| Revision as of 18:20, 29 November 2017 view sourceC.J. Griffin (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers20,967 edits →Environmental impact: wikilink← Previous edit | Revision as of 22:46, 30 November 2017 view source 205.215.175.125 (talk) ←Replaced content with '{{Other uses}} {i like chips chips are awome'Tag: blankingNext edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Other uses}} | {{Other uses}} | ||
| {i like chips | |||
| {{Use mdy dates|date=July 2014}} | |||
| chips are awome | |||
| ] | |||
| '''Meat''' is animal ] that is eaten as ].<ref name="Lawrie">{{cite book|last=Lawrie|first=R. A.|author2=Ledward, D. A.|title=Lawrie’s meat science|publisher=Woodhead Publishing Limited|location=Cambridge|year=2006|edition=7th|isbn=978-1-84569-159-2}}</ref>{{rp|1}} Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times. The advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale with the aid of ]. | |||
| Meat is mainly composed of water, ], and ]. It is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will ] within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by ] and ]. | |||
| Most often, ''meat'' refers to ] and associated ] and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|1}} ''Meat'' is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of ]ian species (pigs, cattle, lambs, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of ], other ], ], ], or other animals.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/meat|title=Meat definition and meaning {{!}} Collins English Dictionary|website=www.collinsdictionary.com|language=en|access-date=2017-06-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meat|title=Definition of MEAT|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en|access-date=2017-06-16}}</ref> | |||
| == Etymology == | |||
| The word ''meat'' comes from the ] word ''mete'', which referred to food in general. The term is related to ''mad'' in ], ''mat'' in ] and ], and ''matur'' in ] and ], which also mean 'food'. The word ''mete'' also exists in ] (and to a lesser extent, modern ]) to denote important food, differentiating it from ''swiets'' (sweets) and ''dierfied'' (animal feed). | |||
| == History == | |||
| {{See also|History of agriculture}} | |||
| ] evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|2}} Early ]s depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as ] and ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|2}} | |||
| The ] of animals, of which we have evidence dating back to the end of the ] (c. 10,000 BCE),<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|2}} allowed the systematic production of meat and the ] of animals with a view to improving meat production.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|2}} The animals which are now the principal sources of meat were domesticated in conjunction with the development of early civilizations: | |||
| ]]] | |||
| * ], originating from western Asia, were domesticated with the help of dogs prior to the establishment of settled ], likely as early as the 8th millennium BCE.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|3}} Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient ] and ] by 3500–3000 BCE.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|3}} Today, more than 200 ] exist. | |||
| * ] were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BCE,<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|5}} and several breeds were established by 2500 BCE.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|6}} Modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups '']'' (European cattle) and '']'' (zebu), both descended from the now-extinct ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|5}} The breeding of ], cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes, began in the middle of the 18th century.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|7}} | |||
| ] bull, a breed of cattle frequently used in beef production.]] | |||
| * ]s, which are descended from ]s, are known to have existed about 2500 BCE in modern-day Hungary and in ]; earlier pottery from ] and Egypt depicts wild pigs.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|8}} ] sausages and ]s were of great commercial importance in ] times.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|8}} Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for specific meat products.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|9}} | |||
| Other animals are or have been raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on factors such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, both between countries and within a given country.<ref>Mark Gehlhar and William Coyle, , Chapter 1 in , edited by Anita Regmi, May 2001. USDA Economic Research Service.</ref> | |||
| * ] are commonly eaten in France,<ref>Chrisafis, Angelique ''The Guardian'', June 15, 2007, London.</ref> Italy, Germany and ], among other countries.<ref>Alan Davidson (2006). Tom Jaine, Jane Davidson and Helen Saberi. ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Food.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-280681-5}}, pp. 387-388</ref> Horses and other large ]s such as ] were hunted during the late ] in western Europe.<ref>Turner, E. 2005. "Results of a recent analysis of horse remains dating to the Magdalenian period at Solutre, France," pp 70-89. In Mashkour, M (ed.). ''Equids in Time and Space.'' Oxford: Oxbow</ref> | |||
| * ] are consumed in ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm|title=BBC NEWS – Programmes – From Our Own Correspondent – China's taste for the exotic|work=bbc.co.uk}}</ref> ]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Podberscek |first1=A. L. |title=Good to Pet and Eat: The Keeping and Consuming of Dogs and Cats in South Korea |doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.2009.01616.x |journal=Journal of Social Issues |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=615–632 |year=2009 |url=http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/265_podberscek.pdf |format=PDF |pmid= |pmc= |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719054520/http://www.animalsandsociety.org/assets/265_podberscek.pdf |archivedate=July 19, 2011 |df= }}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm|title=BBC NEWS – Asia-Pacific – Vietnam's dog meat tradition|work=bbc.co.uk}}</ref> Dogs are also occasionally eaten in the ] regions.<ref></ref> Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various part of the world, such as ],<ref>Schwabe, Calvin W. (1979). Unmentionable cuisine. University of Virginia Press. p. 168. {{ISBN|978-0-8139-1162-5}}. https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC.</ref> Japan,<ref>Hanley, Susan B. (1999). Everyday things in premodern Japan: the hidden legacy of material culture. University of California Press. p. 66. {{ISBN|0-520-21812-4}}. https://books.google.com/?id=f7E5a9CIploC&pg=PA66&dq=dog#v=onepage&q=dog.</ref> ]<ref>Schwabe, Calvin W. (1979). Unmentionable cuisine. University of Virginia Press. p. 173. {{ISBN|978-0-8139-1162-5}}. https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC.</ref> and ].<ref>Alan Davidson (2006). Tom Jaine, Jane Davidson and Helen Saberi. ed. ''The Oxford Companion to Food.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-280681-5}}, pp. 491</ref> | |||
| * ] are consumed in Southern China, ]<ref>{{cite web|title=Carapulcra de gato y gato a la parrilla sirven en fiesta patronal |url=http://www.cronicaviva.com.pe/index.php/regional/costa/3749-carapulcra-de-gato-y-gato-a-la-parilla-sirven-en-fiesta-patronal- |work=Cronica Viva |accessdate=December 1, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101117142920/http://cronicaviva.com.pe/index.php/regional/costa/3749-carapulcra-de-gato-y-gato-a-la-parilla-sirven-en-fiesta-patronal- |archivedate=November 17, 2010 }}</ref> and sometimes also in ].<ref>{{cite book|author=Jerry Hopkins|title=Extreme Cuisine: The Weird and Wonderful Foods That People Eat|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4ZPTAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25&dq=northern+italy+eat+cats&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwik2qSL88LPAhXGGh4KHYk9ApkQ6AEIIjAB#v=onepage&q=northern%20italy%20eat%20cats&f=false|date=15 May 2004|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-1-4629-0472-3|pages=25–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Jerry Hopkins|title=Strange Foods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WXtzBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&dq=northern+italy+eat+cats&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwik2qSL88LPAhXGGh4KHYk9ApkQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=northern%20italy%20eat%20cats&f=false|date=23 December 2014|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-1-4629-1676-4|pages=8–}}</ref> | |||
| * ]s are raised for their flesh in the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=A Guinea Pig for All Times and Seasons|url=http://www.economist.com/node/2926169|work=The Economist|accessdate=December 1, 2011|date=July 15, 2004}}</ref> | |||
| * ]s and ]s are hunted, partly for their flesh, in Japan, ], ], Canada, the ], ], ], ] and by two small communities in ].<ref>{{cite web|title=WHALING IN LAMALERA-FLORES|url=http://www.profauna.net/sites/default/files/downloads/publication-2005-whaling-in-lamalera.pdf|accessdate=April 10, 2013}}</ref> | |||
| Modern agriculture employs a number of techniques, such as ], to speed ] by breeding animals to rapidly acquire the qualities desired by meat producers.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|10}} For instance, in the wake of well-publicised health concerns associated with ]s in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|10}} Methods of ] aimed at improving the meat production qualities of animals are now also becoming available.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|14}} | |||
| ] in North America]] | |||
| Even though it is a very old industry, meat production continues to be shaped strongly by the evolving demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, which are better suited to producing such cuts.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|11}} Even more animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, especially the more agile and mobile species, whose muscles tend to be developed better than those of cattle, sheep or pigs.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|11}} Examples are the various ] species, the ], ] and ],<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|11ff}} as well as non-mammals, such as the ], ] and ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|13}} Another important trend in contemporary meat production is ] which, while providing no ] benefit to meat so produced,<ref>Lawrie, 11, citing ''Ollson, V., Andersson, I., Ranson, K., Lundström, K. (2003) Meat Sci. 64, 287'' and noting also that organically reared pigs "compare unfavourably" with conventionally reared ones "in some respects."</ref> meets an increasing demand for organic meat.<ref>http://www.foodnavigator.com/Market-Trends/Demand-for-organic-meat-on-the-rise-says-Soil-Association</ref> | |||
| ==Consumption== | |||
| Meat consumption varies worldwide, depending on cultural or religious preferences, as well as economic conditions. ] choose not to eat meat because of ethical, economic, environmental, religious or health concerns that are associated with meat production and consumption. | |||
| {{Multiple image |direction=vertical |align=right |width=300|image1=Meat Atlas 2014 -- Meat Consumption in industrialised countries.png|image2=Meat Atlas 2014 meat consumption developing countries.png |caption1=While meat consumption in most industrialized countries is at high, stable levels...<ref>] 2014 – Facts and figures about the animals we eat, page 46, download as </ref>|caption2=... meat consumption in emerging economies is on the rise.<ref>] 2014 – Facts and figures about the animals we eat, page 48, download as </ref>}} | |||
| According to the analysis of the FAO the overall consumption for ] between 1990 and 2009 has dramatically increased. For example, poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. However, on the contrary, bovine meat has decreased from {{convert|10.4|kg}}/capita in 1990 to {{convert|9.6|kg}}/capita in 2009.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Meat consumption: Trends and quality matters|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0309174014001752|journal = Meat Science|date = 2014-11-01|pages = 561–568|volume = 98|series = Meat Science, Sustainability & Innovation: ‘60th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology 17–22 August 2014, Punta del Este, Uruguay’|issue = 3|doi = 10.1016/j.meatsci.2014.06.007|pmid = 25060586|first = Maeve|last = Henchion|first2 = Mary|last2 = McCarthy|first3 = Virginia C.|last3 = Resconi|first4 = Declan|last4 = Troy}}</ref> | |||
| {{further information|List of countries by meat consumption}} | |||
| == Growth and development of meat animals == | |||
| ] has identified several factors bearing on the growth and development of meat in animals. | |||
| === Genetics === | |||
| {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px" | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Trait | |||
| ! Heritability<ref>Table adapted from Lawrie, 17.</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| | Reproductive efficiency | |||
| | 2–10% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Meat quality | |||
| | 15–30% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Growth | |||
| | 20–40% | |||
| |- | |||
| | Muscle/fat ratio | |||
| | 40–60% | |||
| |} | |||
| Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree (see the adjacent table) and can thus be selected for by ]. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by ] which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|18}} One such trait is ]; another is the doppelender or "]" condition, which causes ] and thereby increases the animal's commercial value.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|18}} ] continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the ] and, through it, meat growth and quality.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|19}} | |||
| ] techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of ]s coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|21}} To enable such manipulation, research is ongoing ({{as of|2006|lc=on}}) to ] of sheep, cattle and pigs.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|21}} Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a ] ] has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the ] of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibres have been genetically altered.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|22}} | |||
| Experimental ] of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. The multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits can thus be anticipated,<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|22}} although this is not yet practical on a commercial scale. | |||
| === Environment === | |||
| Heat regulation in ] is of great economic significance, because mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to retard it.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|22}} Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|23}} Static ]s, for reasons still unknown, also retard animal development.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|23}} | |||
| === Nutrition === | |||
| The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's ''plane of nutrition'', i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree, however, about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|25}} | |||
| The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is also an important factor regulating animal growth.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|26}} ]s, which may digest ], are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|27}} Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive (see also '']'' below), several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with ] to protect ]s during their passage through the ], the recycling of ] by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the partial conversion of ] ]s to protein through microbial action.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|30}} | |||
| In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial ]s or ]s, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|29}} In Australia, for instance, where the soil contains limited ], cattle are being fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|28}} Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was at length found to be a result of ] deficiency in the soil.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|29}} Plant ]s are also a risk to grazing animals; for instance, ], found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|29}} Certain man-made ]s such as ] and some ] residues present a particular hazard due to their tendency to ] in meat, potentially poisoning consumers.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|30}} | |||
| === Human intervention === | |||
| Meat producers may seek to improve the ] of female animals through the administration of ] or ]-inducing ]s.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|31}} In pig production, ] infertility is a common problem — possibly due to excessive fatness.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|32}} No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|32}} ] is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|33}} | |||
| ]s, particularly ] agents such as ]s, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|33}} This practice has given rise to the ], an international trade dispute. It may also decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive,<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|35}} and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|36ff}} Where ] is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects are also counteracted by the administration of hormones.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|33}} | |||
| ]s may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|39}} The feeding of ] to certain animals has been shown to improve growth rates also.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|39}} This practice is particularly prevalent in the USA, but has been banned in the ], partly because it causes ] in ]ic microorganisms.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|39}} | |||
| == Biochemical composition == | |||
| Numerous aspects of the biochemical composition of meat vary in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|94–126}} Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|126}} | |||
| === Main constituents === | |||
| Adult mammalian ] flesh consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent ]s and 2.3 percent other soluble non-protein substances. These include ] compounds, such as ]s, and inorganic substances such as minerals.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|76}} | |||
| Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (]ic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (] proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass).<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|75}} There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|77}} Most of them – the glycolytic ]s – are involved in the ], i.e., the conversion of stored energy into muscle power.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|78}} The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, ] and ],<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|79}} are responsible for the muscle's overall structure. The remaining protein mass consists of ] (] and ]) as well as ] tissue.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|79}} | |||
| Fat in meat can be either ], used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (]s of ] with ]s),<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|82}} or intramuscular fat, which contains considerable quantities of ]s and of ] constituents such as ].<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|82}} | |||
| === Red and white meat === | |||
| ] | |||
| Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of ] in muscle fibre. When myoglobin is exposed to ], reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type: ] contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest,<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|93}} while ] contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|93}} | |||
| Generally, the meat of adult mammals such as ], ], ], and ] is considered red, while ] and ] breast meat is considered white.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.fitday.com/fitness-articles/nutrition/healthy-eating/white-meat-vs-red-meat.html|title=White Meat vs. Red Meat / Nutrition / Healthy Eating|access-date=2017-04-25|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| == Nutritional information == | |||
| {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:1em;" | |||
| |+'''Typical nutritional content of <br />110 grams (4 oz or .25 lb) of meat''' | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="background:#aaf; text-align:center;"| '''Source''' | |||
| ! style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"| ''']s''' | |||
| ! style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"| ''']''' | |||
| ! style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"| ''']''' | |||
| ! style="background:#ddf; text-align:center;"| ''']''' | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="background:#ccf; text-align:left;"| fish. | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 110–140 | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 20–25 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 0 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 1–5 g | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="background:#ccf; text-align:left;"| chicken breast | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 160 | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 28 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 0 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 7 g | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="background:#ccf; text-align:left;"| lamb | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 250 | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 30 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 0 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 14 g | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="background:#ccf; text-align:left;"| steak (beef top round) | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 210 | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 36 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 0 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 7 g | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="background:#ccf; text-align:left;"| steak (beef T-bone) | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 450 | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 25 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 0 g | |||
| | style="background:#fff; text-align:center;"| 35 g | |||
| |} | |||
| All ] tissue is very high in protein, containing all of the ]s, and in most cases is a good source of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="beef.org">http://www.beef.org/uDocs/whatyoumisswithoutmeat638.pdf</ref> Several forms of meat are also high in ].<ref name="k2 foods">{{cite journal | |||
| | last1 = Schurgers | first1 = L. J. | |||
| | last2 = Vermeer | first2 = C. | |||
| | title = Determination of phylloquinone and menaquinones in food. Effect of food matrix on circulating vitamin K concentrations | |||
| | journal = Haemostasis | |||
| | volume = 30 | |||
| | issue = 6 | |||
| | pages = 298–307 | |||
| | year = 2000 | |||
| | pmid = 11356998 | |||
| | doi=10.1159/000054147 | |||
| }}</ref> Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09333.html |title=Dietary Fiber |publisher=Ext.colostate.edu |accessdate=May 1, 2010}}</ref> While taste quality may vary between meats, the proteins, vitamins, and minerals available from meats are generally consistent. | |||
| The fat content of meat can vary widely depending on the ] and ] of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, including what it was fed, the ] part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as ] are typically leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose ] such as ]. Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness is being reversed by consumer demand for meat with less fat. The fatty deposits that exist with the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked and improve the flavor through chemical changes initiated through heat that allow the protein and fat molecules to interact. The fat, when cooked with meat, also makes the meat seem juicier. However, the nutritional contribution of the fat is mainly calories as opposed to protein. As fat content rises, the meat's contribution to nutrition declines. In addition, there is ] associated with fat surrounding the meat. The cholesterol is a lipid associated with the kind of saturated fat found in meat. The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with, though not definitively the cause of, significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet.<ref>Horowitz, Roger. "Putting Meat on the American Table: Taste, Technology, Transformation" The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005 p. 4.</ref> | |||
| The table in this section compares the nutritional content of several types of meat. While each kind of meat has about the same content of protein and carbohydrates, there is a very wide range of fat content. | |||
| == Production == | |||
| {{Main article|Meat industry|Meat packing industry|Animal slaughter|Slaughterhouse|Butchery}} | |||
| {{See also|Fishing industry}} | |||
| Meat is produced by killing an animal and cutting flesh out of it. These procedures are called ] and ], respectively. There is ongoing research into producing ], that is, outside of animals. | |||
| === Transport === | |||
| Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported ''en masse'' to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die ''en route''.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|129}} Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|129}} In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and ], and their ] fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|130}} Consequently, and also due to campaigning by ] groups, laws and industry practices in several countries tend to become more restrictive with respect to the duration and other circumstances of livestock transports. | |||
| === Slaughter === | |||
| Animals are usually slaughtered by being first ] and then ] (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through ]ting the animals with ], shooting them with a ] or a ], or shocking them with electric current.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|134ff}} In most forms of ], stunning is not allowed. | |||
| Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|1340}} The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the ] and the ] in cattle and sheep, and the ] in pigs.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|137}} | |||
| === Dressing and cutting === | |||
| After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, ] and ] are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|138}} Cattle and pig carcases, but not those | |||
| of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|138}} The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is progressively being fully automated.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|138}} | |||
| === Conditioning === | |||
| ], France.]] | |||
| Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (–1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|141}} | |||
| During the first day after death, ] continues until the accumulation of ] causes the ] to reach about 5.5. The remaining ], about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|87}} '']'' sets in a few hours after death as ] is used up, causing ] and ] to combine into rigid ] and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity,<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|90}} causing it to lose water ("weep").<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|146}} In muscles that enter ''rigor'' in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|144}} – hence again the need to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal. | |||
| Over time, the muscle proteins ] in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and ] of ],<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|142}} and ''rigor mortis'' resolves. Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of ''rigor'', but tough when cooked during ''rigor.''<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|142}} As the muscle pigment ] denatures, its iron ], which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|146}} Ongoing ] also contributes to conditioning. ], a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein.<ref name="Lawrie" />{{rp|155}} | |||
| === Additives === | |||
| ]" is derived from ] ''saussiche'', from the ] word ''salsus'' meaning "salted".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=sausage&searchmode=none |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date=16 October 1920 |accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref>]] | |||
| When meat is industrially processed in preparation of consumption, it may be enriched with ] to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its ]. Meat additives include the following:<ref name="Mills, Additives">{{cite book|last=Mills|first=E.|title=Encyclopedia of meat sciences|chapter=Additives|year=2004|publisher=]|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-12-464970-5|pages=1–6|edition=1st}}</ref> | |||
| *] is the most frequently used additive in meat processing. It imparts flavor but also inhibits microbial growth, extends the product's shelf life and helps ] finely processed products, such as sausages. Ready-to-eat meat products normally contain about 1.5 to 2.5 percent salt.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> Salt water or similar substances may also be injected into ] meat to improve the taste and increase the weight, in a process called ]. | |||
| *] is used in ] to stabilize the meat's color and flavor, and inhibits the growth of spore-forming microorganisms such as '']''. The use of nitrite's precursor ] is now limited to a few products such as dry sausage, ] or ].<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *]s used in meat processing are normally alkaline ]s such as ]. They are used to increase the water-binding and emulsifying ability of meat proteins, but also limit lipid oxidation and flavor loss, and reduce microbial growth.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *] or its equivalent ] (vitamin C) is used to stabilize the color of cured meat.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *] such as ] or ] impart a sweet flavor, bind water and assist surface browning during cooking in the ].<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *]s impart or modify flavor. They include ]s or ]s extracted from them, ]s, vegetables and ]s.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *]s such as ] impart or strengthen a particular flavor.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *] break down ]s to make the meat more palatable for consumption. They include ]s, acids, salt and phosphate.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *Dedicated ]s include ], ] and ], ], acidified ] or ], ], activated ], ] or ], or ]s such as ].<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *]s include a wide range of chemicals that limit ], which creates an undesirable "off flavor", in precooked meat products.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| *]s, most often lactic or citric acid, can impart a tangy or tart flavor note, extend shelf-life, tenderize fresh meat or help with protein ] and moisture release in dried meat. They substitute for the process of natural fermentation that acidifies some meat products such as hard ] or prosciutto.<ref name="Mills, Additives" /> | |||
| === Misidentification === | |||
| With the rise of complex ], including ]s, in developed economies, the distance between the farmer or fisherman and customer has grown, increasing the possibility for intentional and unintentional misidentification of meat at various points in the supply chain.<ref name=WPFish /> | |||
| In 2013, reports emerged across Europe that products labelled as containing beef ].<ref> New York Times, Retrieved April 17, 2013</ref> In February 2013 a study was published showing that about one-third of raw fish are misidentified across the United States.<ref name=WPFish>Juliet Eilperin and Tim Carman for the Washington Post. February 21, 2013. </ref> | |||
| === Imitation meat === | |||
| Various forms of ] have been created for people who wish not to eat meat but still want to taste its flavor and texture. Meat imitates are typically some form of processed ] (], ]), but they can also be based on ] or even fungi (]). | |||
| === Environmental impact === | |||
| {{Main article|Environmental impact of meat production}} | |||
| Various environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, fossil energy use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems. | |||
| The livestock sector may be the largest source of water pollution (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance. It accounts for over 8% of global human water use. It is by far the biggest cause of land use, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|title=How to stop the sixth mass extinction |first=John D. |last=Sutter |date=December 12, 2016|work=]|accessdate=January 10, 2017}}</ref> It is a significant driver of ], as it causes ], ocean ], land degradation, pollution, and ].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Steinfeld|first1=Henning|last2= Gerber|first2=Pierre |last3= Wassenaar|first3=Tom|last4= Castel|first4=Vincent|last5= Rosales|first5=Mauricio|last6= de Haan|first6=Cees|date= 2006|title= Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/climatechange/doc/FAO%20report%20executive%20summary.pdf|publisher= ]|isbn=92-5-105571-8|page=xxiii | quote= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns|title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns|first= Virginia |last=Morell |date=August 11, 2015|work=]|accessdate=January 10, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction|title=How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction|first=Jeremy |last=Hance|date=October 20, 2015|work=] |accessdate=January 10, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Machovina 2015 419–431">{{cite journal|first=B.|last=Machovina|first2=K. J.|last2=Feeley|first3=W. J.|last3=Ripple|year=2015|title=Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption|journal=Science of The Total Environment|volume= 536|pages=419–431|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Milman|first=Oliver |date=1 August 2017 |title=Meat industry blamed for largest-ever 'dead zone' in Gulf of Mexico|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/aug/01/meat-industry-dead-zone-gulf-of-mexico-environment-pollution|work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=2 August 2017 }}</ref> It is reportedly responsible for 14.5% of the world's anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>Gerber, P. J., H. Steinfeld, B. Henderson, A. Mottet, C. Opio, J. Dijkman, A. Falcucci and G. Tempio. 2013. Tackling climate change through livestock – a global assessmaent of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 115 pp.</ref> Although, a revised study of the environmental impact of livestock states that they account for 51% of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>Goodland & Anhang (2009). Livestock and Climate Change: What if the key actors in climate change are cows, pigs and chickens? p.11 Retrieved from: http://www.worldwatch.org/files/pdf/Livestock%20and%20Climate%20Change.pdf</ref> | |||
| The occurrence, nature and significance of environmental effects varies among livestock production systems.<ref>Steinfeld, H. et al. 2006, Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. Livestock, Environment and Development, FAO.</ref> Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Holechek | first1 = J. L. | display-authors = etal | year = 1982 | title = Manipulation of grazing to improve or maintain wildlife habitat | url = | journal = Wildlife Soc. Bull. | volume = 10 | issue = | pages = 204–210 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Strassman | first1 = B. I. | year = 1987 | title = Effects of cattle grazing and haying on wildlife conservation at National Wildlife Refuges in the United States | url = | journal = Environmental Mgt. | volume = 11 | issue = | pages = 35–44 | doi=10.1007/bf01867177}}</ref> Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management.<ref>Launchbaugh, K. (ed.) 2006. Targeted Grazing: a natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. American Sheep Industry. 199 pp.</ref> Meat-producing livestock can provide environmental benefits through waste reduction, e.g. conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Anderson | first1 = D. C. | year = 1978 | title = Use of cereal residues in beef cattle production systems | url = | journal = J. Anim. Sci. | volume = 46 | issue = | pages = 849–861 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Elferink | first1 = E. V. | last2 = Nonhebel | first2 = S. | last3 = Moll | first3 = H. C. | year = 2008 | title = Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat | url = | journal = J. Cleaner Prod. | volume = 16 | issue = 12| pages = 1227–1233 | doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.06.008}}</ref> Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer; it may be composted before application to food crops. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.<ref>Shapouri, H. et al. 2002. The energy balance of corn ethanol: an update. USDA Agricultural Economic Report 814.</ref> | |||
| According to a report produced by ]'s (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented.<ref name="TG-20100602">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2010/jun/02/un-report-meat-free-diet|title=UN urges global move to meat and dairy-free diet|last=Carus|first=Felicity|date=2010-06-02|work=The Guardian|accessdate=11 June 2015}}</ref> Meat consumption is considered one of the primary contributors of the ].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns|title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns|first= Virginia |last=Morell |date=August 11, 2015|work=]|accessdate=December 14, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Machovina 2015 419–431"/><ref name="Zalasiewicz2015">{{cite journal|first=Mark|last=Williams|first2=Jan|last2=Zalasiewicz|first3=P. K.|last3=Haff|first4=Christian|last4=Schwägerl|first5=Anthony D.|last5=Barnosky|first6=Erle C.|last6=Ellis|year=2015|title=The Anthropocene Biosphere|journal=The Anthropocene Review|volume=2|issue=3|pages=196–219|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/2053019615591020|doi=10.1177/2053019615591020}}</ref> A 2017 study by the ] found that 60% of global ] is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the vast scale of feed crop cultivation needed to rear tens of billions of farm animals for human consumption puts an enormous strain on natural resources resulting in a wide-scale loss of lands and species.<ref>{{cite news |last= Smithers|first=Rebecca|date=5 October 2017 |title=Vast animal-feed crops to satisfy our meat needs are destroying planet|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/05/vast-animal-feed-crops-meat-needs-destroying-planet|work= The Guardian|location= |access-date=5 October 2017 }}</ref> In November of 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a ] calling for, among other things, drastically diminishing our per capita consumption of meat and "dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods".<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF|title=World Scientists’ Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice|journal=]|date=13 November 2017|volume=|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix125|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/doi/10.1093/biosci/bix125/4605229}}</ref> | |||
| == Spoilage and preservation == | |||
| {{Main article|Meat spoilage|Meat preservation}} | |||
| The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent ] of meat by ] and ], which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper ] is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate ], ] and ] procedures are applied. Without the application of ]s and stabilizers, the fats in meat may also begin to rapidly decompose after cooking or processing, leading to an objectionable taste known as ]. | |||
| == Methods of preparation{{anchor|Processed meat}} == | |||
| ] at a street fair in New York City's ].]] | |||
| Fresh meat can be cooked for immediate consumption, or be processed, that is, treated for longer-term ] and later consumption, possibly after further preparation. Fresh meat cuts or processed cuts may produce iridescence, commonly thought to be due to spoilage but actually caused structural coloration and ] of the light.<ref name=foods>{{cite journal | url=http://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/2/4/499 | title=Foods | work=Iridescence in Meat Caused by Surface Gratings | date=November 2013 | accessdate=March 1, 2014 | author=Martinez-Hurtado, J L | volume=2 | pages=499–506 |doi=10.3390/foods2040499 | issue=4| hdl=10149/597186 | pmc=5302279 }}</ref> A common additive to processed meats, both for preservation and because it prevents discoloring, is ], which, however, is also a source of health concerns, because it may form ] ]s when heated.<ref>{{cite book |title=Nitrite Curing of Meat: The N-Nitrosamine Problem and Nitrite Alternatives |author=Ronald B. Pegg |author2=Fereidoon Shahidi |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2004 |isbn=0-917678-50-8}}</ref> | |||
| Meat is prepared in many ways, as ]s, in ]s, ], or as ] like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as ]s or croquettes), loaves, or ]s, or used in loose form (as in "sloppy joe" or ]). | |||
| ] | |||
| Some meat is cured by ], which is the process of ], ], or ] ] by exposing it to the ] from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often ]. In ], ] is the traditional smoking wood, but ] is more often used now, and ] to a lesser extent.<!--Lesser extent than oak, or alder??? --> In ], ], ], oak, ], alder, ], and fruit-tree woods are commonly used for smoking. Meat can also be cured by ], preserving in ] or ] (see ] and other ] methods). Other kinds of meat are ] and ]d, or simply boiled, ], or ]. | |||
| Meat is generally eaten cooked, but many recipes call for raw beef, veal or fish (]). ] is a meat dish made from finely chopped or minced ] ] or ].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Great American Cook: Recipes from the Home Kitchen of One of Our Most Influential Chefs|first1=Jonathan|last1= Waxman|first2= Tom|last2= Steele|first3= Bobby |last3= Flay|first4= John |last4=Kernick|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|year= 2007|isbn=0-618-65852-1}}</ref><ref>Raymond Sokolov, ''The Cook's Canon'', 2003, {{ISBN|0-06-008390-5}}, p. 183 </ref> Meat is often spiced or seasoned, particularly with meat products such as sausages. Meat dishes are usually described by their source (animal and part of body) and method of preparation (e.g., a beef rib). | |||
| Meat is a typical base for making ]es. Popular varieties of sandwich meat include ], ], ] and other sausages, and ], such as ], ], ], ], and ]. Meat can also be molded or pressed (common for products that include offal, such as ] and ]) and ]. | |||
| == Health == | |||
| {{See also|Red meat#Potential health risks|l1=Health concerns associated with red meat}} | |||
| A study of 400,000 subjects conducted by the ] and published in 2013 showed "a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer."<ref name=BMC03713>{{cite journal|author=Sabine Rohrmann, Kim Overvad, H Bas Bueno-de-Mesquita, Marianne U Jakobsen, Rikke Egeberg, Anne Tjønneland, Laura Nailler, Marie-Christine Boutron-Ruault, Françoise Clavel-Chapelon, Vittorio Krogh, Domenico Palli, Salvatore Panico, Rosario Tumino, Fulvio Ricceri, Manuela M Bergmann, Heiner Boeing, Kuanrong Li, Rudolf Kaaks, Kay-Tee Khaw, Nicholas J Wareham, Francesca L Crowe, Timothy J Key, Androniki Naska, Antonia Trichopoulou, Dimitirios Trichopoulos, Max Leenders, Petra HM Peeters, Dagrun Engeset, Christine L Parr, Guri Skeie, Paula Jakszyn, María-José Sánchez, José M Huerta, M Luisa Redondo, Aurelio Barricarte, Pilar Amiano, Isabel Drake, Emily Sonestedt, Göran Hallmans, Ingegerd Johansson, Veronika Fedirko, Isabelle Romieux, Pietro Ferrari, Teresa Norat, Anne C Vergnaud, Elio Riboli, Jakob Linseisen|title=Meat consumption and mortality – results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition|journal=BMC Medicine|date=March 7, 2013|volume=11|doi=10.1186/1741-7015-11-63|url=https://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/11/63/abstract|accessdate=March 7, 2013|author2=European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition|authorlink2=European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition|quote=The results of our analysis support a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer.|pages=63|pmid=23497300|pmc=3599112}}</ref> | |||
| A 1999 ] combined data from five studies from western countries. The metastudy reported ]s, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, occasional meat eaters to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters and vegans shared the highest mortality ratio of 1.00.<ref name="AJCN metastudy">{{cite journal|title= Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies|journal= American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume= 70|issue=3|pages=516S–524S|date = September 1999|url=http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/70/3/516s.full|accessdate=May 20, 2013|author1=Timothy J Key |author2=Gary E Fraser |author3=Margaret Thorogood |author4=Paul N Appleby |author5=Valerie Beral |author6=Gillian Reeves |author7=Michael L Burr |author8=Jenny Chang-Claude |author9=Rainer Frentzel-Beyme |author10=Jan W Kuzma |author11=Jim Mann |author12=Klim McPherson |pmid= 10479225|doi=10.1079/phn19980006}}</ref> | |||
| In response to changing prices as well as health concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol, consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. A USDA report points out that consumption of beef in the United States between 1970–1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of ] increased by 90%.<ref>http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/foodreview/jan1996/frjan96f.pdf</ref> During the same period of time, the price of chicken dropped by 14% relative to the price of beef. In 1995 and 1996, beef consumption increased due to higher supplies and lower prices. | |||
| The ''2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans'' asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods because they eat too much protein.<ref>"Some individuals, especially teen boys and adult men, also need to reduce overall intake of protein foods by decreasing intakes of meats, poultry, and eggs and increasing amounts of vegetables or other underconsumed food groups." in {{cite web|publisher=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture.|title=2015 – 2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans: Shifts Needed To Align With Healthy Eating Patterns: A Closer Look at Current Intakes and Recommended Shifts: Protein Foods|edition=8|date=December 2015|url=http://health.gov/dietaryguidelines/2015/guidelines/chapter-2/a-closer-look-at-current-intakes-and-recommended-shifts/|accessdate=January 9, 2016}}</ref> | |||
| Various toxic compounds can contaminate meat, including ], ]s, ] residues, and ]. Often, these compounds are not very dangerous themselves but can be metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products, so any actual toxicological effects may depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer.<ref name="Püssa"/> | |||
| === Contamination === | |||
| Meat and meat products may contain substances such as ]s, ] (PCBs), and cooked meat may contain ]s, that are toxic to the consumer, although any chemical's toxicity is dependent on the dose and timing of exposure. Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking.<ref name="Püssa"/> | |||
| === Cancer === | |||
| Carcinogenesis is the main long-term toxic response of consuming meat and meat byproducts.<ref name="Püssa">{{Cite journal|last=Püssa|first=Tõnu|date=2013-12-01|title=Toxicological issues associated with production and processing of meat|journal=Meat Science|volume=95|issue=4|pages=844–853|doi=10.1016/j.meatsci.2013.04.032|issn=1873-4138|pmid=23660174}}</ref> | |||
| Health concerns have been raised about the consumption of meat increasing the risk of cancer.<ref name="PLoS" /> In particular, red meat and processed meat were found to be associated with higher risk of cancers of the ], esophagus, liver, and ], among others — although also a reduced risk for some minor type of cancers.<ref name="PLoS">{{cite journal | last = Cross | first = Amanda | title = A Prospective Study of Red and Processed Meat Intake in Relation to Cancer Risk | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 4 | issue = 12 | publisher = the Public Library of Science | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0040325 | year = 2007 | pages = e325 | pmid = 18076279 | last2 = Leitzmann | first2 = MF | last3 = Gail | first3 = MH | last4 = Hollenbeck | first4 = AR | last5 = Schatzkin | first5 = A | last6 = Sinha | first6 = R | pmc = 2121107 }}</ref> | |||
| The ] (IARC) is the specialized cancer agency of the ] (WHO). IARC classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "''carcinogenic to humans'' (Group 1), based on ''sufficient evidence'' in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." IARC also classified red meat as "''probably carcinogenic to humans'' (Group 2A), based on ''limited evidence'' that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and ''strong'' mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."<ref name="WHO-20151026">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=World Health Organization - IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |format=] |work=] |accessdate=October 26, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="NYT-20151026">{{cite news |last=Hauser |first=Christine |title=W.H.O. Report Links Some Cancers With Processed or Red Meat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/27/health/report-links-some-types-of-cancer-with-processed-or-red-meat.html |date=October 26, 2015 |work=] |accessdate=October 26, 2015 }}</ref><ref name="BBC-20151026">{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Processed meats do cause cancer - WHO |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-34615621 |date=October 26, 2015 |work=] |accessdate=October 26, 2015 }}</ref> | |||
| Another study found an increase risk of pancreatic cancer for red meat and pork. That study noted that, "findings suggest that intakes of red meat and processed meat are positively associated with pancreatic cancer risk and thus are potential target factors for disease prevention. Future analyses of meat and pancreatic cancer risk should focus on meat preparation methods and related carcinogens." <ref>{{cite journal|url=http://jnci.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/97/19/1458?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=pancreatic+red+meat&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT |title=Meat and Fat Intake as Risk Factors for Pancreatic Cancer: The Multiethnic Cohort Study – Nöthlings et al. 97 (19): 1458 – JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute |doi=10.1093/jnci/dji292 |publisher=Jnci.oxfordjournals.org |accessdate=May 1, 2010|last1=Nothlings|first1=U.|last2=Wilkens|first2=L. R.|last3=Murphy|first3=S. P.|last4=Hankin|first4=J. H.|last5=Henderson|first5=B. E.|last6=Kolonel|first6=L. N.|journal=JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute|volume=97|issue=19|pages=1458–1465}}</ref> | |||
| That study also suggests that fat and saturated fat are not likely contributors to pancreatic cancer. Animal fat, particularly from ruminants, tends to have a higher percentage of ] vs. monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fat when compared to vegetable fats, with the exception of some tropical plant fats;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nutristrategy.com/nutritioninfo2.htm |title=Nutrients, Vitamins, Minerals and Dietary Information |publisher=Nutristrategy.com |accessdate=May 1, 2010}}</ref> consumption of which has been correlated with various health problems. The saturated fat found in meat has been associated with significantly raised risks of ],<ref>{{cite web | date=August 21, 2007 | url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_What_You_Eat_May_Influence_Colon_Cancer_Relapse.asp| title= What You Eat May Influence Colon Cancer Relapse| publisher= American Cancer Society| accessdate=July 21, 2008 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080419131054/http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_What_You_Eat_May_Influence_Colon_Cancer_Relapse.asp <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = April 19, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal=British Journal of Cancer |url=http://www.nature.com/bjc/journal/v96/n7/full/6603689a.html |title=Meat consumption and risk of breast cancer in the UK Women's Cohort Study |doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6603689 |accessdate=May 1, 2010 |volume=96 |issue=7|last1=Taylor|first1=E F|last2=Burley|first2=V J|last3=Greenwood|first3=D C|last4=Cade|first4=J E|pages=1139–46|pmid=17406351|pmc=2360120}}</ref> although evidence suggests that risks of prostate cancer are unrelated to animal fat consumption.<ref>{{cite journal | |||
| | last1 = Park | first1 = S. Y. | |||
| | last2 = Murphy | first2 = S. P. | |||
| | last3 = Wilkens | first3 = L. R. | |||
| | last4 = Henderson | first4 = B. E. | |||
| | last5 = Kolonel | first5 = L. N. | |||
| | title = Fat and meat intake and prostate cancer risk: The multiethnic cohort study | |||
| | doi = 10.1002/ijc.22805 | |||
| | journal = International Journal of Cancer | |||
| | volume = 121 | |||
| | issue = 6 | |||
| | pages = 1339–1345 | |||
| | year = 2007 | |||
| | pmid = 17487838 | |||
| | pmc = | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| Other research does not support significant links between meat consumption and various cancers. Key et al. found that "There were no significant differences between vegetarians and nonvegetarians in mortality from cerebrovascular disease, stomach cancer, colorectal cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer or all other causes combined."<ref>Key, T. J., G. E. Fraser, M. Thorogood, P. N. Appleby, V. Beral, G. Reeves, M. L. Burr, J. Chang-Claude, R. Frentzel-Beyme, J. W. Kuzma, J. Mann and K. McPherson. 1999. Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70 (suppl.): 516S-524S</ref> Truswell reviewed numerous studies, concluding that the relationship of colorectal cancer with meat consumption appeared weaker than the "probable" status it had been given by the World Cancer Research Foundation in 1997.<ref>Truswell, A. S. 2002. Meat consumption and cancer of the large bowel. E. J. Clin. Nutr. 56: S19-S24.</ref> A study by Chao et al. (2005) found an apparent association of colorectal cancer with red meat consumption after adjustment for age and energy intake. However, after further adjustment for body mass index, cigarette smoking and other covariates, no association with red meat consumption was found.<ref>Chao, A., M. J. Thun, C. J. Connell, M. L. McCullough, E. J. Jacobs, W. D. Flanders, C. Rodriguez, R. Sinha and E. E. Calle. 2005. Meat consumption and risk of colorectal cancer. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 293: 172-182</ref> Alex' ander conducted a meta-analysis which found no association of colorectal cancer with consumption of animal fat or protein.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Alexander | first1 = D. D. | last2 = Cushing | first2 = C. A. | last3 = Lowe | first3 = K. A. | last4 = Sceurman | first4 = B. | last5 = Roberts | first5 = M. A. | year = 2009 | title = Meta-analysis of animal fat or animal protein intake and colorectal cancer | url = | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 89 | issue = | pages = 1402–1409 | doi=10.3945/ajcn.2008.26838}}</ref> Based on European data (EPIC-Oxford study), Key et al. found that incidence of colorectal cancer was somewhat lower among meat eaters than among vegetarians. However, they concluded that 'the study is not large enough to exclude small or moderate differences for specific causes of death, and more research on this topic is required'.<ref>Key, T. J., P. N. Appleby, E. A. Spencer, R. C. Travis, A. W. Roddam and N. E. Allen. 2009. Cancer incidence in vegetarians: results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Oxford). Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89 (suppl.): 1620S-1626S</ref> A study within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) found that association between esophageal cancer risk and total and processed meat intake was not statistically significant.<ref>Gonzalez, C. A. et al. 2006. Meat Intake and Risk of Stomach and Esophageal Adenocarcinoma Within the European Prospective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC). J. National Cancer Inst. 98: 345-354</ref> Another recent study of EPIC <ref>Sabine Rohrmann 2013 Meat consumption and mortality – results from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition BMC Medicine 2013, 11:63 {{DOI|10.1186/1741-7015-11-63}}</ref> found a significant correlation between eating ' processed meat and cardiovascular diseases...also to cancer. In this population, reduction of processed meat consumption to less than 20 g/day would prevent more than 3% of all deaths.'{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} | |||
| === Heart disease === | |||
| The correlation of consumption to increased risk of ] is controversial. Some studies fail to find a link between red meat consumption and heart disease<ref>{{cite web|url=http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924977v1|title=Red and Processed Meat Consumption and Risk of Incident Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke, and Diabetes Mellitus|author=Renata Micha|work=ahajournals.org}}</ref> (although the same study found statistically significant correlation between the consumption of processed meat and coronary heart disease), while another study, a survey, conducted in 1960, of 25,153 California Seventh-Day Adventists, found that the risk of heart disease is three times greater for 45- to 64-year-old men who eat meat daily, versus those who did not eat meat.<ref>{{cite journal | |||
| | last1 = Snowdon | first1 = D. A. | |||
| | last2 = Phillips | first2 = R. L. | |||
| | last3 = Fraser | first3 = G. E. | |||
| | title = Meat consumption and fatal ischemic heart disease | |||
| | journal = Preventive medicine | |||
| | volume = 13 | |||
| | issue = 5 | |||
| | pages = 490–500 | |||
| | year = 1984 | |||
| | pmid = 6527990 | |||
| | doi=10.1016/0091-7435(84)90017-3 | |||
| }}</ref> A major Harvard University study <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/2010-releases/processed-meats-unprocessed-heart-disease-diabetes.html|title=Eating processed meats, but not unprocessed red meats, may raise risk of heart disease and diabetes|work=harvard.edu}}</ref> in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that eating 50 g (less than 2oz) of processed meat per day increases risk of coronary heart disease by 42%, and diabetes by 19%. Equivalent levels of fat, including saturated fats, in unprocessed meat (even when eating twice as much per day) did not show any deleterious effects, leading the researchers to suggest that "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats." | |||
| === Obesity === | |||
| The EPIC-PANACEA study, published in 2010 in the ''American Journal of Clinical Nutrition'' closely tracked 373,803 people over a period of 8 years across 10 countries. It concluded that meat consumption is positively associated with weight gain in men and women.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Meat consumption and prospective weight change in participants of the EPIC-PANACEA study|journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|date = 2010-08-01|issn = 1938-3207|pmid = 20592131|pages = 398–407|volume = 92|issue = 2|doi = 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28713|first = Anne-Claire|last = Vergnaud|first2 = Teresa|last2 = Norat|first3 = Dora|last3 = Romaguera|first4 = Traci|last4 = Mouw|first5 = Anne M.|last5 = May|first6 = Noemie|last6 = Travier|first7 = Jian'an|last7 = Luan|first8 = Nick|last8 = Wareham|first9 = Nadia|last9 = Slimani}}</ref> The ] countered by stating that meat consumption may not be associated with fat gain.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Meat intake's influence on body fatness cannot be assessed without measurement of body fat|journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|date = 2010-11-01|issn = 1938-3207|pmid = 20844064|pages = 1274-1275; author reply 1275-1276|volume = 92|issue = 5|doi = 10.3945/ajcn.110.000661|first = Arne|last = Astrup|first2 = Peter|last2 = Clifton|first3 = Donald K.|last3 = Layman|first4 = Richard D.|last4 = Mattes|first5 = Margriet S.|last5 = Westerterp-Plantenga}}</ref> In response, the authors of the original study controlled for just abdominal fat across a sample of 91,214 people and found that even when controlling for calories and lifestyle factors, meat consumption is linked with obesity.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Reply to A Astrup et al|url = http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/92/5/1275|journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|date = 2010-11-01|issn = 0002-9165|pages = 1275–1276|volume = 92|issue = 5|doi = 10.3945/ajcn.110.000786|first = Anne-Claire|last = Vergnaud|first2 = Teresa|last2 = Norat|first3 = Dora|last3 = Romaguera|first4 = Petra HM|last4 = Peeters}}</ref> Additional studies and reviews have confirmed the finding that greater meat consumption is positively linked with greater weight gain even when controlling for calories, and lifestyle factors.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Cross-sectional association of nut intake with adiposity in a Mediterranean population|journal = Nutrition, metabolism, and cardiovascular diseases: NMCD|date = 2011-07-01|issn = 1590-3729|pmid = 20219336|pages = 518–525|volume = 21|issue = 7|doi = 10.1016/j.numecd.2009.11.010|first = P.|last = Casas-Agustench|first2 = M.|last2 = Bulló|first3 = E.|last3 = Ros|first4 = J.|last4 = Basora|first5 = J.|last5 = Salas-Salvadó}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title = Plant and animal protein intake and its association with overweight and obesity among the Belgian population|journal = The British Journal of Nutrition|date = 2011-04-01|issn = 1475-2662|pmid = 21144092|pages = 1106–1116|volume = 105|issue = 7|doi = 10.1017/S0007114510004642|first = Yi|last = Lin|first2 = Selin|last2 = Bolca|first3 = Stefanie|last3 = Vandevijvere|first4 = Stephanie|last4 = De Vriese|first5 = Theodora|last5 = Mouratidou|first6 = Melissa|last6 = De Neve|first7 = Anja|last7 = Polet|first8 = Herman|last8 = Van Oyen|first9 = John|last9 = Van Camp}}</ref> | |||
| === Bacterial contamination === | |||
| A 2011 study by the ] showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and ] in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with '']'', with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110415083153.htm|title=US Meat and Poultry Is Widely Contaminated With Drug-Resistant Staph Bacteria|work=sciencedaily.com}}</ref> | |||
| === Cooking === | |||
| Meat can transmit certain ]s, but complete cooking and avoiding recontamination reduces this possibility.<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=2518970 |title=Colonic protein fermentation and promotion of colon carcinogenesis by thermolyzed casein |last1=Corpet |first1=Denis |last2=Yin |first2=Y |last3=Zhang |first3=X |last4=Rémésy |first4=C |last5=Stamp |first5=D |last6=Medline |first6=A |last7=Thompson |first7=L |last8=Bruce |first8=W |last9=Archer |first9=M | displayauthors = 8|year= 1995|publisher=Nutr Cancer. |pmid=7603887 |doi=10.1080/01635589509514381 |volume=23 |issue=3 |journal=Nutr Cancer |pages=271–81}}</ref> | |||
| Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates ]s (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=National Cancer Institute – Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats |publisher=Cancer.gov |date=September 15, 2004 |accessdate=May 1, 2010}}</ref> While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the ] states that cooking meat below {{convert|212|F|lk=on}} creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, ] meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats – National Cancer Institute |publisher=Cancer.gov |date=September 15, 2004 |accessdate=May 1, 2010}}</ref> | |||
| ]s, present in processed and cooked foods, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Also, toxic compounds called PAHs, or ]s, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are known to be carcinogenic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf |title=PAH-Occurrence in Foods, Dietary Exposure and Health Effects |format=PDF |accessdate=May 1, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519225348/http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf |archivedate=May 19, 2011 |df= }}</ref> | |||
| == Meat in society== | |||
| Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Appetite |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666315001166 |title=Meat traditions. Co-evolution of humans and meat |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2015.03.014 |accessdate=April 11, 2015 |volume=90 |last1=Leroy|first1=F|last2=Praet|first2=I|pages=200–211|pmid= 25794684 |date=Jul 2015}}</ref> Many people, however, choose not to eat meat (this is referred to as ]) or any food made from animals (]). The reasons for not eating all or some meat may include ethical objections to killing animals for food, health concerns, environmental concerns or religious ]. | |||
| === Ethics of eating meat === | |||
| {{Main article|Ethics of eating meat}} | |||
| Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the ] used in meat production. Reasons for objecting to killing animals for consumption may include ], ], or an aversion to inflicting ] or harm on other ]. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals (such as cows, pigs, cats, dogs, horses, or rabbits) due to cultural or religious traditions. | |||
| Some people eat only the flesh of animals that they believe have not been mistreated, and abstain from the flesh of animals raised in ] or else abstain from particular products, such as ] and ]. Some people also abstain from milk and its derivatives for ethical reasons, because the production of veal is a byproduct of the ]. The ethical issues with intensive agriculture have to do with the concentration of animals, animal waste, and the potential for dead animals in a small space.{{Citation needed|date=November 2016}} | |||
| Some techniques of intensive agriculture may be cruel to animals: foie gras is a ] made from the ] of ] or ] that have been ] corn to fatten the organ; veal is criticised because the veal calves may be highly restricted in movement, have unsuitable flooring, spend their entire lives indoors, experience prolonged deprivation (sensory, social, and exploratory), and be more susceptible to high amounts of stress and disease.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hsus.org/farm/resources/research/welfare/welfare_veal_calves.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2009-11-03 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101030024825/http://www.hsus.org/farm/resources/research/welfare/welfare_veal_calves.html |archivedate=October 30, 2010 |df= }}</ref> | |||
| === Religious traditions === | |||
| {{Main article|Vegetarianism and religion}} | |||
| The religion of ] has always opposed eating meat, and there are also ] and ] that condemn the eating of meat. ] dietary rules ('']'') allow certain ('']'') meat and forbid other ('']''). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of ] (such as ], ] including ] and ], and most ]s), and mixtures of meat and milk. Similar rules apply in ]: The ] explicitly forbids meat from animals that die naturally, blood, the meat of swine (porcine animals, pigs), and animals dedicated to other than Allah (either undedicated or dedicated to ]) which are ] as opposed to ]. ] forbids meat of slowly slaughtered animals ("]") and prescribes killing animals with a single strike ("]"), but some Sikh groups oppose eating any meat.<ref name="Takhar2005">{{cite book|last=Takhar|first=Opinderjit Kaur|title=Sikh identity: an exploration of groups among Sikhs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aeKWQzesOc4C&pg=PA51|accessdate=November 26, 2010|year=2005|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-5202-1|page=51|chapter=2 Guru Nanak Nishkam Sewak Jatha}}</ref> | |||
| ===Psychology=== | |||
| {{main article|Psychology of eating meat}} | |||
| Research in ] has investigated practices of meat eating in relation to ], ]s, ], and ] characteristics.<ref name=Loughnan2014>{{cite journal|last1=Loughnan|first1=Steve|last2=Bastian|first2=Brock|last3=Haslam|first3=Nick|title=The Psychology of Eating Animals|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|date=2014|volume=23|issue=2|pages=104–108|doi=10.1177/0963721414525781|url=https://foodethics.univie.ac.at/fileadmin/user_upload/inst_ethik_wiss_dialog/Loughnan__S._2014_And_Bastian._..The_Psychology_of_Eating_Animals._In._CURRENT_DIRECTIONS_IN_PSYCHOLOGICAL_SCIENCE.pdf|accessdate=6 August 2015}}</ref> Psychological research suggests meat eating is correlated with ],<ref name=Rozin2012 >{{cite journal|last1=Rozin|first1=Paul|last2=Hormes|first2=Julia M.|last3=Faith|first3=Myles S.|last4=Wansink|first4=Brian|title=Is Meat Male? A Quantitative Multimethod Framework to Establish Metaphoric Relationships|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|date=October 2012|volume=39|issue=3|doi=10.1086/664970|pages=629–643}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dhont|first1=Kristof|last2=Hodson|first2=Gordon|last3=Costello|first3=Kimberly|last4=MacInnis|first4=Cara C.|title=Social dominance orientation connects prejudicial human–human and human–animal relations|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|date=April 2014|volume=61|pages=104–108|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2013.12.020|url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/41687/}}</ref> and reduced ].<ref name="Keller2015">{{cite journal|last1=Keller|first1=Carmen|last2=Seigrist|first2=Michael|title=Does personality influence eating styles and food choices? Direct and indirect effects|journal=Appetite|date=January 2015|volume=84|pages=128–138|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.003}}</ref> Research into the ] of meat is relevant both to ] ]<ref name=Richardson1994>{{cite journal|last1=Richardson, N. J.|title=Consumer Perceptions of Meat|journal=Meat Science|date=1994|volume=36|pages=57–65|doi=10.1016/0309-1740(94)90033-7|url=http://ac.els-cdn.com/0309174094900337/1-s2.0-0309174094900337-main.pdf?_tid=4bd13ec6-3f0d-11e5-b4ae-00000aab0f6c&acdnat=1439176384_7ae506be777cb5b5f07b9d4c5cea424c|accessdate=10 August 2015|display-authors=etal}}</ref> and to advocates of reduced meat consumption.<ref name="Klöckner 2014">{{cite journal | last=Zur | first=Ifat | last2=Klöckner | first2=Christian A. | title=Individual motivations for limiting meat consumption | journal=British Food Journal | publisher=Emerald | volume=116 | issue=4 | year=2014 | pages=629–642 | url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1108/BFJ-08-2012-0193 | doi=10.1108/bfj-08-2012-0193 | accessdate=2016-01-03}}</ref><ref name="Schösler">{{cite journal | last=Schösler | first=Hanna | last2=Boer | first2=Joop de | last3=Boersema | first3=Jan J. | title=Can we cut out the meat of the dish? Constructing consumer-oriented pathways towards meat substitution | journal=Appetite | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=58 | issue=1 | year=2012 | pages=39–47 | url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.009 | doi=10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.009 | accessdate=2015-12-29}}</ref> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| {{Portal|Food|Agriculture and Agronomy}} | |||
| {{div col|3}} | |||
| <!-- Please keep links alphabetized --> | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{div col end}} | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{reflist|30em}} | |||
| == External links == | |||
| {{Commons category|Meats}} | |||
| {{cookbook}} | |||
| {{Wikivoyage}} | |||
| *{{Wiktionary-inline|meat}} | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| {{Meat}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 22:46, 30 November 2017
For other uses, see Meat (disambiguation).{i like chips chips are awome