |"Ed" de Steiguer PhD, professor at the University of Arizona. His doctorate is in forestry.<ref>{{cite web |title=J. Edward de Steiguer |url=http://desteiguer.com/page6.php |website=deSteiguer.com |accessdate=July 4, 2015|date=}}</ref>}} questioned Dobie's lower guess as still being too high.<ref>de Steiguer, loc2253''Chapter 7 America sweeps onto the Great Plains''</ref>

In 1839, the numbers of mustangs in Texas had been augmented by animals abandoned by Mexican settlers who had been ordered to leave the ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Ford|first=John Salmon|title=Rip Ford's Texas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bY7LrDMjc8UC |publisher=University of Texas Press |date=2010 |origyear=1987 |ISBN=0-292-77034-0 |pages=143–144}}</ref><ref name="Dobie108">Dobie, ''The Mustangs'' pp. 108-109</ref>{{efn|The area was also known as the "Wild Horse Desert"<ref name=Givens>{{cite web|last=Givens |first=Murphy |title=Chasing mustangs in the Wild Horse Desert |url=http://www.caller.com/opinion/columnists/murphy-givens/chasing-mustangs-in-the-wild-horse-desert|website=Corpus Christi Caller Times |accessdate=June 29, 2015|date=November 23, 2011}}</ref> or "Mustang Desert".<ref>Dobie, p. 108</ref>}} When the area was finally ceded to the U.S. in 1848, these horses and others in the surrounding areas were rounded up and trailed north and east,<ref>Dobie, ''The Mustangs'' p. 316</ref> resulting in the near elimination of mustangs in that area by 1860.<ref name=Givens />

Farther west, the first known sighting of a free-roaming horse in the Great Basin was by ] near the ]s in 1841. Although ] noted thousands of horses in California,<ref name="Morin3">Morin, ''Honest Horses'' p. 3"</ref> the only horse sign he spoke of in the Great Basin, which he named, was tracks around ], and the natives he encountered there were horseless<ref>Berger, ''Wild Horses'' page 36.</ref>{{efn |Although for the most part, the Native Americans in the Great Basin desert did not have horses, the ] were an offshoot of the Northern ] in southern Oregon and northwest Oregon<ref name=Britannica46 /> that developed a horse culture. They may have the tribe that attacked a member of the Ogden party at the Humboldt Sinks in 1829.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wheeler |first=Sessions S |year=2003 |title=Nevada's Black Rock Desert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBYUBc-O4OgC|isbn= |publisher=Caxton Press |page=98}}</ref>}} In 1861, another party saw seven free-roaming horses near the ].<ref>Young and Sparks ''Cattle in the Cold Desert'', p. 215</ref> For the most part, free-roaming horse herds in the interior of Nevada were established in the latter part of the 1800s from escaped settlers' horses.<ref name="Morin3" /><ref>Young and Sparks ''Cattle in the Cold Desert'' pp. 216-7</ref><ref>de Steiguer, loc2595</ref>

<!--need the rest of the century, i.e. Civil War and cattle drive era and source for Boer War bit-->

===20th century===
In the early 1900s, thousands of free-roaming horses were rounded up for use in the Spanish–American War<ref>{{cite web|title=Mustang Country Wild Horses & Burros |publisher=Bureau of Land Management |url=http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/nv/field_offices/winnemucca_field_office/programs/wild_horse___burro.Par.75828.File.dat/Mustang_Country_final070313_ver3.pdf |page=5}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Cruise|first1=David |last2=Griffiths|first2=Alison |title=Wild Horse Annie and the Last of the Mustangs: The Life of Annie Johnston |publisher=Simon & Schuster|isbn=978-1-4165-5335-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hvw8TIJoA2gC|year=2010|page=6 }}</ref>

By 1920, Bob Brislawn, who was working as a packer for the U.S. government, recognized that the original mustangs were disappearing, and was making an effort to preserve them, ultimately establishing the ].<ref>http://www.horseoftheamericas.com/uploads/3/1/3/7/3137829/preservation_of_the_colonial_spanish_horse_patterson.pdf</ref> <!--need to verify from source: By 1930, mustangs had been eliminated from Texas.<ref>Wyman page 159</ref>.--> In 1934, Dobie stated that there were just "a few wild horses in ], ] and other Western states" and that "only a trace of Spanish blood is left in most of them"<ref name="Dobie321">Dobie, ''The Mustangs'' p. 321</ref> remaining. Other sources agree that by that time, only "pockets" of mustangs that retained Colonial Spanish Horse type remained.<ref>Amaral ''Mustang'' p. 12</ref>

By 1930, the vast majority of free-roaming horses were found west of Continental Divide, with an estimated population between 50,000–150,000.<ref>Wyman, ''Wild Horse'' p, 161</ref> They were almost completely confined to the remaining ] (GLO)-administered public lands and ] rangelands in the ].<ref>Sherrets</ref> In 1934, the ] established the ] to manage livestock grazing on public lands, and in 1946, the GLO was combined with the Grazing Service to form the ](BLM),{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} which, along with the ], was committed to removing feral horses from the lands they administered.

By the 1950s, the mustang population dropped to an estimated 25,000 horses.<ref name=Curnett>{{cite book|last1=Curnutt|first1=Jordan|title=Animals and the Law: A Sourcebook|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781576071472|page=142|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2p0MptGeBkC}}</ref> Abuses linked to certain capture methods, including hunting from airplanes and poisoning water holes, led to the first federal free-roaming horse protection law in 1959.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/whbprogram/history_and_facts/history_of_the_program.html |title=History of the Program: The Wild Horse Annie Act |website=Bureau of Land Management |accessdate=January 18, 2015}}</ref> This statute, titled "Use of aircraft or motor vehicles to hunt certain wild horses or burros; pollution of watering holes"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/18/47|title=Use of aircraft or motor vehicles to hunt certain wild horses or burros; pollution of watering holes}}</ref> popularly known as the "Wild Horse Annie Act", prohibited the use of motor vehicles for capturing free-roaming horses and burros.<ref name=Mangum77>Mangum, ''The Mustang Dilemma'', p. 77</ref> Protection was increased further by the ] (WFRHABA).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ii00_democrats/rahallwhbbkd.pdf |title=Background Information on HR297 |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060430163215/http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ii00_democrats/rahallwhbbkd.pdf |archive-date=30 April 2006}}</ref>

The ] provided for protection of certain previously established herds of horses and burros. It mandated the BLM to oversee the protection and management of free-roaming herds on lands it administered, and gave U.S. Forest Service similar authority on National Forest lands.<ref name=blm>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/whbprogram/history_and_facts/myths_and_facts.html |title=Myths and Facts |publisher=Bureau of Land Management |accessdate=2015-07-05}}</ref> A few free-ranging horses are also managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service <ref>http://www.fws.gov/sheldonhartmtn/sheldon/horseburro.html</ref> and National Park Service.<ref>http://www.thehorse.com/articles/35557/managing-feral-horses-on-national-park-service-lands</ref> but for the most part they are not subject to management under the Act.<ref>http://www.nps.gov/thro/learn/nature/feral-wild-horses.htm</ref> A census completed in conjunction with passage of the Act found that there were approximately 17,300 horses (25,300 combined population of horses ''and'' burros) on the BLM-administered lands and 2,039 on National Forests.<ref>http://contentdm.library.unr.edu/cdm/ref/collection/nevagpub/id/1088</ref>

===Mustangs today===
]'s ], featuring the mustang]]

The BLM has established ] to determine where and how many animals will be sustained as free-roaming populations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wild Horse and Burro Territories |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/rangelands/ecology/wildhorseburro/territories/index.shtml|accessdate=2009-01-29}}</ref> Some populations of free-roaming horses and burros remain protected under the Act, but others have disappeared from places where there were once established populations.<ref name="National Summary, FY2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/pdf/National.pdf |title=National Summary, FY2007 |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722070513/http://www.wildhorsepreservation.org/pdf/National.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2012}}</ref> A few hundred free-roaming horses survive in ] and ]. The BLM considers roughly 26,000 individuals a manageable number,<ref name=Mangum77/> but the feral mustang population in February 2010 was 33,700 horses and 4,700 burros.<ref name=Mangum77/> More than half of all mustangs in North America are found in ] (which features the horses on its ]), with other significant populations in California, Oregon, Utah, Montana, and Wyoming.<ref name="National Summary, FY2007"/><ref name=BLM2013pop>{{cite web|title=Wild and Free-Roaming Horse and Burro populations as of March 1, 2013|url= http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/wo/Planning_and_Renewable_Resources/wild_horses_and_burros/statistics_and_maps/holding__adoption.Par.45280.File.dat/HMA_HA%20Stats%20FY2013.pdf |website=Bureau of Land Management|accessdate=1 June 2015|date=March 1, 2013}}</ref><ref name="HMA natl map"></ref> Another 34,000 horses are in holding facilities.<ref name=Mangum77/>

==Land use controversies==
Controversy surrounds the presence of feral mustang herds, particularly on public lands. Supporters argue that mustangs are part of the natural heritage of the ], whose history predates modern land use practices, and thus the animals have an inherent right of inhabitation.<ref>http://www.wildhorsepreservation.org/ The American Wild Horse Preservation Campaign</ref> However, others remain vehemently opposed to their presence, arguing that the animals degrade ] and compete with livestock and wild species for forage.<ref>''see, e.g.'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007123015/http://www.wildhorsepreservation.org/legislation/nas_report.html |date=October 7, 2011 }}<br></ref>

The debate as to what degree mustangs and cattle compete for forage is multifaceted. One group of opponents, primarily cattle and sheep ranchers and those who depend on the livestock industry, argue essentially that feral horses degrade rangeland and compete with private livestock for public land forage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igha.org/BLM8.html |title=Bellisle, Martha. "Legislative battle brews over Nevada's wild horses" Associated Press reprinted at I.G.H.A. / HorseAid's Bureau of Land Management News. Web site accessed May 11, 2007 |publisher=Igha.org |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> The environmentalist community is split over the position of the mustang within the North American ]. This debate centers on the potential classification of mustangs as either an ] such as cattle, or as a reintroduced native species due to the prehistoric presence of horses in North America, albeit with a gap of thousands of years between their extinction and reintroduction from European stock.<ref> Jay F. Kirkpatrick, Ph.D. and Patricia M. Fazio</ref>

Researchers note that most current mustang herds live in arid areas which cattle cannot fully utilize due to the lack of water sources.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090614190021/http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/ecosystem.html|archivedate=2009-06-14 |dead-url=no|url=http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/ecosystem.html |title=Wild Horses and the Ecosystem |publisher=Wildhorsepreservation.com |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> Horses are adapted by ] to inhabit an ] characterized by poor quality vegetation.<ref name=Budiansky31>Budiansky, p. 31</ref> They cover vast distances to find food and water.<ref name=Budiansky186>Budiansky, p. 186</ref> they may range nine times as far from water sources as cattle, traveling as much as 50 miles a day.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} In addition, horses are "]", meaning that they digest nutrients by means of the ] rather than by a multi-chambered stomach.<ref>Budiansky29>Budiansky, p. 29</ref> While this means that they extract less energy from a given amount of forage, it also means that they can digest food faster and make up the difference in efficiency by increasing their consumption rate. In practical effect, by eating greater quantities, horses can obtain adequate ] from poorer forage than can ]s such as cattle, surviving in areas where cattle will starve.<ref name=Budiansky31>Budiansky, p. 31</ref> In addition to consuming more fodder than cattle, horses' ] allow them to graze plants much closer to the ground. For these reasons, the number of horses has to be kept low enough to not exceed the ] of a given area.<ref name="NE Nevada BLM">{{cite web|title=Proposed Northeast Nevada Wild Horse Eco-Sanctuary|url=http://www.blm.gov/style/medialib/blm/nv/field_offices/elko_field_office/information/nepa/eiss/archives/nenvwh_ecosanctuary.Par.21472.File.dat/EcoSanctuaryScopingBrief.pdf|website=Bureau of Land Management, Elko District, Wells Field Office|accessdate=31 July 2015|pages=2–3}}</ref>

While the BLM rates horses by ] (AUM) to eat the same amount of forage as a cow-calf pair, 1.0, multiple studies of horse grazing patterns indicate that horses probably consume forage at a rate closer to 1.5 AUM.<ref name="National Research Council 207">National Research Council, ''Using Science'', p. 207</ref> Modern ] also recommends removing all livestock{{efn|"livestock" in this context includes sheep, cattle and horses.<ref name=Davies/>}} during the growing season to maximize recovery of the forage. Allowing livestock to graze year-round is not good for the range, and so mismanagement of feral herds can also degrade the range for the wildlife that shares the same area.<ref name=Davies>{{cite web|title=Implications of Longer Term Rest from Grazing in the Sagebrush Steppe| last1=Davies| first1=K.W.|last2=Vavra |first2=M.|last3=Schultz |first3=B.|last4=Rimbey |first4=M.|url=http://journals.lib.uidaho.edu/index.php/jra/article/view/15/58| website=Journal of Rangeland Applications|volume=1|date= 2014| accessdate=July 31, 2015}}</ref>

==Management and adoption==
{{see also|Free-roaming horse management in North America}}

The ] (BLM) is tasked with protecting, managing, and controlling wild horses and burros under the authority of the ] to ensure that healthy herds thrive on healthy rangelands and as multiple-use mission under the 1976 ]. Under the 1971 act, shooting or poisoning mustangs in the wild is illegal, and doing so can be prosecuted as a criminal felony.

Healthy adult mustangs have few natural predators aside from ]s,<ref name="SW">{{cite journal |url=http://wf2dnvr2.webfeat.org/|title=Influence of Predation by Mountain Lions on Numbers and Survivorship of a Feral Horse Population|author=John W. Turner, Jr. |author2=Michael L. Morrison |accessdate=2008-08-29 |year=2008 |journal=Southwestern Naturalist |volume=46 |number=2 |pages=183–190}}</ref> and to a lesser extent, the ] and the ].<ref name=CoalitionFAQ> Wild Mustang Coalition. Web site accessed December 9, 2010</ref> The mountain lion is well known for predation on feral horses, and the larger members of the species may hunt both horses and ]. They are very effective predators that kill by either leaping onto an animal or chasing it down in a sprint, then grabbing the prey with their front claws and biting the neck, either at the windpipe or the spine.<ref> ''Billings Gazette''. December 9, 2010. Accessed December 9, 2010.</ref>

Where there is natural balance of predators and prey, mustang numbers tend to stay in balance. However, in many areas, natural predators have been eliminated from the ecosystem.<ref name=CoalitionFAQ/>{{dead link|date=September 2015}} Without some form of population control, mustang ] can multiply rapidly, doubling as fast as every four years.<ref name=Mangum77/><!--76?--> To maintain population balance, (though some argue the purpose is to make room for cattle<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/wild.html |last=Moretti |first=Laura |title=Mestengo. Mustang. Misfit. America’s Disappearing Wild Horses |publisher=Wildhorsepreservation.com |accessdate=2010-08-09 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316130418/http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/wild.html |archivedate=March 16, 2010 }}</ref>) one of the BLM's key mandates under the 1971 law is to determine an appropriate management level (AML) of wild horses and burros in areas of public ]s dedicated specifically for them. To maintain population balance, one of the BLM's key mandates under the 1971 law is to determine an appropriate management level (AML) of wild horses and burros in areas of public ]s dedicated specifically for them.

Control of the population to within AML is achieved through a capture program. There are strict guidelines for techniques used to round up mustangs. One method uses a tamed horse, called a "Judas horse", which has been trained to lead wild horses into a pen or corral. Once the mustangs are herded into an area near the holding pen, the Judas horse is released. Its job is then to move to the head of the herd and lead them into a confined area.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://billingsgazette.com/news/state-and-regional/wyoming/article_aaad6ae6-98e2-11de-9717-001cc4c002e0.html |title=Controversial roundup of mustangs begins in Pryor Mountains|author=French, Brett |newspaper=Billings Gazette |date=September 3, 2009 |accessdate=2011-02-04}}</ref>

Most horses that are captured are offered for adoption to individuals or groups willing and able to provide humane, long-term care after payment of an adoption fee of at least $125.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/prog/wild_horse_and_burro/What_We_Do/wild_horse_and_burro0/how_to_adopt.html|publisher=U.S. Bureau of Land Management|title=How to Adopt a Wild Horse or Burro|accessdate=2011-07-04}}</ref> In order to prevent the later sale of mustangs as horse meat, adopted mustangs are still protected under the Act, and cannot be sold in the first year except when certain very specific criteria are met. As of 2010, nearly 225,000 mustangs have been adopted.<ref name=Mangum77/>


Because there is a much larger pool of captured horses than of prospective adoptive owners, a number of efforts have been made to reduce the number of horses in holding facilities. At present, there are about 34,000 mustangs in holding facilities and long-term grassland pastures.<ref name=Mangum77/> The BLM has publicly considered ] as a possible solution to overpopulation.<ref name="AP">{{cite web|url=http://www.letemrun.com/cnn.pdf |title="Plan to kill wild horses runs into trouble" Associated Press, July 7, 2008 |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> In January 2005, a controversial amendment was attached to an ] before the ] by former Senator ], dubbed the "Burns rider."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/burns_story.html |title=The Story Behind the Burns Amendment |publisher=Wildhorsepreservation.com |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> This modified the adoption program to allow the sale (with the result usually being slaughter) of captured horses that are "more than 10 years of age", or that were "offered unsuccessfully for adoption at least three times."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/burns_amend.html |title=Burns amendment |publisher=Wildhorsepreservation.com |date=2004-12-06 |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> <!--110th session of congress ended, material needs updating to be restored: In the ], legislation was introduced to have the rider repealed and the original language restored.<ref> Web page accessed June 24, 2008</ref> The matter passed the ] and as of mid-2008 still awaits action in the Senate.<ref>. Retrieved June 24, 2008.</ref> In early 2009, the House of Representatives passed H.R.1018, the Restore Our Mustangs Act (ROAM) ROAM amends the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act to expand criminal penalties and would ban the processing and the transport for processing of "a live or deceased wild free-roaming horse or burro."<ref> blog entry, September 29, 2009. Retrieved October 7, 2009.</ref> -->In 2009, ] ] proposed the creation of federal wild horse preserves in the midwest, where non-reproducing animals would be kept.<ref name=Mangum78>Mangum, ''The Mustang Dilemma'', p. 78</ref> Another approach to placing excess animals has been advanced by ], former wife of oil magnate ], who seeks to create a private sanctuary in northern Nevada.<ref name=Mangum78/> There are also increased efforts to assist with finding appropriate adoption homes. One example is a promotional competition, The Extreme Mustang Makeover, that gives trainers 100 days to gentle and train 100 mustangs, which are then adopted through an auction.<ref>http://www.extrememustangmakeover.com The Extreme Mustang Makeover</ref> Because there is a much larger pool of captured horses than of prospective adoptive owners, a number of efforts have been made to reduce the number of horses in holding facilities. At present, there are about 34,000 mustangs in holding facilities and long-term grassland pastures.<ref name=Mangum77/> The BLM has publicly considered ] as a possible solution to overpopulation.<ref name="AP">{{cite web|url=http://www.letemrun.com/cnn.pdf |title="Plan to kill wild horses runs into trouble" Associated Press, July 7, 2008 |format=PDF |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> In January 2005, a controversial amendment was attached to an ] before the ] by former Senator ], dubbed the "Burns rider."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/burns_story.html |title=The Story Behind the Burns Amendment |publisher=Wildhorsepreservation.com |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> This modified the adoption program to allow the sale (with the result usually being slaughter) of captured horses that are "more than 10 years of age", or that were "offered unsuccessfully for adoption at least three times."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wildhorsepreservation.com/resources/burns_amend.html |title=Burns amendment |publisher=Wildhorsepreservation.com |date=2004-12-06 |accessdate=2010-08-09}}</ref> <!--110th session of congress ended, material needs updating to be restored: In the ], legislation was introduced to have the rider repealed and the original language restored.<ref> Web page accessed June 24, 2008</ref> The matter passed the ] and as of mid-2008 still awaits action in the Senate.<ref>. Retrieved June 24, 2008.</ref> In early 2009, the House of Representatives passed H.R.1018, the Restore Our Mustangs Act (ROAM) ROAM amends the Wild Free-Roaming Horses and Burros Act to expand criminal penalties and would ban the processing and the transport for processing of "a live or deceased wild free-roaming horse or burro."<ref> blog entry, September 29, 2009. Retrieved October 7, 2009.</ref> -->In 2009, ] ] proposed the creation of federal wild horse preserves in the midwest, where non-reproducing animals would be kept.<ref name=Mangum78>Mangum, ''The Mustang Dilemma'', p. 78</ref> Another approach to placing excess animals has been advanced by ], former wife of oil magnate ], who seeks to create a private sanctuary in northern Nevada.<ref name=Mangum78/> There are also increased efforts to assist with finding appropriate adoption homes. One example is a promotional competition, The Extreme Mustang Makeover, that gives trainers 100 days to gentle and train 100 mustangs, which are then adopted through an auction.<ref>http://www.extrememustangmakeover.com The Extreme Mustang Makeover</ref>

Revision as of 09:31, 4 April 2017

fee of at least $125. In order to prevent the later sale of mustangs as horse meat, adopted mustangs are still protected under the Act, and cannot be sold in the first year except when certain very specific criteria are met. As of 2010, nearly 225,000 mustangs have been adopted.

Because there is a much larger pool of captured horses than of prospective adoptive owners, a number of efforts have been made to reduce the number of horses in holding facilities. At present, there are about 34,000 mustangs in holding facilities and long-term grassland pastures. The BLM has publicly considered euthanasia as a possible solution to overpopulation. In January 2005, a controversial amendment was attached to an appropriation bill before the United States Congress by former Senator Conrad Burns, dubbed the "Burns rider." This modified the adoption program to allow the sale (with the result usually being slaughter) of captured horses that are "more than 10 years of age", or that were "offered unsuccessfully for adoption at least three times." In 2009, Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar proposed the creation of federal wild horse preserves in the midwest, where non-reproducing animals would be kept. Another approach to placing excess animals has been advanced by Madeleine A. Pickens, former wife of oil magnate T. Boone Pickens, who seeks to create a private sanctuary in northern Nevada. There are also increased efforts to assist with finding appropriate adoption homes. One example is a promotional competition, The Extreme Mustang Makeover, that gives trainers 100 days to gentle and train 100 mustangs, which are then adopted through an auction.

Free-roaming mustangs are freeze branded on the left side of the neck by the BLM, using the International Alpha Angle System, a system of angles and alpha-symbols that cannot be altered. The brands begin with a symbol indicating the registering organization, in this case the U.S. Government, then two stacked figures indicating the individual horse's date of birth, then the individual registration number. Mustangs kept in sanctuaries are also marked on the left hip with four inch-high Arabic numerals that are also the last four digits of the freeze brand on the neck.

See also

Notes

References

  1. "How to Adopt a Wild Horse or Burro". U.S. Bureau of Land Management. Retrieved 2011-07-04.
  2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mangum77 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ""Plan to kill wild horses runs into trouble" Associated Press, July 7, 2008" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-08-09.
  4. "The Story Behind the Burns Amendment". Wildhorsepreservation.com. Retrieved 2010-08-09.
  5. "Burns amendment". Wildhorsepreservation.com. 2004-12-06. Retrieved 2010-08-09.
  6. ^ Mangum, The Mustang Dilemma, p. 78
  7. http://www.extrememustangmakeover.com The Extreme Mustang Makeover
  8. "Freezemarks". blm.gov. 29 August 2012. Retrieved 21 May 2015.

Sources

Further reading

  • Roe, Frank Gilbert (1974) . The Indian and the Horse. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
  • "Iberian Origins Of New World Horse Breeds". Journal of Heredity. 2005-12-21. Retrieved 2013-11-22.
  • Morin, Paula (2006) Honest Horses: Wild Horses of the Great Basin. Reno: University of Nevada Press
  • Nimmo, D. G. and Miller, K. K. (2007) Ecological and human dimensions of management of feral horses in Australia: A review. Wildlife Research, 34, 408–417
  • Text of Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act of 1971
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