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| {{Infobox Biography | |||
| | subject_name = Galileo Galilei | |||
| | image_name = Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg | |||
| | image_size = 250px | |||
| | image_caption = Portrait of Galileo Galilei by ]. | |||
| | date_of_birth = ] ] | |||
| | place_of_birth = ] | |||
| | date_of_death = ] ] | |||
| | place_of_death = ] | |||
| | occupation = | |||
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| }} | |||
| '''Galileo Galilei''' (] ] – ] ]) was an ] ], ], and ] who is closely associated with the ]. His achievements include improvements to the ], a variety of astronomical observations, the ] and ] laws of motion, and effective support for ]. According to ], Galileo has probably contributed more to the creation of the modern natural sciences than anybody else. He has been referred to as the "] of modern ]," as the "father of modern ]," and as the "father of ]." The work of Galileo is considered to be a significant break from that of ]. In addition, his conflict with the ] is taken as a major early example of the conflict of authority and ], particularly with ], in ]. | |||
| == | |||
| ==Biographical sketch== | |||
| == '''POOP''' == == | |||
| Galileo was born in ], in the ] region of ], on ] ]. He was the son of ], a mathematician and musician born in Florence in 1520, and Giulia Ammannati. Galileo was their first child out of seven (some people believe six). | |||
| Galileo was tutored from a very young age. Later, he attended the ] but was forced to cease his study there for financial reasons. However, he was offered a position on its faculty in 1589 and taught mathematics. Soon after, he moved to the ] and served on its faculty, teaching ], ], and ] until 1610. During this time he explored science and made many significant discoveries. | |||
| Although he was a devout ], Galileo fathered three children ]: two daughters and one son. All were the children of Galileo and ]. Because of their illegitimate birth, both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri at early ages. | |||
| * Virginia (1600–1634) who took the name ] upon entering a convent. She was Galileo's eldest child, the most beloved, and inherited her father's sharp mind. She died on ] ], and is currently buried with Galileo at the ]. | |||
| * Livia (b. 1601) took the name Suor Arcangela, she was sick for most of her life at the convent. | |||
| * Vincenzio (b. 1606) was later legitimized and married Sestilia Bocchineri. | |||
| In 1612, Galileo went to Rome, where he joined the ] and observed ]s. In 1612, opposition arose to the ] theories, which Galileo supported. In 1614, from the pulpit of Santa Maria Novella, Father ] (1574-1648) denounced Galileo's opinions on the motion of the Earth, judging them dangerous and close to ]. Galileo went to Rome to defend himself against these accusations, but, in 1616, ] personally handed Galileo an admonition enjoining him to neither advocate nor teach Copernican astronomy as religious doctrine. In 1622, Galileo wrote the '']'' (''Saggiatore''), which was approved and published in 1623. In 1624, he developed the first known example of the ]. In 1630, he returned to Rome to apply for a license to print the '']'', published in ] in 1632. In October of that year, however, he was ordered to appear before the ] in Rome. The court issued a sentence of condemnation and forced Galileo to abjure. As a result, he was confined in ] and eventually, in December 1633, he was allowed to retire to his villa in ]. In 1634, he was deprived of the support of his beloved daughter, Sister Maria Celeste (1600-1634), who died prematurely. In 1638, almost totally blind, Galileo published his final book, '']'', in ]. He died in ] on ], ], in the company of his student ]. | |||
| ==Scientific methods== | |||
| To the pantheon of the scientific revolution, Galileo Galilei takes a high position because of his pioneering use of quantitative experiments with results analyzed mathematically. There was no tradition of such methods in European thought at that time; the great experimentalist who immediately preceded Galileo, ], did not use a quantitative approach. However, Galileo's father, ], a ] and music theorist, had performed experiments in which he discovered what may be the oldest known non-linear relation in physics, between the tension and the pitch of a stretched string. These observations were in the ] tradition of music, well-known to instrument makers, that whole-number mathematical relationships define harmoneous (pleasing) scales. Thus, a limited form of mathematics had long made its way into physical science at the point of music, and young Galileo was in a position to see his own father's observations generalize that relationship still further. Galileo himself would find credit as the first to plainly state that the laws of nature are mathematical, and (as he said) the idea that "the language of God is mathematics." This was a sharp break with earlier traditions of science: up until this point, following ], ], not ] had been seen to be the basic intellectual tool of science. | |||
| Galileo also contributed to the rejection of blind allegiance to authority (like the Church) or other thinkers (such as ]) in matters of science and to the separation of science from ] or religion. These are the primary justifications for his description as the "father of science". | |||
| In the 20th century some authorities, in particular the distinguished French ] ], challenged the validity of Galileo's experiments. The experiments reported in '']'' to determine the law of acceleration of falling bodies, for instance, required accurate measurements of time, which appeared to be impossible with the technology of the 1600s. According to Koyré, the law was arrived at ], and the experiments were merely illustrative thought experiments. | |||
| Later research, however, has validated the experiments. The experiments on falling bodies (actually rolling balls) were replicated using the methods described by Galileo (Settle, 1961), and the precision of the results were consistent with Galileo's report. Later research into Galileo's unpublished working papers from as early as 1604 clearly showed the validity of the experiments and even indicated the particular results that led to the time-squared law (Drake, 1973). | |||
| Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. For example: | |||
| * He understood the mathematical parabola, both in terms of ]s and in terms of the square-law. | |||
| * He asserted that the parabola was the theoretically-ideal trajectory, in the absence of friction and other disturbances. More remarkably, he stated limits to the validity of this theory, saying that it was appropriate for laboratory-scale and battlefield-scale trajectories. He went on to point out, on theoretical physics grounds, that the parabola could not possibly be correct if the trajectory were so large as to be comparable to the size of the planet. ('']'', page 274 of the National Edition) | |||
| * He recognized that his experimental data would never agree exactly with any theoretical or mathematical form, because of the imprecision of measurement, irreducible friction, and other factors. | |||
| Due to the merit of his works, Einstein called Galileo the "father of modern science." | |||
| ==Astronomy== | |||
| ===Contributions=== | |||
| The belief that Galileo invented the ] is a common misconception. However, he improved the device, was one of the first to use it to observe the sky, and for a time was one of very few people able to construct one good enough for that purpose. Based only on sketchy descriptions of the telescope, invented in the ] in 1608, Galileo made one with about 3x magnification, and then made improved models up to about 32x. On ] ], he demonstrated his first telescope to ] lawmakers. His work on the device also made for a profitable sideline with merchants who found it useful for their shipping businesses. He published his initial telescopic astronomical ]s in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled '']'' (''Sidereal Messenger''). | |||
| ] of ]. This observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo published a full description in '']'' in March 1610.]] | |||
| On ] ] Galileo discovered three of ]'s four largest ] (moons): ], ], and ]. He discovered ] four nights later. He noted that the moons would appear and disappear periodically, an observation which he attributed to their movement behind Jupiter, and concluded that they were ]ing the planet. He made additional observations of them in 1620. Later astronomers overruled Galileo's naming of these objects, changing his originally named ''Medicean stars'' (after his patrons, the ]) to ]. The demonstration that a planet had smaller planets orbiting it was problematic for the orderly, comprehensive picture of the ] of the universe, in which everything circled around the ]. | |||
| From September 1610 Galileo observed that ] exhibited a full set of ]s similar to that of the ]. The ] of the solar system developed by ] predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the ] would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. In contrast, the ] of ] predicted that only crescent and new phases would be seen, since Venus was thought to remain between the Sun and Earth during its orbit around the Earth. Galileo's observations of the phases of Venus proved that it orbited the Sun and lent support to (but did not prove) the ]. | |||
| Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe ]s, although there is evidence that ] astronomers had done so long before. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of ], which formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of ]. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as assumed in the older philosophy. And the annual variations in their motions, first noticed by ], presented great difficulties for both the geocentric system and that of ]. A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots led Galileo to a long and bitter feud with ]; in fact, there is little doubt that both of them were beaten by ] and his son ]. | |||
| Galileo was also the first to report lunar ]s and ]s, whose existence he deduced from the patterns of light and shadow on the Moon's surface. He even estimated the mountains' heights from these observations. This led him to the conclusion that the Moon was "rough and uneven, and just like the surface of the Earth itself," rather than a perfect ] as Aristotle had claimed. | |||
| Galileo observed the ], previously believed to be ], and found it to be a multitude of ]s packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He also located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye. | |||
| Galileo observed the planet ] in 1612, but did not realize that it was a planet and took no particular notice of it. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars. | |||
| ===Modern claims of scientific errors and misconduct=== | |||
| Although Galileo is generally considered one of the first modern scientists, as evidenced by his position in the sunspot controversy, he is often said to have arrogantly considered himself to be the sole proprietor of the discoveries in astronomy.{{fact}} | |||
| Furthermore, he never accepted ] elliptical orbits for the planets, holding to the circular orbits of Copernicus{{fact}}, which still employed ] to account for irregularities in planetary motions. (The circle was considered the "perfect" shape.) For this reason, Galileo's "heliocentric" theory is incorrect, since there is, by definition, no geometric "center" to an elliptical orbit{{fact}}. (Nor, strictly speaking, do planets move in elliptical orbits{{fact}}; as they gravitationally interact with one another, they constantly change paths.) | |||
| Galileo attributed ]s to ], despite his great knowledge of the ideas of relative motion and Kepler's better theories using the ] as the cause. (Neither of these great scientists, however, had a workable physical theory of tides{{fact}}; this had to wait for the work of Newton.) Galileo stated in his ''Dialogue'' that, if the Earth spins on its axis and is traveling at a certain speed around the Sun, parts of the Earth must travel "faster" at night and "slower" during the day. This is true in the Sun's frame of reference; but it is by no means adequate to explain the tides.{{fact}} | |||
| Since this theory was not based on any real scientific observations{{fact}}, many commentators believe Galileo developed the position to justify his own opinion{{fact}}. If his theory were correct, there would be only one high tide per day at noon. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware of this inadequacy because there are two daily high tides at ] instead of one, and they travel around the clock. But Galileo dismissed this anomaly as the result of several secondary causes, including the shape of the sea, its depth, and other things.{{fact}} Against the assertion that Galileo was deceptive in making these arguments, ] developed the opinion that Galileo developed his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically out of a desire for physical proof of the motion of the Earth (Einstein, 1952). | |||
| ] argues for the case of Galileo's scientific misconduct in his book '''']''''. Others argue that it is unfair to hold him to modern "scientific standards" (mathematical theory supported by evidential trial) with which he himself was only beginning to experiment. By the standards of his own time, Galileo was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation, as contrasted with a few notable men who refused even to look through their telescopes at celestial objects for fear of what they might see. It may also be argued that all modern scientists (not to mention other professions) filter their observations and beliefs through pre-conceived notions. Although this may appear "dishonest," some of it is actually required for the scientific process to function (see ]). Galileo's perceived dishonesty, then, is not abnormal. | |||
| ==Physics== | |||
| Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and ], was a precursor of the ] developed by ]. He was a pioneer, at least in the European tradition, in performing rigorous experiments and insisting on a ] description of the laws of nature. | |||
| One of the most famous stories about Galileo is that he dropped ]s of different ] from the ] to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass (excluding the limited effect of air resistance). This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. Though the story of the tower first appeared in a biography by Galileo's pupil ], it is not now generally accepted as true. Moreover, ] had reached the same scientific conclusion years before, in 1553. However, Galileo did perform ]s involving rolling balls down ]s, one of wich is in florence, called the bell and ball experiment, which proved the same thing: falling or rolling objects (rolling is a slower version of falling, as long as the distribution of mass in the objects is the same) are ] independently of their mass. (Although Galileo was the first person to demonstrate this via experiment, he was not — contrary to popular belief — the first to argue that it was true. ] had argued this centuries earlier: see also the ]). | |||
| He determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration: the total distance covered, starting from rest, is proportional to the square of the time (<math>d \propto t^2</math>). He expressed this law using geometrical constructions and mathematically-precise words, adhering to the standards of the day. (It remained for others to re-express the law in algebraic terms.) He also concluded that objects ''retain their velocity'' unless a ] — often ] — acts upon them, refuting the generally accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects "naturally" slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (again this was not a new idea: ] had proposed it centuries earlier, as had ], and according to ], ] had proposed it centuries before either of them, but this was the first time that it had been mathematically expressed). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: "A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed." This principle was incorporated into ] (first law). | |||
| ] | |||
| Galileo also noted that a ]'s swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the ]. The story goes that he came to this conclusion by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse to time it. While Galileo believed this equality of period to be exact, it is only an approximation appropriate to small amplitudes. It is good enough to regulate a ], however, as Galileo may have been the first to realize. (See ] below) | |||
| In the early 1600s, Galileo and an assistant tried to measure the ]. They stood on different hilltops, each holding a shuttered ]. Galileo would open his shutter, and, as soon as his assistant saw the flash, he would open his shutter. At a distance of less than a mile, Galileo could detect no delay in the round-trip time greater than when he and the assistant were only a few yards apart. While he could reach no conclusion on whether light propagated instantaneously, he recognized that the distance between the hilltops was perhaps too small for a good measurement. | |||
| Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with being one of the first to understand sound frequency. After scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of sound to the spacing of the chisel's skips (frequency). | |||
| In his 1632 ] Galileo presented a physical theory to account for ]s, based on the motion of the Earth. If correct, this would have been a strong argument for the reality of the Earth's motion. (The original title for the book, in fact, described it as a dialogue on the tides; the reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition.) His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the negligible tides halfway along the ] compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. Kepler and others correctly associated the Moon with an influence over the tides, based on empirical data; a proper physical theory of the tides, however, was not available until Newton. | |||
| Galileo also put forward ], that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and is the infinite speed of light approximation to ]'s ]. | |||
| ==Mathematics== | |||
| While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analyses and proofs relied heavily on the ] theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of ]. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by ] and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of ]. | |||
| Galileo produced one piece of original and even prophetic work in mathematics: ], which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares. Such seeming contradictions were brought under control 250 years later in the work of ]. | |||
| ==Technology== | |||
| ] | |||
| Galileo made a few contributions to what we now call ] as distinct from pure physics, and suggested others. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as ''techne'' or useful knowledge, as opposed to ''episteme'', or philosophical investigation into the causes of things. | |||
| In 1595–1598, Galileo devised and improved a "Geometric and Military Compass" suitable for use by ] and ]s. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by ] and ]. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating ]s accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of ] for ]s of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular ], computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations. | |||
| About 1606–1607 (or possibly ]), Galileo made a ], using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube. | |||
| In 1609, Galileo was among the first to use a ] as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons. | |||
| In 1610, he used a telescope as a compound ], and he made improved microscopes in 1623 and after. This appears to be the ] clearly documented use of the compound microscope. | |||
| In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of ]. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by ] in 1681 and was later used extensively for large land surveys; this method, for example, was used by ]. (For sea navigation, where delicate telescopic observations were more difficult, the longitude problem eventually required development of a practical portable ], such as that of ]). | |||
| In his last year, when totally ], he designed an ] mechanism for a pendulum clock. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by ] in the 1650s. | |||
| He created ] of various ]s, such as a ] and ] combination to reflect light throughout a building, an automatic ] picker, a pocket comb that doubled as an eating utensil, and what appears to be a ]. | |||
| ==Church controversy== | |||
| :''Main article: ]'' | |||
| ] | |||
| Psalms 93:1 and Psalm 104:5, and Ecclesiastes 1:5 speak of the (in some sense) "firm" and "established" position of the earth. Galileo defended ], and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took ] position on Scripture: not to take every passage too literally, particularly when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the earth's rotation which gives the impression of the sun in motion across the sky. | |||
| By 1616 the attacks on Galileo had reached a head, and he went to ] to try to persuade the Church authorities not to ban his ideas. In the end, ], acting on directives from the Inquisition , delivered him an order not to "hold or defend" the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun stands still at the center. The decree did not prevent Galileo from hypothesizing heliocentrism. For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy. | |||
| He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of ] as ] in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, ], was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the ] and papal permission. | |||
| Pope Urban VIII personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberate, Simplicius, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'', was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. This fact made ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'' appear as an advocacy book; an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defense of the Copernican theory. To add insult to injury, Galileo put the words of Pope Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicius. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the Pope did not take the public ridicule lightly, nor the blatant bias. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the Pope, and was called to Rome to explain himself. | |||
| With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'', Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. The sentence of the Inquisition was in three essential parts: | |||
| * Galileo was required to ] his heliocentric ideas; the idea that the Sun is stationary was condemned as "formally heretical". | |||
| * He was ordered imprisoned; the sentence was later commuted to house arrest. | |||
| * His offending ''Dialogue'' was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial and not enforced, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future. | |||
| After a period with the friendly ] (the Archbishop of ]), Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at ] near Florence, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest when he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, ]. This book has received high praise from both ] and ]. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called, the "father of modern physics." | |||
| Galileo was reburied on ] ground at ] in 1737. He was formally rehabilitated in 1741, when ] authorized the publication of Galileo's complete scientific works (a censored edition had been published in 1718), and in 1758 the general prohibition against heliocentrism was removed from the '']''. On ] ], ] expressed regret for how the Galileo affair was handled, as the result of a study conducted by the ]. | |||
| In modern scientific terms, we consider Galileo's views on heliocentricity to be no fundamental advance. The heliocenticity model that Galileo presented was no more accurate than the ] model, the main competing theory at the time. Stellar ], the first evidence from outside the solar system that the Earth does indeed move, would be not observed until the 1838 (Consolmagno 150-152). Today, we know the Sun is no more the center of the universe than the Earth is, as it has its own orbit in the ], just like the Galilean moons of Jupiter have orbits around Jupiter while Jupiter orbits the Sun. | |||
| ==Galileo's writings== | |||
| ], Florence]] | |||
| * '']'' 1610 ] (in ], '']'') | |||
| * '']'' 1613 | |||
| * '']'' 1615 | |||
| * '']'' (In Italian, ''Il Saggiatore'') 1623 | |||
| * '']'' 1632 (in Italian, ''Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo'') | |||
| * '']'' 1638 ] (Louis Elsevier) ] (in ], ''Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno a due nuoue scienze'' Leida, Appresso gli Elsevirii 1638) | |||
| ==Writings on Galileo== | |||
| * '']'', an opera by ] | |||
| * '']'' a play by ] | |||
| * '']'' a play by ] | |||
| * ''], a memoir by ] | |||
| * ''], By ] Copyright 1939 Putnam Sons - Translated from the Hungarian Author by Paul Tabor | |||
| ==Named after Galileo== | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] in the Italian city of ] | |||
| * ] (]) | |||
| * The ] to ] | |||
| * The ] of ] | |||
| * ] on ] | |||
| * ] in ] | |||
| * ] in ] | |||
| * ] on ] | |||
| * ] on ] | |||
| * ] ] (named on the occasion of the 300th anniversary of the discovery of the Galilean moons) | |||
| * ] at ] | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| <div class="references-small"> | |||
| * Biagioli, Mario (1993). ''Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. | |||
| *Consolmagno, Guy; Schaefer, Marta (1994). ''Worlds Apart, A Textbook in Planetary Science''. Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-964131-9. | |||
| * Drake, Stillman (1953). ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems''. Berkeley: University of California Press. | |||
| * Drake, Stillman (1957). ''Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo''. New York: Doubleday & Company. ISBN 0-385-09239-3 | |||
| * Drake, Stillman (1973). "Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Free Fall". ''Scientific American'' v. 228, #5, pp. 84-92. | |||
| * Drake, Stillman (1978). ''Galileo At Work''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5 | |||
| * Einstein, Albert (1952). Foreword to (Drake, 1953) | |||
| * Fantoli, Annibale (2003). ''Galileo — For Copernicanism and the Church'', third English edition. Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN 88-209-7427-4 | |||
| * Fillmore, Charles (1931, 17th printing July 2004). ''Metaphysical Bible Dictionary''. Unity Village, Missouri: Unity House. ISBN 0-87159-067-0 | |||
| * Hellman, Hal (1988). ''Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever''. New York: Wiley. | |||
| * Lessl, Thomas, "". ''New Oxford Review'', 27-33 (June 2000). | |||
| * Newall, Paula (2004). | |||
| * Remmert, Volker R. (2005). ''Galileo, God, and Mathematics''. In: Bergmans, Luc/Koetsier, Teun (eds.): ''Mathematics and the Divine. A Historical Study'', Amsterdam et al., 347-360. | |||
| * Settle, Thomas B. (1961). "An Experiment in the History of Science". ''Science'', 133:19-23. | |||
| * Sobel, Dava. (1999). ''Galileo's Daughter''. ISBN 0-14-028055-3 | |||
| * White, Andrew Dickson (1898). ''''. New York 1898. | |||
| * Favaro, Antonio (1847-1922). "''''. ("''The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition''", 20 vols.), ]: Barbera, 1890-1909; reprinted 1929-1939 and 1964–1966. ISBN 88-09-20881-1. from ]. Brief overview of "''Le Opere''" @ Finns Fine Books, and here | |||
| *]. ''The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe'' 1958. | |||
| *Grisar, Hartmann, S.J., Professor of Church history at the University of Innsbruck (1882). ''Historisch theologische Untersuchungen über die Urtheile Römischen Congegationen im Galileiprocess. ( Historico-theological Discussions concerning the Decisions of the Roman Congregations in the case of Galileo.)'', Regensburg: Pustet. ISBN 0-7905-6229-4 LCC: QB36 Edition: '''(microfiche)''' | |||
| Langford, Jerome, Galileo, Science and the Church, third edition, University of Michigan Press, 1992 Reviewed here (1883) | |||
| *Allan-Olney, Mary. ''The private Life of Galileo: Compiled primarily from his correspondence and that of his eldest daughter, Sister Maria Celeste'', (nun in the Franciscan convent of St. Matthew, in Arcetri), 1870, London : Macmillan. | |||
| *Von Gebler, Karl. '' '', London, C.K. Paul & co., 1879; Merrick, N.Y. : Richwood Pub. Co., 1977. ISBN 0-915172-11-9 from ] | |||
| </div> | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wikiquote}} | |||
| {{Commons|Galileo Galilei}} | |||
| * in the ] | |||
| * with links to related objects conserved in the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy | |||
| * including videos | |||
| * - online digital edition with transcriptions | |||
| * an educational interactive application to explore online the history and uses of Galileo's compass | |||
| * - an online digital archive of Galilean resources (including bibliographies, biographies, digital books, itineraries, manuscripts, experiments, documents, iconography, and more | |||
| * | |||
| * by Paula Newall. | |||
| * | |||
| * at ] | |||
| * Modern recreation of what Galileo might have seen; includes directions for using Galileo//Thek@ website | |||
| * at ] | |||
| * | |||
| * -- Reviews of two books on Galileo | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * , an educational site dedicated to Galileo | |||
| * , an Italian site dedicated to free e-texts | |||
| * found online on New Advent, an orthodox Catholic website | |||
| * article at Catholic League | |||
| * | |||
| * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Galileo}} | |||
| * (nr 5 in this particular list) | |||
| * | |||
| * {{it}} '''' (MetaLibri Digital Library) | |||
| * : text with concordances and frequency list | |||
| {{featured article}} | |||
| <!-- Categorization --> | |||
| <!-- FA links --> | |||
| <!-- Localization --> | |||
| {{Persondata | |||
| |NAME=Galilei, Galileo | |||
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| |SHORT DESCRIPTION=] ], ], ], and ] | |||
| |DATE OF BIRTH=] ] | |||
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| {{Link FA|ca}} | |||
| {{Link FA|de}} | |||
| {{Link FA|fr}} | |||
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Revision as of 15:53, 13 October 2006
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