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| {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}} | |||
| {{Use British English|date=March 2017}} | |||
| {{Infobox earthquake | |||
| |title = 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake | |||
| | image =US Navy 050102-N-9593M-040 A village near the coast of Sumatra lays in ruin after the Tsunami that struck South East Asia.jpg | |||
| | caption =] in ], the most devastated region struck by the tsunami | |||
| |date = {{Start date|df=yes|2004|12|26}}<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|title=Magnitude 9.1 – OFF THE WEST COAST OF SUMATRA|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2004/us2004slav/|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|accessdate=26 August 2012|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120817004055/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2004/us2004slav/|archivedate=17 August 2012}}</ref> | |||
| |origintime = 00:58:53 UTC <br> 07:28:53 ] <br> 07:58:53 ] <br> 08:58:53 ] | |||
| |map ={{Location map|Indian Ocean#Southeast Asia | |||
| |width = 200 | |||
| |float = center | |||
| |caption = | |||
| |label = | |||
| |position = | |||
| |mark = Bullseye1.png | |||
| |marksize = 50 | |||
| |lat_deg = 3.316 | |||
| |lon_deg = 95.854 | |||
| }} | |||
| |depth = {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}}<ref name="usgs" /> | |||
| |damage = $19.6 billion (2017 ]) <ref>http://indianoceantsunami.web.unc.edu/the-economical-impacts-and-aspects-of-the-2004-indian-ocean-tsunmai-on-indonesia/</ref> | |||
| |location = {{Coord|3.316|N|95.854|E|type:event_scale:50000000|display=inline,title}}<ref name="usgs" /> | |||
| |type = ] | |||
| |tsunami = {{convert|15|to|30|m|ft|sigfig=1}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Astonishing Wave Heights Among the Findings of an International Tsunami Survey Team on Sumatra|url=http://soundwaves.usgs.gov/2005/03/|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|accessdate=16 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Paris" /> with maximum runup of 51 m (167.3 ft) at Lhoknga.<ref name="geomorphologie.revues.org">{{cite journal|url=https://geomorphologie.revues.org/7865?lang=en|last1=Paris|first1=Raphaël|last2=Cachão|first2=Mário|last3=Fournier|first3=Jérôme|last4=Voldoire|first4=Olivier|title=Nannoliths abundance and distribution in tsunami deposits: example from the December 26, 2004 tsunami in Lhok Nga (northwest Sumatra, Indonesia)|journal=Géomorphologie : relief, processus, environnement|date=1 April 2010|volume=16|issue=1|pages=109–118|doi=10.4000/geomorphologie.7865}}</ref> | |||
| |intensity = ]<ref name="usgs" /> | |||
| |magnitude = 9.1–9.3 ]<ref name=Satake/> | |||
| |countries affected = ]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>]<br>] | |||
| |casualties = 230,000–280,000 dead and more missing<ref>{{cite web |url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/most_destructive.php |title=Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605122458/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/world/most_destructive.php |archivedate=5 June 2013 }}</ref><ref name=BBC280/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30602159|title=Indian Ocean tsunami anniversary: Memorial events held|date=26 December 2014|work=BBC News|accessdate=15 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| The '''2004 Indian Ocean earthquake''' occurred at 00:58:53 ] on 26 December with the ] off the west coast of ], Indonesia. The shock had a ] of 9.1–9.3 and a maximum ] of IX (''Violent''). The ] ] was caused when the ] was ] by the ] and triggered a series of devastating ]s along the coasts of most landmasses bordering the Indian Ocean, killing 230,000–280,000 people in 14 countries, and inundating coastal communities with waves up to {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1}} high. It was one of the ]. Indonesia was the hardest-hit country, followed by Sri Lanka, India, and Thailand. | |||
| It is the ] ever recorded on a ] and had the longest duration of faulting ever observed, between 8.3 and 10 minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=104179|title=Analysis of the Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake Reveals Longest Fault Rupture Ever|date=19 May 2005|publisher=National Science Foundation|accessdate=15 December 2016}}</ref> It caused the entire planet to vibrate as much as {{convert|1|cm|in|1|abbr=off}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Walton|first=Marsha|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/05/19/sumatra.quake/index.html|title=Scientists: Sumatra quake longest ever recorded|work=]|date=20 May 2005|accessdate=15 December 2016}}</ref> and triggered other earthquakes as far away as ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=West|first1=Michael|last2=Sanches|first2=John J.|last3=McNutt|first3=Stephen R.|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/308/5725/1144|title=Periodically Triggered Seismicity at Mount Wrangell, Alaska, After the Sumatra Earthquake|journal=]|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1144–1146|doi=10.1126/science.1112462}}</ref> Its epicentre was between ] and mainland Indonesia.<ref name="Archived">{{cite journal|last1=Nalbant |first1=Suleyman S. |last2=Steacy |first2=Sandy |last3=Sieh |first3=Kerry |last4=Natawidjaja |first4=Danny |last5=McCloskey |first5=John |title=Seismology: Earthquake risk on the Sunda trench |journal=] |date=9 June 2005 |volume=435 |issue=7043 |pages=756–757 |doi=10.1038/nature435756a |url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~sieh/pubs_docs/papers/P05b.pdf |accessdate=16 May 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5gsK7TQaG?url=http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~sieh/pubs_docs/papers/P05b.pdf |archivedate=19 May 2009 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> The plight of the ] prompted a worldwide ]. In all, the worldwide community donated more than US$14 billion (2004) in humanitarian aid.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jayasuriya|first1=Sisira|last2=McCawley|first2=Peter|url=http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/Bookentry_Main.lasso?id=13668|title=The Asian Tsunami: Aid and Reconstruction after a Disaster|location=Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA USA|publisher=Edward Elgar|date=2010|isbn=978-1-84844-692-2}}</ref> The event is known by the ] as the '''Sumatra–Andaman earthquake.'''<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lay|first1=T.|last2=Kanamori|first2=H.|last3=Ammon|first3=C.|last4=Nettles|first4=M.|last5=Ward|first5=S.|last6=Aster|first6=R.|last7=Beck|first7=S.|last8=Bilek|first8=S.|last9=Brudzinski|first9=M.|last10=Butler|first10=R.|last11=DeShon|first11=H.|last12=Ekström|first12=G.|last13=Satake|first13=K.|last14=Sipkin|first14=S.|title=The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004|journal=Science|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1127–1133|doi=10.1126/science.1112250}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/tsunami/sumatraEQ/|title=Tsunamis and Earthquakes: Tsunami Generation from the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake — USGS Western Coastal and Marine Geology|publisher=Walrus.wr.usgs.gov|accessdate=12 August 2010}}</ref> The resulting ] was given various names, including the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, South Asian tsunami, Indonesian tsunami, Christmas tsunami, and the '''Boxing Day tsunami'''. | |||
| ==Earthquake characteristics== | |||
| {{2004 tsunami}} | |||
| The earthquake was initially documented as ] 8.8. In February 2005 scientists revised the estimate of the magnitude to 9.0.<ref>{{cite web|last=McKee|first=Maggie|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991|title=Power of tsunami earthquake heavily underestimated|work=]|date=9 February 2005|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050227152442/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6991 |archivedate=27 February 2005 }}</ref> Although the ] has accepted these new numbers, the ] has so far not changed its estimate of 9.1. The most recent studies in 2006 have obtained a magnitude of M<sub>w</sub> 9.1–9.3. ] of the ] believes that M<sub>w</sub> 9.2 is a good representative value for the size of this great earthquake.<ref>EERI Publication 2006–06, page 14.</ref> | |||
| The ] of the main earthquake was approximately {{convert|160|km|mi|-1|abbr=on}} off the western coast of northern Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean just north of ] island at a depth of {{convert|30|km|abbr=on}} below mean ] (initially reported as {{convert|10|km|abbr=on}}). The northern section of the ] ruptured over a length of {{convert|1300|km|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Archived"/> The earthquake (followed by the tsunami) was felt in ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and the ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Løvholt|first1=F.|last2=Bungum|first2=H.|last3=Harbitz|first3=C. B.|last4=Glimsdal|first4=S.|last5=Lindholm|first5=C. D.|last6=Pedersen|first6=G.|title=Earthquake related tsunami hazard along the western coast of Thailand|journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences|date=30 November 2006|volume=6|issue=6|pages=979–997|doi=10.5194/nhess-6-979-2006|url=http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/6/979/2006/nhess-6-979-2006.pdf|accessdate=16 May 2009|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5gsKCAmW5?url=http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/6/979/2006/nhess-6-979-2006.pdf|archivedate=19 May 2009}}</ref> Splay faults, or secondary "pop up faults", caused long, narrow parts of the sea floor to pop up in seconds. This quickly elevated the height and increased the speed of waves, completely destroying the nearby Indonesian town of ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sibuet |first1=J. |last2=Rangin |first2=C. |last3=Le Pichon |first3=X. |last4=Singh |first4=S. |last5=Cattaneo |first5=A. |last6=Graindorge |first6=D. |last7=Klingelhoefer |first7=F. |last8=Lin |first8=J. |last9=Malod |first9=J. |last10=Maury |first10=T |last11=Schneider |first11=J. |last12=Sultan |first12=N. |last13=Umber |first13=M. |last14=Yamaguchi |first14=H. |author15="Sumatra aftershocks" team |title=26th December 2004 great Sumatra–Andaman earthquake: Co-seismic and post-seismic motions in northern Sumatra |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |date=15 November 2007 |volume=263 |issue=1–2 |pages=88–103 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2007.09.005 |url=http://wwz.ifremer.fr/drogm/content/download/36024/293289/file/2007EPSLSibuet.pdf |accessdate=16 May 2009 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5gsKIqvg4?url=http://wwz.ifremer.fr/drogm/content/download/36024/293289/file/2007EPSLSibuet.pdf |archivedate=19 May 2009 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] of the earthquake, just north of ] Island.]] | |||
| Indonesia lies between the Pacific ] along the north-eastern islands adjacent to ], and the ] that runs along the south and west from ], ], ], ] to ]. | |||
| Great earthquakes such as the Sumatra-Andaman event, which are invariably associated with ] events in ] zones, have ]s that can account for a significant fraction of the global earthquake moment across century-scale time periods. Of all the ] released by earthquakes in the 100 years from 1906 through 2005, roughly one-eighth was due to the Sumatra-Andaman event. This quake, together with the ] (], 1964) and the ] (1960), account for almost half of the total moment. | |||
| Since 1900 the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 ] (magnitude 9.5) and the 1964 Good Friday earthquake in ] (9.2). The only other recorded earthquakes of magnitude 9.0 or greater were off ], Russia, on 4 November 1952 (magnitude 9.0)<ref>"{{cite web|url=http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/world/1952_11_04.html|title=Kamchatka Earthquake, 4 November 1952|publisher=]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012210253/http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/world/1952_11_04.html|archivedate=12 October 2007}}</ref> and ]. Each of these ]s also spawned tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. However, the death toll from these was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts near affected areas and the much greater distances to more populated coasts and also due to the superior infrastructure and warning systems in MEDCs (More Economically Developed Countries) such as Japan. | |||
| Other very large ]s occurred in 1868 (], ] and ]); 1827 (], Nazca Plate and South American Plate); 1812 (], ] and South American Plate) and ] (western North America, ] and ]). All of them are believed to be greater than magnitude 9, but no accurate measurements were available at the time. | |||
| ===Foreshock=== | |||
| The ] is believed to have been a ], predating the main event by over two years.<ref name="Vallée">{{cite journal|last=Vallée|first=M.|year=2007|title=Rupture Properties of the Giant Sumatra Earthquake Imaged by Empirical Green’s Function Analysis|journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America|publisher=]|volume=97|issue=1A|pages=S103–S114|doi=10.1785/0120050616|url=http://igpphome.ucsd.edu/~shearer/Files/Sumatra_Papers/vallee_bssa07.pdf|bibcode=2007BuSSA..97S.103V }}</ref> | |||
| ===Tectonic plates=== | |||
| {{Main article|Plate tectonics}} | |||
| ] comparing the ] release for the largest earthquakes from 1906 to 2005 compared to all other earthquakes for the same period]] | |||
| The megathrust earthquake was unusually large in ] and geological extent. An estimated {{convert|1600|km|mi|-2}} of ] slipped (or ruptured) about {{convert|15|m|ft|-1}} along the ] zone where the ] slides (or subducts) under the overriding ]. The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases over a period of several minutes: | |||
| Seismographic and acoustic data indicate that the first phase involved a rupture about {{convert|400|km|mi|-1}} long and {{convert|100|km|mi|-1}} wide, located {{convert|30|km|mi}} beneath the sea bed—the largest rupture ever known to have been caused by an earthquake. The rupture proceeded at a speed of about {{convert|2.8|km/s|abbr=off}} ({{convert|10000|km/h|mi/h|disp=or|abbr=on}}), beginning off the coast of ] and proceeding north-westerly over a period of about 100 seconds. | |||
| A pause of about another 100 seconds took place before the rupture continued northwards towards the ] and ]. However, the northern rupture occurred more slowly than in the south, at about {{convert|2.1|km/s|abbr=on}} ({{convert|7500|km/h|disp=or|abbr=on}}), continuing north for another five minutes to a plate boundary where the fault type changes from subduction to ] (the two plates slide past one another in opposite directions). | |||
| The ] is part of the great ], which underlies the Indian Ocean and ], and is drifting north-east at an average of 6 centimetres per year ({{convert|6|cm|in|disp=output number only}} inches per year). The India Plate meets the ] (which is considered a portion of the great ]) at the ]. At this point the India Plate subducts beneath the Burma Plate, which carries the ], the ], and northern ]. The India Plate sinks deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure drive ] out of the subducting plate. These volatiles rise into the overlying plate causing ] and the formation of ]. The rising magma intrudes into the crust above and exits the ]'s crust through ]es in the form of a ]. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian Plate subducts the ] has created the ]. | |||
| As well as the sideways movement between the plates, the ] is estimated to have risen by several metres, displacing an estimated {{convert|30|km3|cumi}} of water and triggering devastating ] waves. The waves did not originate from a ], as was inaccurately depicted in some illustrations of their paths of travel, but rather radiated outwards along the entire {{convert|1600|km|mi|-2|adj=on}} length of the rupture (acting as a ]). This greatly increased the geographical area over which the waves were observed, reaching as far as Mexico, Chile, and the Arctic. The raising of the sea floor significantly reduced the capacity of the Indian Ocean, producing a permanent rise in the global sea level by an estimated {{convert|0.1|mm|sigfig=1}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bilham|first1=Roger|title=A Flying Start, Then a Slow Slip|journal=]|date=20 May 2005|volume=308|issue=5725|pages=1126–1127|doi=10.1126/science.1113363}}</ref> | |||
| ===Aftershocks and other earthquakes=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Numerous ]s were reported off the ], the ] and the region of the original epicentre in the hours and days that followed. The magnitude 8.7 ], which originated off the coast of the Sumatran island of ], is not considered an aftershock, despite its proximity to the epicenter, and was most likely ] associated with the 2004 event.<ref name="USGS_2005">{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/poster/2005/20050328.php|title=Poster of the Northern Sumatra Earthquake of 28 March 2005 – Magnitude 8.7|last=USGS|date=22 July 2010|accessdate=26 June 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514113830/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqarchives/poster/2005/20050328.php|archivedate=14 May 2011 |deadurl=no}}</ref> The earthquake produced its own aftershocks (some registering a magnitude of as great as 6.1) and presently ranks as the third largest earthquake ever recorded on the moment magnitude or Richter magnitude scale. | |||
| Other aftershocks of up to magnitude 6.6 continued to shake the region daily for up to three or four months.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4430255.stm|title=Sumatra shaken by new earthquake|publisher=BBC News|date=10 April 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> As well as continuing aftershocks, the energy released by the original earthquake continued to make its presence felt well after the event. A week after the earthquake, its reverberations could still be measured, providing valuable scientific data about the Earth's interior. | |||
| The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in an uninhabited region west of New Zealand's ] ], and north of Australia's ]. This is unusual, since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more occur only about once per year on average.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgs.gov/faq/categories/9830/3355|title=USGS Earthquake Hazards Program: FAQ|publisher=Earthquake.usgs.gov|date=10 December 2012|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> However, the ] sees no evidence of a causal relationship between these events.<ref name="USGS_2004_FAQ">{{cite web | url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2004/us2004slav/faq.php | title=Magnitude 9.1 Sumatra-Andaman Islands Earthquake FAQ | publisher=USGS | date=29 December 2014 | accessdate=6 January 2015}}</ref> | |||
| The December earthquake is thought to have triggered activity in both ]<ref>{{cite web|last=Rinaldo |first=Aditya |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1317370,00050004.htm |title=Thousands flee as Indonesian volcano spews into life |work=] |date=12 April 2005 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217062133/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1317370%2C00050004.htm |archivedate=17 February 2006 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> and ],<ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesian Volcanoes Erupt; Thousands Evacuated |url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/news/5-4-13/27829.html |accessdate=22 April 2006 |date=13 April 2005 |last=Johnston |first=Tim |publisher=VOA News |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050421172352/http://www.theepochtimes.com/news/5-4-13/27829.html |archivedate=21 April 2005 }}</ref> volcanoes in Aceh province along the same range of peaks, while the ] had sparked activity in ], an ancient crater in Sumatra.<ref>{{cite web|author=<!--Staff writer, no by-line-->|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=661767|title=Volcano on Indonesia's Sumatra Erupts|work=]|date=11 April 2005|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050919103130/http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory?id=661767|archivedate=19 September 2005}}</ref> | |||
| ===Energy released=== | |||
| ], Thailand.]] | |||
| The energy released on the Earth's surface only (''M''<sub>E</sub>, which is the ''seismic potential for damage'') by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami was estimated at 1.1×10<sup>17</sup> ]s,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_e.html|title=USGS Energy and Broadband Solution|publisher=National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey|accessdate=12 August 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404013939/http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_e.html|archivedate=4 April 2010}}</ref> or 26 megatons of TNT. This energy is equivalent to over 1,500 times that of the Hiroshima ], but less than that of ], the largest nuclear weapon ever detonated; however, the total ] done ''M''<sub>W</sub> (and thus energy) by the quake was 4.0×10<sup>22</sup> ]s (4.0×10<sup>29</sup> ]s),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_hrv.html|title=USGS, Harvard Moment Tensor Solution|publisher=National Earthquake Information Center, US Geological Survey|date=26 December 2004|accessdate=12 August 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117084041/http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eq_depot/2004/eq_041226/neic_slav_hrv.html|archivedate=17 January 2010}}</ref> the vast majority underground, which is over 360,000 times more than its ''M''<sub>E</sub>, equivalent to 9,600 gigatons of ] (550 million times that of Hiroshima) or about 370 years of ] at 2005 levels of 1.08×10<sup>20</sup> J. | |||
| The only recorded earthquakes with a larger ''M''<sub>W</sub> were the ] and ] quakes, with 2.5×10<sup>23</sup> joules (250 ZJ) and 7.5×10<sup>22</sup> joules (75 ZJ) respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/measure.php|title=USGS:Measuring the size of earthquakes|publisher=Earthquake.usgs.gov|date=27 October 2009|accessdate=12 August 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901233601/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learning/topics/measure.php |archivedate=1 September 2009}}</ref> | |||
| The earthquake generated a seismic oscillation of the Earth's surface of up to {{convert|20|-|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}, equivalent to the effect of the ] caused by the Sun and Moon. The seismic waves of the earthquake were felt across the planet; as far away as the U.S. state of ], where vertical movements of {{convert|3|mm|abbr=on}} were recorded. By February 2005, the earthquake's effects were still detectable as a {{convert|20|um|mm in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} complex harmonic oscillation of the Earth's surface, which gradually diminished and merged with the incessant free oscillation of the Earth more than 4 months after the earthquake.<ref name="Virtanen">{{cite thesis|type=Dissertation|publisher=]|last=Virtanen|first=Heikki|year=2006|title=Studies of earth dynamics with the superconducting gravimeter|url=http://ethesis.helsinki.fi/julkaisut/mat/fysik/vk/virtanen/studieso.pdf|accessdate=21 September 2009}}</ref> | |||
| Because of its enormous energy release and shallow rupture depth, the earthquake generated remarkable seismic ground motions around the globe, particularly due to huge ] that exceeded {{convert|1|cm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} in vertical amplitude everywhere on Earth. The record section plot displays vertical displacements of the Earth's surface recorded by seismometers from the IRIS/USGS Global Seismographic Network plotted with respect to time (since the earthquake initiation) on the horizontal axis, and vertical displacements of the Earth on the vertical axis (note the 1 cm scale bar at the bottom for scale). The seismograms are arranged vertically by distance from the epicenter in degrees. The earliest, lower amplitude, signal is that of the compressional (P) wave, which takes about 22 minutes to reach the other side of the planet (the ]; in this case near Ecuador). The largest amplitude signals are seismic surface waves that reach the antipode after about 100 minutes. The surface waves can be clearly seen to reinforce near the antipode (with the closest seismic stations in Ecuador), and to subsequently encircle the planet to return to the epicentral region after about 200 minutes. A major aftershock (magnitude 7.1) can be seen at the closest stations starting just after the 200 minute mark. The aftershock would be considered a major earthquake under ordinary circumstances, but is dwarfed by the mainshock. | |||
| ] | |||
| The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is not yet known, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake shortened the length of a day by 2.68 ]s, due to a decrease in the ] of the Earth.<ref>{{cite press release|last1=Cook-Anderson|first1=Gretchen|last2=Beasley|first2=Dolores|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/jan/HQ_05011_earthquake.html|title=NASA Details Earthquake Effects on the Earth|publisher=]|date=10 January 2005|accessdate=16 December 2016}}</ref> It also caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to {{convert|2.5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in the direction of 145° east ],<ref>Schechner, Sam. "." ''Slate.'' 27 December 2004.</ref> or perhaps by up to {{convert|5|or|6|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-12/29/content_2389519.htm|title=Italian scientists say Asian quakes cause Earth's axis shifted|agency=]|date=29 December 2004|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705140634/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2004-12/29/content_2389519.htm|archivedate=5 July 2009}}</ref> However, because of tidal effects of the ], the length of a day increases at an average of 15 ] per year, so any rotational change due to the earthquake will be lost quickly. Similarly, the natural ] of the Earth, which in some cases can be up to {{convert|15|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, will eventually offset the minor wobble produced by the earthquake. | |||
| There was {{convert|10|m|abbr=on}} movement laterally and {{convert|4|-|5|m|abbr=on}} vertically along the fault line. Early speculation was that some of the smaller islands south-west of Sumatra, which is on the ] (the southern regions are on the ]), might have moved south-west by up to {{convert|36|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}, but more accurate data released more than a month after the earthquake found the movement to be about {{convert|20|cm|in|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite news|author=Staff Writer|title=Quake moved Sumatra by only 20 centimeters: Danish scientists|date=31 January 2005|agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> Since movement was vertical as well as lateral, some coastal areas may have been moved to below sea level. The ] appear to have shifted south-west by around {{convert|1.25|m|ftin|abbr=on}} and to have sunk by {{convert|1|m|ftin|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bagla|first=Pallava|work=Science Now|title=After the Earth Moved|date=28 January 2005|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2005/01/after-earth-moved|accessdate=16 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| In February 2005, the ] vessel ] surveyed the seabed around the earthquake zone, which varies in depth between {{convert|1000|and|5000|m|fathom ft|abbr=on}}. The survey, conducted using a high-resolution, multi-beam ] system, revealed that the earthquake had made a huge impact on the topography of the seabed. {{convert|1500|m|ft|adj=mid|-high|sigfig=1}} thrust ridges created by previous geologic activity along the fault had collapsed, generating ]s several kilometres wide. One such landslide consisted of a single block of rock some 100 m high and 2 km long (300 ft by 1.25 mi). The momentum of the water displaced by tectonic uplift had also dragged massive slabs of rock, each weighing millions of tons, as far as {{convert|10|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} across the seabed. An ] several kilometres wide was exposed in the earthquake zone.<ref>{{cite news|last=Knight|first=Will|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6994|title=Asian tsunami seabed pictured with sonar|work=]|date=10 February 2005|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050227163829/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6994|archivedate=27 February 2005}}</ref> | |||
| The ] and ] satellites happened to pass over the tsunami as it was crossing the ocean.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2005-013|title=NASA/French Satellite Data Reveal New Details of Tsunami|publisher=]/]|date=11 January 2005|accessdate=16 December 2016|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305182017/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2005-013|archivedate=5 March 2016|deadurl=no}}</ref> These satellites carry ]s that measure precisely the height of the water surface; anomalies of the order of {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} were measured. Measurements from these satellites may prove invaluable for the understanding of the earthquake and tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com/en/applications/geodesy-and-geophysics/tsunamis/index.html|title=TOPEX/Poseidon Satellite Data on 26 December 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean|work=Aviso|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624101155/http://www.aviso.oceanobs.com/en/applications/geodesy-and-geophysics/tsunamis/index.html|archivedate=24 June 2011}}</ref> Unlike data from ]s installed on shores, measurements obtained in the middle of the ocean can be used for computing the parameters of the source earthquake without having to compensate for the complex ways in which close proximity to the coast changes the size and shape of a wave. | |||
| ==Tsunami== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| The sudden vertical rise of the ] by several metres during the earthquake displaced massive volumes of water, resulting in a tsunami that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean. A tsunami that causes damage far away from its source is sometimes called a ] and is much more likely to be produced by vertical motion of the seabed than by horizontal motion.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lorca|first=Emilio|author2=Recabarren, Margot|title=Earthquakes and tsunamis: high school textbook|year=1997|url=http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001115/111576eo.pdf|accessdate=16 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| The tsunami, like all others, behaved very differently in deep water than in shallow water. In deep ocean water, tsunami waves form only a low, very broad hump, barely noticeable and harmless, which generally travels at a very high speed of {{convert|500|to|1000|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}; in shallow water near coastlines, a tsunami slows down to only tens of kilometres per hour but, in doing so, forms large destructive waves. Scientists investigating the damage in Aceh found evidence that the wave reached a height of {{convert|24|m|ft|sigfig=1}} when coming ashore along large stretches of the coastline, rising to {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1}} in some areas when traveling inland.<ref name="Paris">{{cite journal|last=Paris|first=R.|author2=Lavigne F. |author3=Wassimer P. |author4=Sartohadi J.|year=2007|title=Coastal sedimentation associated with the December 26, 2004 tsunami in Lhok Nga, west Banda Aceh (Sumatra, Indonesia)|journal=Marine Geology|publisher=Elsevier|volume=238|issue=1–4|pages=93–106|doi=10.1016/j.margeo.2006.12.009}}</ref> | |||
| ] satellites recorded the heights of tsunami waves in deep water: at two hours after the earthquake, the maximum height was {{convert|60|cm|ft|sigfig=1}}. These are the first such observations ever made. These observations could not be used to provide a warning, since the satellites were not built for that purpose and the data took hours to analyze.<ref>{{cite news|last=Leslie|first=John|url=http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2005/s2365.htm|title=NOAA Scientists able to Measure Tsunami Height from Space|work=NOAA Magazine|publisher=]|date=10 January 2005|accessdate=16 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=McKee|first=Maggie|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6854|title=Radar satellites capture tsunami wave height|work=]|date=6 January 2005|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924134642/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6854 |archivedate=24 September 2008}}</ref> | |||
| According to ], vice-president of the ], the total energy of the tsunami waves was equivalent to about five ] of ] (20 ]), which is more than twice the total explosive energy used during all of World War II (including the two ]s) but still a couple of ] less than the energy released in the earthquake itself. In many places the waves reached as far as {{convert|2|km|mi|abbr=on}} inland.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Pearce|first1=Fred|last2=Holmes|first2=Bob|url=https://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524825.100|title=Tsunami: The impact will last for decades|work=New Scientist|date=15 January 2005|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417042254/http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524825.100 |archivedate=17 April 2008}}</ref> | |||
| ] one hour after the M=9.2 earthquake. View to the northwest.]] | |||
| Because the {{convert|1600|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} fault affected by the earthquake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. ], which lies at the northern end of the ], had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country relatively near the epicenter. It also benefited from the fact that the earthquake proceeded more slowly in the northern rupture zone, greatly reducing the energy of the water displacements in that region. | |||
| Coasts that have a landmass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes ] around such landmasses. Thus, the state of ] was hit by the tsunami despite being on the western coast of ], and the western coast of Sri Lanka suffered substantial impacts. Distance alone was no guarantee of safety, as ] was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away. | |||
| Because of the distances involved, the tsunami took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours to reach the coastlines.<ref>{{cite web|title=Tsunami time travel map |url=http://tsun.sscc.ru/tsulab/20041226trt.htm |publisher=Tsunami Laboratory, Novosibirsk, Russia |accessdate=20 July 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403182951/http://tsun.sscc.ru/tsulab/20041226trt.htm |archivedate=3 April 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://staff.aist.go.jp/kenji.satake/Sumatra-E.html |title=Time travel map: Active Fault Research Center: National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Japan |publisher=Staff.aist.go.jp |accessdate=24 December 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717104438/http://staff.aist.go.jp/kenji.satake/Sumatra-E.html |archivedate=17 July 2012 }}</ref> The northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, while Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 90 minutes to two hours later. Thailand was struck about two hours later despite being closer to the epicentre, because the tsunami traveled more slowly in the shallow ] off its western coast. | |||
| The tsunami was noticed as far as ] in ], some {{convert|8500|km|mi|abbr=on}} away, where a {{convert|1.5|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} high tide surged on shore about 16 hours after the earthquake. It took a relatively long time to reach Struisbaai at the southernmost point of Africa, probably because of the broad continental shelf off South Africa and because the tsunami would have followed the South African coast from east to west. The tsunami also reached ], where tidal gauges at Japan's ] recorded oscillations of up to a metre ({{convert|1|m|ftin|disp=output only}}), with disturbances lasting a couple of days.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/KANKYO/KAIYO/KOUHOU/iotunami/iotunami_eng.html |title=Indian Ocean Tsunami" at Syowa Station, Antarctica |publisher=Hydrographic and Oceanographic Dept. Japan Coast Guard|accessdate=17 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| Some of the tsunami's energy escaped into the Pacific Ocean, where it produced small but measurable tsunamis along the western coasts of North and South America, typically around {{convert|20|to|40|cm|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/IndianOSite/IndianO12-26-04.htm |title=Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December 2004 |publisher=West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (USGS) |date=31 December 2004 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204070520/http://wcatwc.arh.noaa.gov/IndianOSite/IndianO12-26-04.htm |archivedate=4 February 2012}}</ref> At ], Mexico, a {{convert|2.6|m|abbr=on}} crest-to-trough tsunami was measured. As well, the tsunami was large enough to be detected in ], British Columbia, Canada, which puzzled many scientists, as the tsunamis measured in some parts of South America were larger than those measured in some parts of the Indian Ocean. It has been theorized that the tsunamis were focused and directed at long ranges by the ]s which run along the margins of the continental plates.<ref>{{cite web |last=Carey |first=Bjorn |url=http://www.livescience.com/9314-tsunami-waves-channeled-globe-2004-disaster.html |title=Tsunami Waves Channeled Around the Globe in 2004 Disaster |work=LiveScience |date=25 August 2005 |accessdate=17 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| ===Signs and warnings=== | |||
| ], Thailand, prior the third—and strongest—tsunami wave (sea visible in the right corner, the beach is at the extreme left), 10:25 am local time.]] | |||
| Despite a lag of up to several hours between the earthquake and the impact of the tsunami, nearly all of the victims were taken completely by surprise. There were no ]s in the ] to detect tsunamis or to warn the general population living around the ocean.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=] |title=The 2004 Boxing Day tsunami |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/blogs/on-this-day/2014/12/on-this-day-in-history-boxing-day-tsunami |accessdate=5 March 2015}}</ref> Tsunami detection is not easy because while a tsunami is in deep water it has little height and a network of sensors is needed to detect it. Setting up the communications infrastructure to issue timely warnings is an even bigger problem, particularly in a relatively poor part of the world. | |||
| Tsunamis are much more frequent in the ] because of earthquakes in the "]", and an effective tsunami warning system has long been in place there. Although the extreme western edge of the Ring of Fire extends into the Indian Ocean (the point where the earthquake struck), no warning system exists in that ocean. Tsunamis there are relatively rare despite earthquakes being relatively frequent in Indonesia. The last major tsunami was caused by the ] eruption of 1883. It should be noted that not every earthquake produces large tsunamis; on 28 March 2005, a magnitude 8.7 earthquake hit roughly the same area of the Indian Ocean but did not result in a major tsunami. | |||
| The first warning sign of a possible tsunami is the earthquake itself. However, tsunamis can strike thousands of kilometres away where the earthquake is only felt weakly or not at all. Also, in the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast, which was observed on the eastern side of the rupture zone of the earthquake such as around the coastlines of ] province, ] island and ] area in Thailand, ] island of Malaysia and the ]. Around the Indian Ocean, this rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect stranded fish on as much as 2.5 km (1.6 mi) of exposed beach, with fatal results.<ref>{{cite web|last=Block|first=Melissa|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4246573|title=Sri Lankans Seek Lost Relatives After Tsunami|work=]|publisher=]|date=27 December 2004|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref> However, not all tsunamis cause this "disappearing sea" effect. In some cases, there are no warning signs at all: the sea will suddenly swell without retreating, surprising many people and giving them little time to flee. | |||
| Reportedly, ] near the abundant ] in ] and the ] were caught off guard by violent, swirling underwater ]. The divers described the experience like being in a 'washing machine'. Coral reef animals such as fish were also absent as the tsunami passed by.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scubadiverlife.com/video/scuba-diving-in-a-tsunami/|title=Scuba Diving in a Tsunami|author=Nadia Aly|work=Scuba Diver Life|date=5 April 2014|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| One of the few coastal areas to evacuate ahead of the tsunami was on the Indonesian island of ], very close to the epicentre. Island folklore recounted an earthquake and tsunami in 1907, and the islanders fled to inland hills after the initial shaking and before the tsunami struck. These tales and oral folklore from previous generations may have helped the survival of the inhabitants.<ref>Campbell, Matthew; Loveard, Keith; et al. "." ''Times Online''. 2 January 2005.</ref> On Maikhao beach in northern ], Thailand, a 10-year-old British tourist named ] had studied tsunami in geography at school and recognised the warning signs of the receding ocean and frothing bubbles. She and her parents warned others on the beach, which was evacuated safely.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1480192/Girl-10-used-geography-lesson-to-save-lives.html|title=Girl, 10, used geography lesson to save lives|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=1 January 2005|location=London|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref> ], a biology teacher from Scotland, also recognised the signs at Kamala Bay north of Phuket, taking a busload of vacationers and locals to safety on higher ground. | |||
| ]s had initially expected the ] of the ] to be badly affected by the tsunami and even feared the already depopulated ] could have been wiped out.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4135187.stm |title=Andaman aborigines' fate unclear|author=Subir Bhaumik|date=30 December 2004|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=13 February 2010}}</ref> Many of the ] tribes evacuated and suffered fewer casualties.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gupta|first1=Manu|last2=Sharma |first2=Anshu |year=2006|title=Compounded loss: the post tsunami recovery experience of Indian island communities|journal=Disaster Prevention and Management|volume=15|issue=1|pages=67–78|doi=10.1108/09653560610654248}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Math|first1=Suresh Bada|last2=Girimaji1|first2=Satish Chandra|last3=Benegal |year=2006|first3=V|last4=Uday Kumar|first4=GS|last5=Hamza |first5=A|last6=Nagaraja|first6=D |title=Tsunami: Psychosocial aspects of Andaman and Nicobar islands. Assessments and intervention in the early phase |journal=] |volume=18|pmid=16753660|issue=3|pages=233–239 |doi=10.1080/09540260600656001}}</ref> Oral traditions developed from previous earthquakes helped the aboriginal tribes escape the tsunami. For example, the folklore of the Onges talks of "huge shaking of ground followed by high wall of water". Almost all of the Onge people seemed to have survived the tsunami.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4181855.stm|publisher=BBC News|first=Subir|last=Bhaumik |title=Tsunami folklore 'saved islanders'|date=20 January 2005|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| ===Aceh province, Sumatra, Indonesia=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] struck the west and north coasts of northern ], particularly in ] province, Indonesia during the fresh morning. At Ulee Lheue in ], a survivor described three waves, with the first wave rising only to the foundation of the buildings. | |||
| This was followed by a large withdrawal of the sea before the second and third waves hit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eeri.org/lfe/clearinghouse/sumatra_tsunami/reports/EERI_report_indonesia_jcb_2-11-05.pdf|title=Field Survey northern Sumatra and Banda Aceh, Indonesia and after the Tsunami and Earthquake of 26 December 2004|last=Borrero|first=Jose C.|place=Los Angeles|publisher=Department of Civil Engineering, University of Southern California|date=9 February 2005|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref> The tsunami reached shore 15–20 minutes after the earthquake, and the second was bigger than the first. A local resident living at Banda Aceh stated that the wave was 'higher than my house'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0p_6G5GIeo|title=YouTube|publisher=}}</ref> Another resident living {{convert|2|km|mi|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} near the coast on the outskirt of the city informed that the tsunami was 'like a wall, very black' in colour and had a 'distinct sound' getting louder as it nears the coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4U_ToDTq-Y&list=PLC3A3BBE848AAFBA3|title=Great Tsunami 12/26/04 @ Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia 1 of 3|first=|last=red17khmer|date=30 November 2008|publisher=|via=YouTube}}</ref> | |||
| The maximum runup height of the tsunami was measured at a hill between ] and ], located on the west coast of the northern tip of ], near Banda Aceh, and reached more than {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="geomorphologie.revues.org"/> | |||
| The tsunami heights in Sumatra:<ref name="tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp"/> | |||
| * 15–30 m (49 ft–98 ft) on the west coast of Aceh. | |||
| * 6–12 m (19.7 ft–39.4 ft) on the Banda Aceh coast. | |||
| * 6 m (19.7 ft) on the Krueng Raya coast ( 3 oil tanks floated out) | |||
| * 5 m (16.4 ft) on the ] coast. | |||
| * 3–6 m (9.8 ft–19.7 ft) on the north coast of ] directly facing the tsunami source. | |||
| * 3 m (9.8 ft) on the opposite side of the coast of Weh Island facing the tsunami. | |||
| The tsunami height on the Banda Aceh coast were lower than half of that on the west ]. The tsunami height was reduced by half from 12 m (39.4 ft) at Ulee Lheue to 6 m (19.7 ft) a further 8 km (4.97 miles) to the northeast. The inundation was observed to lie 3–4 km (1.86–2.49 miles) inland throughout the city. Flow depths over the ground were observed to be over 9 m (29.5 ft) in the seaside section of Ulee Lheue and tapered landward. The level of destruction was more extreme on the northwestern flank of the city in the areas immediately inland of the aquaculture ponds. The area toward the sea was wiped clean of nearly every structure, while closer to the river—dense construction in a commercial district showed the effects of severe flooding. The flow depth was just at the level of the second floor, and there were large amounts of debris piled along the streets and in the ground-floor storefronts. One of the reasons seems to be that there is an ] between ] and Banda Aceh. Within 2–3 km (1.24–1.86 miles) from the shoreline, houses, except for strongly-built reinforced concrete ones with brick walls, which seemed to have been partially damaged by the earthquake before the tsunami attack, were completely swept away or destroyed by the tsunami.<ref name="tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C2.pdf|title=Chapter 2 Earthquake, Tsunami and Damage in Banda Aceh and Northern Sumatra|work=tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="Borreroetal2006">{{cite journal|last1=Borrero|first1=Jose C.|last2=Synolakis|first2=Costas E.|last3=Fritz|first3=Hermann|title=Northern Sumatra Field Survey after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|publisher=Earthquake Engineering Research Institute|date=June 2006|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=93–104|doi=10.1193/1.2206793|url=http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/sum_eqs_v22-iS3_127607eqs.pdf}}</ref> | |||
| Three small islands: Weh, Breueh, and Nasi, lie just north of the capital city. The tsunami effects on two of the islands, Breueh and Nasi were extreme, with a runup of 10–20 m (33–66 ft) on the west-facing shores. Coastal villages were completely destroyed by the tsunami waves. On ], however, the island experienced strong surges in the port of ], yet there was little damage with a reported runup values of 3–5 m (9.8–16.4 ft), which was most likely shadowed from the direct tsunami attack by the islands to the southwest.<ref name="Borreroetal2006"/> | |||
| In ], a town in ], Aceh Special Region, ], located on the western side of the island of Sumatra, 13 km (8.08 miles) southwest of ] was completely flattened and destroyed by the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, where its population dwindled from 7,500 to 400. The tsunami waves were almost 30 m (98.4 ft) high. Eyewitnesses reported 10 to 12 waves, the second and third ones being the highest. The sea receded (drawback) 10 minutes after the earthquake and the first wave came rapidly landward as a turbulent flow (flood) with depths ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 m (1.64 ft–8.20 ft) high. The second and third waves was 15–30 m (49.2 ft–98.4 ft) high at the coast, described having an appearance to a surf wave (cobra-shaped) but 'taller than the coconut trees' and was 'like a mountain'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UPWlFogY7Kw|title=Seconds From Disaster S03E13 Asian Tsunami|first=|last=Kaget Mera|date=25 January 2016|publisher=|via=YouTube}}</ref> Consequently, the tsunami also stranded cargo ships and barges and destroyed a cement factory near the Lampuuk coast.<ref name="geomorphologie.revues.org"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aEvk1oFGIO8&list=PLC3A3BBE848AAFBA3&index=3|title=Great Tsunami 12-26-04 at Banda Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia 3 of 3|first=|last=red17khmer|date=30 November 2008|publisher=|via=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiD7pJl0PnA|title=Boxing Day Tsunami Banda Aceh 4 of 4|first=|last=geoffmackley|date=19 November 2009|publisher=|via=YouTube}}</ref> Moreover, surveyed areas by scientists show runup heights over 20 m (65.6 ft) on the northwest coast of Sumatra in the Aceh province with a maximum runup of 51 m (167.3 ft).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sos.noaa.gov/Datasets/dataset.php?id=556|title=Tsunami Wave Run-ups: Indian Ocean – 2004|work=Science on a Sphere|publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| In ] based on survivor testimonies, tsunami arrived after the sea receded about 500 m (0.31 miles), followed by an advancing small tsunami. The second and third destructive waves arrived later, which exceeded the height of the coconut trees. The inundation distance is about 5 km (3.1 miles).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.vassar.edu/brmcadoo/yalciner-et-al-2005.pdf|last1=Yalciner|first1=A.C.|last2=Perincek|first2=D.|last3=Ersoy|first3=S.|last4=Presateya|first4=G.|last5=Hidayat|first5=R.|last6=McAdoo|first6=B.|date=2005|title=Report on December 26, 2004, Indian Ocean Tsunami, Field Survey on Jan 21–31 at North of Sumatra|publisher=ITST of UNESCO IOC|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| Such high and fast waves arising from the ] by a ] were later found to be due to splay faults, secondary faults arising due to cracking of the sea floor to jut upwards in seconds, causing waves' ] and height to increase. A large slip of 30 m (98.4 ft) was estimated on the subfault located off the west coast of Aceh province. Another factor is subsidence at Banda Aceh (20–60 cm), Peukan Bada (>20 cm), Lhok Nga and ] (>1.5 m).<ref name="tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp"/> | |||
| ].]] | |||
| Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster included Leupung, Lhokruet, Lamno, Patek, ], Teunom, and the island of ]. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north and east coast were Pidie Regency, Samalanga, Panteraja and Lhokseumawe. | |||
| The very high fatality in the area is mainly due to the unpreparedness of the population from such an event. Helicopter survey showed entire settlements virtually destroyed with destruction miles inland with only some mosques left standing, which provided refuge for the people from the tsunami. | |||
| ===Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India=== | |||
| The tsunami arrived in the ] minutes after the earthquake, and it caused extensive devastation to the islands' environment. Specifically, the Andaman Islands were moderately affected while the island of Little Andaman and the Nicobar Islands were severely affected by the tsunami. The tsunami survey were carried out in Little Andaman (mainly at Hut Bay), South Andaman (mainly in and around Port Blair), Car Nicobar (along Kankana-Mus sector), Great Nicobar (mainly at Campbell Bay and Joginder Nagar area). <ref>file:///C:/Users/acer/Documents/TsunamisurveyinAndamanandNicobargroupofIslands.pdf</ref> | |||
| In the South Andaman, based on local eyewitnesses, tsunami waves attacked three times. Of the three, the third one was the most devastating. Flooding occurred at the coastlines of the islands and low-lying areas inland, which are connected to open sea through creeks. Inundation has been observed, along east coast of South Andaman Island and is found to be restricted at Chidiyatapu, Burmanallah, Kodiaghat, Beadnabad, Corbyn’s cove and Marina Park/Aberdeen Jetty areas. Along the west coast, the inundation has been observed around Guptapara, Manjeri, Wandoor, Collinpur and Tirur regions. Several near shore establishments and numerous infrastructures such as seawalls and a 20 MW diesel generated power plant at Bamboo Flat were extensively damaged. <ref>file:///C:/Users/acer/Documents/TsunamisurveyinAndamanandNicobargroupofIslands.pdf</ref> | |||
| Results of the tsunami survey in South Andaman along Chiriyatapu, Corbyn’s Cove and Wandoor beaches: | |||
| * 5.0 m (16.4 ft) in maximum tsunami height with a run-up of 4.24 m (13.9 ft) at Chiriyatapu Beach. | |||
| * 5.48 m (18 ft) in maximum tsunami height and run-up at Corbyn's Cove Beach. | |||
| * 6.64 m (21.8 ft) in maximum tsunami height and run-up of 4.63 m (15.2 ft) at Wandoor Beach. | |||
| Meanwhile, in the Little Andaman, tsunami waves impinged on the eastern shore of this island 25 to 30 minutes after the earthquake. It was a four-wave cycle; out of which the fourth one was most devastating with a tsunami wave height of about 10 m (33 ft). The tsunami water had converted the settlements at Hut Bay into rubbles within a range of 1 km inland from the seashore. Everything was destroyed including the jetty and the breakwater. Run up level up to 3.3 m (10.8 ft) have been measured. <ref>file:///C:/Users/acer/Documents/TsunamisurveyinAndamanandNicobargroupofIslands.pdf</ref> | |||
| Moreover, in Malacca located on the island of Car Nicobar, According to local people, three pulses of tsunami waves attacked the area three times. The first wave that came 5 minutes after the earthquake was preceded by recession of the seawater up to 600-700 m (1969-2297 ft), exposing the seabed. The second and third waves came with a 10 minutes interval after the first and second waves respectively. The third wave was the strongest, with a maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft) and was accompanied by a loud noise. The landward flow direction measured from bent rods was towards S800 W and the back flow was towards east direction. The inundation limit is 1.125 m (0.41 ft) from the sea water/land contact (on the date of measurement) towards west and restricted up to 10 m. <ref>file:///C:/Users/acer/Documents/TsunamisurveyinAndamanandNicobargroupofIslands.pdf</ref> | |||
| Furthermore, waves nearly 3 stories high devastated the Indian Air Force base, located just south of Malacca. The tsunami waves attacked the area three times with a maximum tsunami wave height of 11 m (36 ft). Inundation limit was found to be up to 1.25 km (4101 ft) inland. The impact of the waves was so severe that four Oil tankers of IOC were thrown almost 800 m (2624 ft) from the seashore near Malacca to Air force colony main gate. <ref>file:///C:/Users/acer/Documents/TsunamisurveyinAndamanandNicobargroupofIslands.pdf</ref> In Chuckchucha and Lapati, the tsunami arrived in a three wave cycle with a maximum tsunami wave height of 12 m (39 ft). | |||
| In Campbell Bay of Great Nicobar island, the tsunami waves hit the area three times with an inundation limit of 250-550 m (820-1804 ft). The first wave came within 5 minutes of the earthquake. The second and third waves came 10 minutes after first and second waves respectively. The second wave was the strongest with a loud noise. Deadly tsunami waves wreaked havoc in this densely populated Jogindar Nagar area, situated 13 km south of Campbell Bay. According to local information, tsunami waves attacked the area thrice. The first wave came 5 minutes after the main shock (0629 hrs.) with a marginal drop in sea level. Second wave came 10 minutes after the first one with a maximum height of 4.84 m (15.9 ft) and caused the major destruction. The third wave came within 15 minutes after the second one with a lower wave height. The maximum inundation limit due to tsunami water | |||
| intrusion has been found to be about 500 m (0.5 km). <ref>file:///C:/Users/acer/Documents/TsunamisurveyinAndamanandNicobargroupofIslands.pdf</ref> | |||
| The worst affected island in the Andaman & Nicobar chain is Katchall Island with 303 people confirmed dead and 4,354 missing out of a total population of 5,312.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iset.org.in/pdf/souvenir%20&%20abstract%20volume/37-41.pdf|title=Damage to Andaman & Nicobar Islands due to Earthquake and Tsunami of Dec. 26, 2004|last1=Paul|first1=D.K.|last2=Singh|first2=Yogendra|last3=Dubey|first3=R.N.|publisher=Department of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="andamanconnections.com">{{cite web|url=http://andamanconnections.com/andaman_tsunami.html|title=Tsunami in Andaman & Nicobar Islands|work=Andamanconnections.com|accessdate=20 December 2016}}</ref><ref name="istructe.org">{{cite book|url=https://www.istructe.org/downloads/resources-centre/technical-topic-area/eefit/eefit-reports/indian-ccean-tsunami.pdf|title=The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26 December 2004: Mission Findings in Sri Lanka and Thailand|first1=Antonios|last1=Pomonis|first2=Tiziana|last2=Rossetto|first3=Navin|last3=Peiris|first4=Sean|last4=Wilkinson|first5=Domenico|last5=Del Re|first6=Raymond|last6=Koo|first7=Raul|last7=Manlapig|first8=Stewart|last8=Gallocher|publisher=Earthquake Engineering Field Investigation Team, Institution of Structural Engineers|place=London|date=February 2006|ISBN=0-901297-41-0}}</ref> | |||
| Eyewitnesses at ] recall that the water receded before the first wave, and the third wave was the tallest and caused the most damage. However, at Hut Bay, Malacca and ] — locations far south of Port Blair — it was reported that the water level rose by about 1–2 m (3.3 ft–6.6 ft) from the normal ] and remained there before the first ] crashed ashore. | |||
| Reports of tsunami wave height:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eeri.org/lfe/pdf/india_tsunami_eeri_report.pdf|title=The Great Sumatra Earthquake and Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004: The Effects in Mainland India and in the Andaman-Nicobar Islands|work=EERI Special Earthquake Report|date=April 2005|accessdate=21 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | |||
| |first1=M. V.|last1=Ramanamurthy | |||
| |first2=S.|last2=Sundaramoorthy | |||
| |first3=Y.|last3=Pari | |||
| |first4=V. Ranga|last4=Rao | |||
| |first5=P.|last5=Mishra | |||
| |first6=M.|last6=Bhat | |||
| |first7=Tune|last7=Usha | |||
| |first8=R.|last8=Venkatesan | |||
| |first9=B. R.|last9=Subramanian|url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/jun102005/1736.pdf|pages=1736–1740|journal=]|volume=88|issue=11|date=10 June 2005|title=Inundation of sea water in Andaman and Nicobar Islands and parts of Tamil Nadu coast during 2004 Sumatra tsunami}}</ref> | |||
| * 1.5 m (4.9 ft) at Diglipur and Rangat at North Andaman Island. | |||
| * 8 m (26.2 ft) high at Campbell Bay (in ]), | |||
| * 10–12 m (32.8 ft–39.4 ft) high at Malacca (in Car Nicobar Island) and at Hut Bay (in ]). | |||
| * 3 m (9.8 ft) high at Port Blair (in South Andaman Island). | |||
| The significant shielding of Port Blair and Campbell Bay by steep mountainous outcrops may have contributed to the relatively low wave heights at these locations, whereas the open terrain along the eastern coast at Malacca and ] likely contributed to the great height of the tsunami waves <ref name="andamanconnections.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nicee.org/SumatraEQ_India_IITK_QuickReport.pdf|title=Quick Report on the Study of the 2004 Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami Effects|publisher=Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur|accessdate=21 December 2016}}</ref> | |||
| Indeed, many infrastructures near the coasts and buildings were harshly damaged by the waves.<ref name="istructe.org"/> | |||
| ===Sri Lanka=== | |||
| The tsunami first arrived on the eastern coast and subsequently refracted around the southern point of ] (Dondra Head). The refracted tsunami waves inundated the southwestern part of Sri Lanka after some of its energy had been reflected from impact with the ].<ref name="nzsee.org.nz">http://www.nzsee.org.nz/db/Bulletin/Archive/38(4)0235.pdf</ref> Sri Lanka is located 1,700 km (1056.33 miles) far from the ] and the tsunami source, so no one felt the ground shake and the tsunami hit the entire coastline of Sri Lanka around 2 hours after the earthquake.<ref name="ReferenceA">http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C3.pdf</ref> | |||
| It seems that the tsunami flooding consisted of three main waves, with the second being the largest and most destructive.<ref name="faculty.vassar.edu">http://faculty.vassar.edu/brmcadoo/SriLankaPapadopetal.pdf</ref> The first tsunami waves had initially caused a small flood (positive wave) as it struck the Sri Lankan coastline. Moments later, the ocean floor was exposed to as much as 1 km (0.62 miles) in places due to drawback (negative wave), which was followed by a massive second tsunami wave, which is in the form of a flood. Certain locations managed to reduce the power of the waves through construction of seawalls and breakwaters. | |||
| The largest run-up measured was at 12.5 m (41 ft) with inundation distance of 390 m to 1.5 km (0.242 miles-0.932 miles) in ].<ref name="earthquakespectra.org">{{cite journal|url=http://earthquakespectra.org/doi/abs/10.1193/1.2205897|title=Sri Lanka Field Survey after the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami|first1=James|last1=Goff|first2=Philip L-F.|last2=Liu|first3=Bretwood|last3=Higman|first4=Robert|last4=Morton|first5=Bruce E.|last5=Jaffe|first6=Harindra|last6=Fernando|first7=Patrick|last7=Lynett|first8=Hermann|last8=Fritz|first9=Costas|last9=Synolakis|first10=Starin|last10=Fernando|publisher=|volume=22|issue=S3|pages=155–172|doi=10.1193/1.2205897}}</ref> In ], tsunami run-ups are measured at 11 m (36.1 ft) with the greatest inundation distance of 2 km (1.24 miles), and tsunami run-up measurements along the Sri Lankan coasts are at 2.4–11 m (7.87 ft–36.1 ft).<ref name="nzsee.org.nz"/><ref name="earthquakespectra.org"/> Tsunami waves measured on the east coast ranged from 4.5 m-9 m (14.8 ft–29.5 ft) at Pottuvill to around ], 2.6 m- 5 m (8.53 ft–16.4 ft) in the northeast around ] and 4 m-5 m (13.1 ft–16.4 ft) in the west coast from Moratuwa to Ambalangoda. | |||
| ], Sri Lanka.]] | |||
| Sri Lanka tsunami height survey:<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="faculty.vassar.edu"/> | |||
| * 9 m (29.5 Ft) at ]. | |||
| * 6 m (19.7 ft) at Galle port. | |||
| * 4.8 m (15.7 ft) around the ] coast. | |||
| * 8.71 m (28.6 ft) at Nonagama. | |||
| * 4.9 m (16.1 ft) at ]. | |||
| * 4 m (13.1 ft) at Dodundawa. | |||
| * 4.7 m (15.4 ft) at Ambalangoda. | |||
| * 4.7 m (15.4 ft) at ] Fishery Harbour. | |||
| * 10 m (33 ft) at Kahawa. | |||
| * 4.8 m (15.7 ft) at North Beach of ]. | |||
| * 6 m (19.7 ft) at Paiyagala. | |||
| The Sumudra Devi, a passenger train out of ], was derailed and overturned by the tsunami.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7795709_Observations_by_the_International_Tsunami_Survey_Team_in_Sri_Lanka_Science_3081595|title=Observations by the International Tsunami Survey Team in Sri Lanka|first=P. L.-F.|last=Liu|date=1 July 2005|publisher=|volume=308|issue=5728|pages=1595–1595|doi=10.1126/science.1110730}}</ref> The tsunami caused the ] which took at least 1,700 lives, making it the largest single rail disaster in world history by death toll. Estimates based on the state of the ] and a high-water mark on a nearby building place the tsunami 7.5–9 m (24.6 ft to 29.5 ft) above sea level and 2–3 m (6.6 ft to 9.8 ft) higher than the top of the train.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> | |||
| In Sri Lanka, the civilian casualties were second only to those in ]. Reports vary on the number of deaths since many people are still missing and the country lacks adequate communications. The eastern shores of Sri Lanka faced the hardest impact since they were facing the epicenter of the earthquake. The southwestern shores were hit later, but the death toll was just as severe. The southwestern shores are a hotspot for tourists as well as the fishing economy. Tourism and fishing industries created high population densities along the coast.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/HELGESTJ/|title=Tsunami – Tsunami Disaster in Sri Lanka|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| The coastal lifestyle of people and degradation of the natural environment in Sri Lanka contributed to the high death tolls. In addition to the high number of fatalities, approximately 90,000 buildings were destroyed. Houses were easily destroyed since they were built mostly from wood.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> | |||
| ===Thailand=== | |||
| The tsunami hit the southwest coast of southern ], which was about 500 km (310.69 miles) from the epicenter. The region is prominent with tourists internationally. Since the tsunami hit during high tide, its damage was severe. Approximately 5,400 people were killed and 3,100 people were reported missing in Thailand. The places where the tsunami struck were Khao Lak, Phuket Island, the ], Koh Racha Yai, Koh Lanta Yai and Ao Nang of ], offshore archipelagos like the ], the ], and coastal areas of ], ], ], ] and ] provinces. | |||
| The country experienced the largest tsunami runup height of any location outside of ], which occurred at ] and the areas of Takua Pa district that are facing the Andaman Sea. The tsunami heights recorded:<ref name="ReferenceB"/><ref name="marine.tmd.go.th">http://www.marine.tmd.go.th/Presentation/Alexandria/The%202004%20Indian%20tsunami%20in%20Thailand%20Surveyed%20runup%20heights%20and%20tide%20gauge%20records.pdf</ref> | |||
| * 6–10 m (19.7 ft–32.8 ft) in Khao Lak. | |||
| * 3–6 m (9.84 ft–19.7 ft) along the west coast of Phuket island. | |||
| * 3 m (9.84 ft) along the south coast of Phuket island. | |||
| * 2 m (6.56 ft) along the east coast of Phuket island. | |||
| * 4–6 m (13.12 ft–19.7 ft) on the Phi Phi Islands. | |||
| * 19.6 m (64.3 ft) at Ban Thung Dap. | |||
| * 5 m (16.4 ft) at Ramson. | |||
| * 6.8 m (22.3 ft) at Ban Thale Nok. | |||
| * 5 m (16.4 ft) at Hat Praphat (Ranong Coastal Resources Research Station). | |||
| * 6.3 m (20.7 ft) at Thai Muang district. | |||
| * 6.8 m (22.3 ft) at Rai Dan. | |||
| The province of Phang-Nga was the most heavily affected area in Thailand by the gigantic tsunami. The northern part of Phang-Nga Province is a rural area with fishery and agricultural villages while the central part has several resort hotels. Khao Lak is located in the south of Phang-Nga Province with many luxurious hotels, popular to foreign tourists, especially from ]. Khao Lak was hit by the gigantic tsunami after 10:00 a.m. and the death toll in the area was the largest in Thailand.<ref>http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.564.5976&rep=rep1&type=pdf</ref> Many local villagers and tourists lost their lives during the event. A maximum inundation of approximately 2 km (1.2 miles) and the inundated depths were 4–7 m (13.12 ft–23 ft) in Khao Lak. Surveys conducted show that the tsunami inundated the third floor of a resort hotel. The tsunami heights in Khao Lak were much higher than Phuket Island. The reason for the difference seems to have been caused by the local ] off Khao Lak. According to some interviews with local residents and affected tourists, the leading wave produced an initial depression, called a tsunami drawback or 'disappearing sea' effect and the second wave was largest.<ref name="ReferenceB">http://www.tsunami.civil.tohoku.ac.jp/sumatra2004/C4.pdf</ref> | |||
| The highest recorded tsunami runup measured was at 19.6 m (64.3 ft) at Ban Thung Dap, located on the southwest tip of ] and the second highest at 15.8 m (51.8 ft) at Ban Nam Kim.<ref name="marine.tmd.go.th"/> | |||
| ] tsunami.]] | |||
| At Phuket island, many of its west coast beaches were affected. At ] – a tourist mecca – the tsunami heights were 5–6 m (16.4 ft–19.7 ft) and the inundated depth was about 2 m (6.6 ft). The tsunami heights became lower from the west coast, the south coast to the east coast of the island. On Karon beach on the west coast, the coastal road was built higher than the shore and it acted as a seawall, protecting a hotel which was behind it. On the east coast of Phuket Island, which was not facing the tsunami source, the tsunami height was about 2 m (6.6 ft). In one river mouth, many boats were damaged. The tsunami propagated anticlockwise around Phuket Island, as was the case at ] in the ]. According to some interviews with the people, the leading wave produced an initial depression and the second wave was the largest.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] are a group of small ] that were affected by the tsunami. The north bay of Phi Phi Don Island opens to the northwest, thus it faced in the direction that the tsunami came from. The measured tsunami height on this ] was 5.8 m (19.02 ft). According to some eyewitnesses accounts, the ] came from the north and south, and totally washed the central area away. The ground level here was about 2 m (6.6 ft) above sea level, but there were many cottages and hotels. Therefore, the tsunami waves from the north and south destroyed the area, the south bay opens to the southeast. It faces in the opposite direction to which the tsunami was propagated. Further, Phi Phi Le Island shields the port of Phi Phi Don Island. The measured tsunami height, however, was 4.6 m (15.1 ft) in the port. It indicated that the tsunami propagated around the islands.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> | |||
| Many amateur videos recorded by tourists and locals of the tsunami at Thailand were televised popularly in the media. | |||
| === Mainland India=== | |||
| The tsunami arrived in the states of ] and ] along the southeast coast of the Indian mainland shortly after 9:00 a.m. At least two hours later, it arrived in the state of ] along the southwest coast. Tamil Nadu, the union territory of ] and Kerala were extensively damaged, while Andhra Pradesh sustained moderate damage. There were two to five ] of varying ] that coincided with the local high tide in some areas.<ref name="mapsofindia.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.mapsofindia.com/maps/tsunami-in-india/tsunami-affected-area-india.html|title=Tsunami Affected Areas in India 2004|publisher=}}</ref><ref>http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/%3E</ref><ref name="books.google.com.my">{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fICXQSPJwx8C|title=Natural and Anthropogenic Disasters: Vulnerability, Preparedness and Mitigation|first=M. K.|last=Jha|date=20 July 2010|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="iitk.ac.in">http://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/RP/2006_Effect_EQSpectra.pdf</ref> | |||
| ], Tamil Nadu, India.]] | |||
| The tsunami run-up was only 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in areas in the state of ] that were shielded by the island of ], but was 4–5 m (13.1 ft–16.4 ft) in coastal districts such as ] in Tamil Nadu that were directly across from ], which happen to be the highest on the Indian mainland. On the western coast, the runup elevations were 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at ] in Tamil Nadu, and 3.4 m (11.2 ft) each at ] and ] Districts in Kerala. The duration between the waves also varied from about 15 minutes to about 90 minutes.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu">{{cite web|url=http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/cramerbd/|title=Tsunami – India|publisher=}}</ref> Additionally, the tsunami varies in height when it struck the Indian coast, ranging from 2–10 m (6.6 ft–33 ft) on average based on survivor's accounts.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | |||
| The tsunami runup height measured in mainland India by Ministry of Home Affairs:<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | |||
| * 3.4 m (11.2 ft) at Kerala, inundation distance of 0.5–1.5 km (0.31–0.62 miles) with 250 km (155.3 miles) of coastline affected. | |||
| * 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at southern coastline of Tamil Nadu, inundation distance of 0.2–2.0 km (0.12–1.24 miles) with 100 km (62.1 miles) of coast affected. | |||
| * 5 m (16.4 ft) at eastern coastline of Tamil Nadu facing tsunami source, inundation distance of 0.4–1.5 km (0.25–0.93 miles) with 800 km (497 miles) of coastline affected. | |||
| * 4 m (13.1 ft) at Pondicherry, inundation distance of 0.2–2.0 km (0.12–1.24 miles) with 25 km (15.5 miles) of coast affected. | |||
| * 2.2 m (7.22 ft) at Andhra Pradesh, inundation distance of 0.2–1.0 km (0.12–0.62 miles) with 985 km (612 miles) of coast. | |||
| The tsunami traveled 2.5 km (1.55 miles) at its maximum inland at Karaikal city.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> The ] distance varied between 100–500 m (0.062 miles-0.311 miles) in most areas, except at ] mouths, where it was more than 1 km (0.62 miles). The inundation distance varied with topology and vegetation. Areas with dense ] groves or ] had much smaller inundation distances, and those with ] mouths or backwaters saw much larger inundation distances.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}Presence of seawalls at the ] coast and some of Tamil Nadu coast helped to reduce the impact of the waves. However, when the seawalls were made of loose stones, the stones were displaced and carried a few metres inland.<ref name="mapsofindia.com"/><ref name="books.google.com.my"/><ref name="academic.evergreen.edu"/> | |||
| The state of ] experienced tsunami-related damage in three southern districts, ], ], and ], which are densely populated with villagers, due to diffraction of the waves around ]. The southernmost district of ], however, escaped damage, possibly due to the wide turn of the diffracted waves at the peninsular tip. Major damage occurred in two narrow strips of land bound on the west by the ] and on the east by a network of ] – ]. The waves receded before the first tsunami with the highest fatality reported from the densely populated Alappad panchayat (including the villages of Cheriya Azhikkal and Azhikkal) at Kollam district, caused by a 4 m (13.1 ft) tsunami.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | |||
| The worst affected area in ] was ], with a reported 6,051 fatalities caused by a 5 m (16.4 ft) tsunami, followed by Cuddalore district, with many villages destroyed.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> The 13 km (8.1 miles) Marina Beach in ] was battered by the tsunami which swept across the beach taking morning walkers unaware. Besides that, a 10 m (33 ft) black muddy tsunami reportedly ravaged the city of ], where 492 lives were lost. The city of ], protected by seawalls relatively escaped unscathed in comparison to other areas in the state.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | |||
| At the same time, many villages from many districts at the state of ] were destroyed. In the Krishna district, the tsunami created havoc in Manginapudi and on Machalipattanam Beach, which came like a running wall at the latter. The most affected was Prakasham District, recording 35 deaths, with maximum damage at Singraikonda, a beautiful beach hamlet.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | |||
| Given the enormous power of the tsunami, the fishing industry suffered the greatest. Moreover, the cost of damage in the transport sector was reported in the tens of thousands.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> Many buildings and infrastructures near the coast were obliterated. | |||
| Conclusively, the tsunami effects varied greatly across different parts of the coast according to the number of waves experienced, the inundation distance and height of waves, and the population density of the area, as well as topological and geographical features that made some areas | |||
| more vulnerable than others. Besides these factors, the number of lives lost was influenced by exposure to previous disasters and the local disaster management capability. Most of the people killed were members of the fishing community and, in some cases such as ] at ] and Velankanni in ], they were visitors on the beach.<ref name="iitk.ac.in"/> | |||
| ===Maldives=== | |||
| The tsunami of 26 December 2004 severely affected the ] at a distance of 2,500 km (1553.4 miles) from the ] of the magnitude 9.0 earthquake. Identically to ], survivors reported three waves with the second wave being the most powerful.<ref name="faculty.vassar.edu"/> Being rich in coral reefs, the ] provides an opportunity for scientists to assess the impact of a tsunami on ] ]. The significantly lower tsunami impact on the Maldives compared to ] is largely due to the topography and ] of the atoll chain with offshore coral reefs, deep channels separating individual atolls and its arrival within low tide which decreased the power of the tsunami. After the tsunami, there were some concern that the country might be totally submerged and become uninhabitable. However, this was proven untrue.<ref>http://faculty.vassar.edu/brmcadoo/EERI_Maldives_FzSyMcCa3.pdf</ref> | |||
| The largest tsunami wave measured was 4 m (13.1 ft) at Vilufushi Island (Thaa Atoll). The tsunami arrived approximately 2 hours after the earthquake. The greatest tsunami inundation occurred at North Male Atoll, Male island at 250 m (0.155 miles) along the streets.<ref name="faculty.vassar.edu"/> | |||
| The Maldives tsunami wave analysis:<ref name="faculty.vassar.edu"/> | |||
| * 1.3 m-2.4 m (4.27 ft–7.87 ft) at North Male Atoll, Male Island. | |||
| * 2 m (6.56 ft) at North Male Atoll, Huhule Island. | |||
| * 1.7 m-2.8 m (5.58 ft–9.2 ft) at South Male Atoll, Embudhu Finothu. | |||
| * 2.5 m-3.3 m (8.2 ft–10.8 ft) at Laamu Atoll, Fonadhoo Island. | |||
| * 2.2 m-2.9 m (7.2 ft–9.51 ft) at Laamu Atoll, Gan Island. | |||
| * 2.3 m-3 m (7.5 ft–9.8 ft) at North Male Atoll, Dhiffushi Island. | |||
| * 2.2 m-2.4 m (7.2 ft–7.87 ft) at North Male Atoll, Huraa Island. | |||
| * more than 1.5 m (4.92 ft) at North Male Atoll, Kuda Huraa Island. | |||
| ===Myanmar=== | |||
| In ], the tsunami caused only moderate damage, which arrived between 2 and 5.5 hours after the earthquake. Although the country's western ] coastline lies at the proximity of the rupture zone, there were smaller tsunamis than the neighboring Thai coast, probably because the main tsunami source did not extend to the Andaman Islands. Another factor is that some coasts of ] was protected by offshore islands of the ]. Based on scientific surveys from Ayeyarwaddy Delta through Taninthayi Division, it is revealed that tsunami heights along the Myanmar coast were between 0.4–2.9 m (1.3–9.5 ft). Eyewitnesses often compared the December tsunami heights with the “rainy season high tide”; although at most locations, the tsunami height was similar or smaller than the “rainy season high tide” level.<ref name="terrapub.co.jp">https://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/EPS/pdf/2006/5802/58020243.pdf</ref> | |||
| Tsunami survey heights: | |||
| * 0.6 m-2.3 m (1.97 ft–7.54 ft) around the Ayeyarwady delta. | |||
| * 0.9 m-2.9 m (2.95 ft–9.5 ft) at ] area. | |||
| * 0.7 m-2.2 m (2.3 ft–7.2 ft) around ]. | |||
| * 0.4 m-2.6 m (1.3 ft–8.5 ft) around ]. | |||
| Interviews with local people indicate that they did not feel the earthquake in ] or in Ayeyarwaddy Delta. The 71 casualties can be attributed to poor housing infrastructure and additionally, the fact that the coastal residents in the surveyed areas live on flat land along the coast, especially in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, and that there is no higher ground to evacuate. The tsunami heights from the 2004 December earthquake | |||
| were not more than 3 m (9.8 ft) along the Myanmar coast, the amplitudes are slightly large off the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, probably because the shallow delta cause a concentration in tsunami energy.<ref name="terrapub.co.jp"/> | |||
| ===Somalia=== | |||
| The ] spawned from the ] near ] travelled 5000 km (3106.86 miles) west across the open ocean and ravaged the East African country of ]. Around 289 fatalities were reported in the ], drowned by four tsunami waves. The hardest hit was a 650 km (403.9 miles) stretch of the Somalia coastline between Garacad (] region) and Xaafuun (] region), which forms part of the ] Province. Most of the victims were reported along the low-lying Xaafuun Peninsula.<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu">http://2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu/publications/som_eqs_v22-iS3_106607eqs.pdf</ref> The Puntland coast in northern Somalia was by far the area hardest hit by the waves to the west of the Indian subcontinent. The waves arrived around noon local time.<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu"/> | |||
| Consequently, tsunami runup heights vary from 5 m (16.4 ft) to 9 m (29.5 ft) with inundation distances varying from 44 m (0.027 miles) to 704 m (0.44 miles). The maximum runup height of almost 9 m (29.5 ft) was recorded in Bandarbeyla. An even higher runup point was measured on a ] near the town of Eyl, solely on an eyewitness account. | |||
| The highest death toll was in Xaafuun, also known as ], with 19 bodies and 160 people presumed missing out of its 5000 inhabitants, which amounts to the highest number of casualties in a single African town and the largest tsunami death toll in a single town to the west of the ]. In Xaafuun, small drawbacks were observed before the third and most powerful tsunami flood the town.<ref name="2004tsunami.ce.gatech.edu"/> | |||
| Numerous fishing boats and buildings were also devastated. | |||
| ===Elsewhere in the Indian Ocean=== | |||
| The ] also reached ], mainly on the northern states such as ], ] and ] and on offshore islands such as ]. ] was shielded by the full force of the tsunami due to the protection offered by the island of ], which lies just off the western coast.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/Asia-Tsunami/Tsunami-death-toll-passes-283000/2005/01/27/1106415737181.html|title=Tsunami death toll passes 283,000 – Asia Tsunami – www.smh.com.au|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| ], ].]] | |||
| In ], located on the northern ] escaped major damage and deaths because the water displaced by the ] was relatively little on the northern section of the rupture zone, which ruptured slowly. In ], the tsunami killed 2 people with a maximum runup of 2 m (6.6 ft).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://itic.ioc-unesco.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&id=1136&Itemid=1136|title=International Tsunami Information Center – International Tsunami Information Center|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| The tsunami's immense power was even detected as far away as ], where rough seas were reported, specifically on the eastern and southern coasts that faces the ]. Countries apart from ] that were majorly affected with deaths include ] (the furthest)- 2, ]- 1, The ]- 3 and ]- 10.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.researchgate.net/publication/241273975_FIELD_SURVEYS_OF_2004_INDIAN_OCEAN_TSUNAMI_FROM_SUMATRA_TO_EAST_AFRICA|title=FIELD SURVEYS OF 2004 INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI FROM SUMATRA TO EAST AFRICA|first1=Hermann M.|last1=Fritz|first2=Jose C.|last2=Borrero|first3=Costas E.|last3=Synolakis|first4=Emile A.|last4=Okal|date=1 January 2006|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/42307/103954_Unesco_Yemen_Tsunami_FzOk3.pdf?sequence=1|title=Unesco Yemen Tsunami|work=smartech.gatech.edu|accessdate=November 13, 2017}}</ref> | |||
| Tidal surges also occurred along the ] coast that lasted for several hours, resulting in boats losing their moorings and two people needing to be rescued.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/National/WA-feels-the-tsunamis-ripples/2004/12/28/1103996534617.html|title=WA feels the tsunami's ripples – www.smh.com.au|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| ==Death toll and casualties== | |||
| ] ] after the tsunami.]] | |||
| According to the ] a total of 227,898 people died (see table below for details).<ref name="usgs"/> Measured in lives lost, this is one of the ten ], as well as the single worst tsunami in history. Indonesia was the worst affected area, with most death toll estimates at around 170,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.islamicreliefusa.org/home?aspxerrorpath=/404.aspx |title=Home |publisher=Islamic Relief USA |accessdate=12 August 2010 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5vo8d78jN?url=http://www.islamicreliefusa.org/home?aspxerrorpath=%2F404.aspx |archivedate=17 January 2011 |deadurl=no |df=dmy }}</ref> However, another report by ], the Indonesian Minister of Health at the time, estimated the death total to be as high as 220,000 in Indonesia alone, giving a total of 280,000 fatalities.<ref name=BBC280>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4204385.stm|title=Indonesia quake toll jumps again|publisher=BBC News|date=25 January 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| The tsunami caused serious damage and deaths as far as the east coast of Africa, with the farthest recorded death due to the tsunami occurring at Rooi Els in South Africa, {{convert|8000|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from the epicentre. In total, eight people in South Africa died due to abnormally high sea levels and waves. | |||
| Relief agencies reported that one-third of the dead appeared to be children. This was a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and because children were the least able to resist being overcome by the surging waters. ] went on to report that as many as four times more women than men were killed in some regions because they were waiting on the beach for the fishermen to return and looking after their children in the houses.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4383573.stm|title=Most tsunami dead female – Oxfam|publisher=BBC News|date=26 March 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| In addition to the large number of local residents, up to 9,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak holiday travel season were among the dead or missing, especially people from the ]. The European nation hardest hit may have been ], whose death toll was 543. ] was close behind with 539 identified victims. Among the international victims were a ], and a number of relatively well known ]. | |||
| ], ], after the tsunami]] | |||
| ] were declared in ], Indonesia, and the ]. The United Nations estimated at the outset that the relief operation would be the costliest in human history. Then-] ] stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and non-governmental organisations feared that the final ] might double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive ]. In the end, this fear did not materialise. | |||
| For purposes of establishing timelines of local events, the ]s of affected areas are: UTC+3: (Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania); UTC+4: (Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles); UTC+5: (Maldives); UTC+5:30: (India, Sri Lanka); UTC+6: (Bangladesh); UTC+6:30: (Cocos Islands, Myanmar); UTC+7: (Indonesia (western), Thailand); UTC+8: (Malaysia, Singapore). Since the earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 ], add the above offsets to find the local time of the earthquake. | |||
| <!-- Please update the relevant sections of the article before updating this table. Please update totals as well. NB: This table refers only to countries directly affected by the tsunami, not to countries whose citizens were affected while overseas. --> | |||
| {|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="col" | Country where<br />deaths occurred | |||
| ! scope="col" | Confirmed | |||
| ! scope="col" | Estimated<sup>1</sup> | |||
| ! scope="col" | Injured | |||
| ! scope="col" | Missing | |||
| ! scope="col" | Displaced | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Indonesia}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|130,736}} | |||
| | {{nts|167,799}} | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | {{nts|37,063}} | |||
| | {{nts|500,000}}<nowiki>+</nowiki><ref name="Meisl">{{cite journal|last=Meisl|first=C.S.|author2=Safaie S. |author3=Elwood K.J. |author4=Gupta R. |author5=Kowsari R.|year=2006|title=Housing Reconstruction in Northern Sumatra after the December 2004 Great Sumatra Earthquake and Tsunami|journal=Earthquake Spectra|doi=10.1193/1.2201668|url=http://www.earthquakespectra.org/doi/abs/10.1193/1.2201668|accessdate=26 June 2011|volume=22|pages=S777}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Sri Lanka}} ]<sup>2</sup> | |||
| | {{nts|35,322}}<ref name="wsws1">{{cite web|url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/dec2005/sri2-d29.shtml|title=One year after the tsunami, Sri Lankan survivors still live in squalour|publisher=World Socialist Web Site|date=29 December 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|35,322}} | |||
| | {{nts|21,411}}<ref name="wsws1" /> | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | {{nts|516,150}}<ref name="wsws1" /> | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|India}} ] | |||
| <!--NOTE: For India, the only "Confirmed" death tolls are found at the official website: http://www.ndmindia.nic.in. *Everything else* is to be listed under "Estimated". This is a serious problem because some media publications have already presumed that all the missing people are dead. Others report with the terminology "killed or feared killed". That makes it an estimate. Let's just use the official figures under "Confirmed". The "Displaced" numbers here do not include people whose homes are intact, but who were 'moved to a safer place', as with the other countries in the table. --> | |||
| | {{nts|12,405}} | |||
| | {{nts|18,045}} | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | {{nts|5,640}} | |||
| | {{nts|647,599}} | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Thailand}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|5,395}}<sup>3</sup><ref name="memorial">{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunamimemorial.or.th/information.htm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928063502/http://www.tsunamimemorial.or.th/information.htm |archivedate=28 September 2007 |title=TsunamiMemorial.or.th |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=28 September 2007 |accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|8,212}} | |||
| | {{nts|8,457}}<ref name="Schwartz">{{cite journal|last=Schwartz|first=D.|author2=Goldberg A. |author3=Ashenasi I. |author4=Nakash G. |author5=Leiba A. |author6=Levei Y. |author7=Bar-Dayan Y. |year=2006|title=Prehospital care of tsunami victims in Thailand: description and analysis|journal=Prehospital Disaster Medicine|volume=21|issue=3|pages=204–210|pmid=16892886}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|2,817}}<ref name="memorial" /> | |||
| | {{nts|7,000}} | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Somalia}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|78}} | |||
| | {{nts|289}}<ref>{{cite news|author=Martin Plaut |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4560246.stm|title=Tsunami: Somalia's slow recovery|publisher=BBC News|date=26 December 2005 |accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | {{nts|5,000}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/w/rwb.nsf/UNID/D39A0A882D6A7E9985256F82006A1158?OpenDocument|title=India, Indonesia, Maldives, Myanmar, Somalia, Thailand: Earthquake and Tsunami OCHA Situation Report No. 14|publisher=Reliefweb.int|accessdate=12 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Myanmar}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|61}} | |||
| | {{nts|400}}–600<ref name="AsiaNews-Myanmar" /> | |||
| | {{nts|45}} | |||
| | {{nts|200}}<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145489.stm|title=Asia-Pacific | 'Hundreds feared dead' in Burma|publisher=BBC News|date=4 January 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|3,200}} | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Maldives}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|82}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsunamimaldives.mv/?action=situationAssesment|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617182704/http://www.tsunamimaldives.mv/?action=situationAssesment|archivedate=17 June 2009|title=TsunamiMaldives.mv|publisher=Web.archive.org|date=17 June 2009|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|108}}<ref name="UNICEF_Maldives2006">{{cite web|url=http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/UNICEF_Tsunami_Maldives_2006report.pdf|title=The 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami Disaster: Evaluation of UNICEF's response (emergency and recovery phase). Maldives Report|last=UNICEF|date=May 2006|page=i|accessdate=26 June 2011}}</ref> | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | {{nts|26}} | |||
| | {{nts|15,000}}+ | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Malaysia}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|68}}<ref>{{cite web|author=english@peopledaily.com.cn|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200501/13/eng20050113_170555.html|title=Death toll in Asian tsunami disaster tops 159,000|work=People's Daily|date=13 January 2005|accessdate=12 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|75}} | |||
| | {{nts|299}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/killerwaves|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023160459/http://www.channelnewsasia.com/killerwaves|archivedate=2012-10-23|title=Killer Waves|publisher=Channelnewsasia.com|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|6}} | |||
| | {{nts|5000}}+ | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Tanzania}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|10}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200501/s1275702.htm|title=Asian tsunami death toll passes 144,000|publisher=ABC|location=Australia |date=3 January 2005|accessdate=12 August 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090617042814/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200501/s1275702.htm|archivedate=17 June 2009|deadurl=yes}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|13}} | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Seychelles}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|3}}<ref name="rw">{{cite web|url=http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/KHII-6KH4KY?OpenDocument|title=The Seychelles raises its voice|publisher=Web.archive.org|accessdate=12 August 2010}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|3}} | |||
| | {{nts|57}}<ref name="rw" /> | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | {{nts|200}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alnap.org/tec/pdf/TEC_initial_report_20051223_finalversion.pdf|title=Tsunami Evaluation Coalition: Initial Findings|format=PDF|accessdate=12 August 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060324222422/http://www.alnap.org/tec/pdf/TEC_initial_report_20051223_finalversion.pdf|archivedate=24 March 2006}}</ref> | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Bangladesh}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|2}} | |||
| | {{nts|2}} | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|South Africa}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|2}}<sup>4</sup><ref name="Okal">{{cite journal|last=Okal|first=E.A.|author2=Hartnady C.J.|title=The South Sandwich Islands earthquake of 27 June 1929: seismological study and inference on tsunami risk for the southern Atlantic|journal=]|volume=112|pages=359–370|doi=10.2113/gssajg.112.3-4.359|url=http://www.africaarray.psu.edu/publications/pdfs/359_370%20Okal_Hartnady.pdf|accessdate=26 June 2011|year=2010|issue=3–4}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|2}} | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Yemen}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|2}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/24885/yemen-tsunami-damage-over-us-1-million-unep-assessment|title=YEMEN: Tsunami damage over US $1 million – UNEP assessment|publisher=Irinnews.org|date=22 February 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| | {{nts|2}} | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Kenya}} ] | |||
| | {{nts|1}} | |||
| | {{nts|1}} | |||
| | {{nts|2}} | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| |- | |||
| ! scope="row" style="text-align: left;" | {{flagicon|Madagascar}} ] | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | n/a | |||
| | {{nts|1,000}}<nowiki>+</nowiki><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4129639.stm|title=Tsunami devastates Somali island|publisher=BBC News|date=29 December 2004|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| |- class="sortbottom" | |||
| ! style="text-align: left;" | Total | |||
| | ~184,167 | |||
| | ~230,273 | |||
| | ~125,000 | |||
| | ~45,752 | |||
| | ~1.74 million | |||
| |} | |||
| <div class="small"> | |||
| <sup>1</sup> Includes those reported under 'Confirmed'. If no separate estimates are available, the number in this column is the same as reported under 'Confirmed'.<br /> | |||
| <sup>2</sup> Does not include approximately 19,000 missing people initially declared by ] authorities from regions under their control.<br /> | |||
| <sup>3</sup> Data includes at least 2,464 foreigners.<br /> | |||
| <sup>4</sup> Does not include South African citizens who died outside of South Africa (e.g., tourists in Thailand). For more information on those deaths, see ] | |||
| </div> | |||
| ===Countries affected=== | |||
| ] | |||
| {{Main article|Countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake}} | |||
| The earthquake and resulting tsunami affected many countries in Southeast Asia and beyond, including ], ], ], ], the ], ], ], ], ] and others. Many other countries, especially in Europe, had large numbers of citizens traveling in the region on holiday. ] lost 543 citizens in the disaster, while ] had 539 identified victims. | |||
| ===Event in historical context=== | |||
| {{See also|Library damage resulting from the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake}} | |||
| The last major tsunami in the Indian Ocean was about A.D. 1400.<ref>{{cite news|last=Palmer|first=Jason|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7697482.stm|title=Tsunami in 2004 'not the first'|publisher=BBC News|date=29 October 2008|accessdate=12 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/international/2008-10-30/researchers-uncover-2004-tsunami-predecessor/35702|title=Researchers uncover 2004 tsunami predecessor|work=ABC Radio Australia News|date=30 October 2008|accessdate=13 April 2011}}</ref> In 2008, a team of scientists working on Phra Thong, a barrier island along the hard-hit west coast of ], reported evidence of at least three previous major tsunamis in the preceding 2,800 years, the most recent from about 700 years ago. A second team found similar evidence of previous tsunamis in ], a province at the northern tip of ]; radiocarbon dating of bark fragments in soil below the second sand layer led the scientists to estimate that the most recent predecessor to the 2004 tsunami probably occurred between A.D. 1300 and 1450.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/545772/|title=Scientists Find Evidence of Tsunamis on Indian Ocean Shores Long Before 2004|publisher=Newswise.com|date=27 October 2008|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| The 2004 earthquake and tsunami combined are the ] ] since the 1976 ]. The earthquake was the third most powerful earthquake recorded since 1900. The ] in history occurred in ], with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though figures from this period may not be as reliable.<ref name="usgs1">. ]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901233953/http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php |date=1 September 2009 }}</ref> | |||
| The 2004 tsunami is the ] in ]. Before 2004, the tsunami created in both Indian and Pacific Ocean waters by the 1883 eruption of ], thought to have resulted in anywhere from 36,000 to 120,000 deaths, had probably been the deadliest in the region. In 1782 about 40,000 people are thought to have been killed by a tsunami (or a cyclone) in the ].<ref>http://www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/10/1793/2010/nhess-10-1793-2010.pdf</ref> <!-- Comment... including a quantity and source uniformly regarded as invalid (typographical error) insofar as quantity... Not Awa, Japan 1703, alleged 100,000, which is probably a misreading of the 10,000 toll given in Watanabe, H., 1998, "Nihon higai tsunami so_ran, dai ni-han " (Comprehensive list of destructive tsunamis to hit the Japanese islands, 2ndedition) Tokyo, University of Tokyo Press, p. 238 end comment --> The most deadly tsunami before 2004 was Italy's ] on the ] where the earthquake and tsunami killed about 123,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2008/05/08/f-natural-disasters-history.html|title=The world's worst natural disasters|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| ==Humanitarian response== | |||
| {{Main article|Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake}} | |||
| ] visiting tsunami-hit ] in ] in January 2005]] | |||
| ], ]]] | |||
| A great deal of ] was needed because of widespread damage of the infrastructure, shortages of food and water, and economic damage. Epidemics were of special concern due to the high population density and ] of the affected areas. The main concern of humanitarian and government agencies was to provide sanitation facilities and fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as ], ], ], ] and ] and ]. | |||
| There was also a great concern that the death toll could increase as disease and hunger spread. However, because of the initial quick response, this was minimized.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4157947.stm|title=UN upbeat on tsunami hunger aid|publisher=BBC News|date=9 January 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| In the days following the tsunami, significant effort was spent in ] bodies hurriedly due to fear of disease spreading. However, the ] risks may have been exaggerated, and therefore this may not have been the best way to allocate resources. The ] provided food aid to more than 1.3 million people affected by the tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://reliefweb.int/report/indonesia/wfp-situation-report-tsunami-crisis-indian-ocean-region-friday-4-nov-2005|title=United Nations: World Food Programme: Report on the Tsunami Crisis|publisher=Reliefweb.int|date=4 November 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| {{Further information|Health risks from dead bodies}} | |||
| Nations all over the world provided over US$14 billion in aid for damaged regions,<ref>Chapter 3, "The matter of money", in Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley, . Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA USA: Edward Elgar, 2010.</ref> with the governments of ] pledging US$819.9 million (including a US$760.6-million aid package for Indonesia), ] offering US$660 million, ] offering US$500 million, ] offering US$343 million, ] and the ] offering both US$183 million, the ] offering US$35 million initially (increased to US$350 million), and the ] offering US$250 million. Also Italy offered US$95 million, increased later to US$113 million of which US$42 million was donated by the population using the SMS system<ref>{{Cite news|last=Staff Writer|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4145259.stm|title=Tsunami aid: Who's giving what|date=27 January 2005|accessdate=22 April 2006|publisher=BBC News}}</ref> According to ], the US has pledged additional funds in long-term U.S. support to help the tsunami victims rebuild their lives. On 9 February 2005, President Bush asked Congress to increase the U.S. commitment to a total of US$950 million. Officials estimated that billions of dollars would be needed. Bush also asked his father, former President George H. W. Bush, and former President Bill Clinton to lead a U.S. effort to provide private aid to the tsunami victims.<ref>Staff Writer. "." '']''/]. 21 February 2005.</ref> | |||
| In mid-March the ] reported that over US$4 billion in aid promised by governments was behind schedule. Sri Lanka reported that it had received no foreign government aid, while foreign individuals had been generous.<ref>Staff Writer. "." ]. 18 March 2005.</ref> Many charities were given considerable donations from the public. For example, in the ] the public donated roughly £330,000,000 sterling (nearly US$600,000,000). This considerably outweighed the donation by the government and came to an average of about £5.50 (US$10) donated by every citizen. | |||
| In August 2006, fifteen local aid staff working on post-tsunami rebuilding were found executed in northeast Sri Lanka after heavy fighting, the main umbrella body for aid agencies in the country said. There had been reports and rumors that the local aid workers had been killed. | |||
| ==Impact== | |||
| ===Economic impacts=== | |||
| The level of damage to the economy resulting from the tsunami depends on the scale examined. While local economies were devastated, the overall impact to the national economies was minor. The two main occupations affected by the tsunami were fishing and tourism.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gunatillake|first=Daya|title=The 2004 Tsunami in Sri Lanka: Destruction and recovery|journal=Geography|year=2007|volume=92|issue=3|pages=285–293|jstor=40574342}}</ref> The impact on ] and the people living there, some of the poorest in the region, has been devastating with high losses of ]s as well as boats and fishing gear.<ref>Staff Writer. "." UK Agricultural Biodiversity Coalition. 26 December 2004.</ref> In Sri Lanka artisanal fishery, where the use of fish baskets, fishing traps, and spears are commonly used, is an important source of fish for local markets; industrial fishery is the major economic activity, providing direct employment to about 250,000 people. In recent years the fishery industry has emerged as a dynamic export-oriented sector, generating substantial foreign exchange earnings. Preliminary estimates indicate that 66% of the fishing fleet and industrial infrastructure in coastal regions have been destroyed by the wave surges, which will have adverse economic effects both at local and national levels.<ref>Staff Writer. "Food Supply and Food Security Situation in Countries Affected by the Asia Tsunami." Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 14 January 2005.</ref> | |||
| While the tsunami destroyed many of the boats vital to Sri Lanka's fishing industry, it also created demand for fiberglass reinforced plastic ]s in boatyards of ]. Since over 51,000 vessels were lost to the tsunami, the industry boomed. However, the huge demand has led to lower quality in the process, and some important materials were sacrificed to cut prices for those who were impoverished by the tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bobpigo.org/bbn/sep_06/pages10-12.pdf |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5tul4D7Pz?url=http://www.bobpigo.org/bbn/sep_06/pages10-12.pdf |archivedate=1 November 2010 |title=Demand for FRP boats rise after tsunami |format=PDF |accessdate=12 August 2010 |deadurl=no |df=dmy }}</ref> | |||
| But some economists believe that damage to the affected national economies will be minor because losses in the tourism and fishing industries are a relatively small percentage of the GDP. However, others caution that damage to infrastructure is an overriding factor. In some areas drinking water supplies and farm fields may have been contaminated for years by salt water from the ocean.<ref>Pearce, Fred. "." ''].'' 5 January 2005. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422084629/http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6840 |date=22 April 2008 }}</ref> Even though only coastal regions were directly affected by the waters of the tsunami, the indirect effects have spread to inland provinces as well. Since the media coverage of the event was so extensive, many tourists cancelled vacations and trips to that part of the world, even though their travel destinations may not have been affected. This ripple effect could especially be felt in the inland provinces of Thailand, such as Krabi, which acted like a starting point for many other tourist destinations in Thailand.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rigg|first=Johnathan|author2=Lisa Lawt |author3=May Tan-Mullins |author4=Carl Grundy-Warr|title=The Indian Ocean Tsunami: Socio-Economic Impacts in Thailand.|journal=The Geographic Journal|date=December 2005|volume=171|issue=4|pages=374–379|jstor=3451210|doi=10.1111/j.1475-4959.2005.00175_3.x}}</ref> | |||
| Both the earthquake and the tsunami may have affected shipping in the ], which separate Malaysia and the Indonesian island of Sumatra, by changing the depth of the seabed and by disturbing navigational buoys and old shipwrecks. In one area of the Strait, water depths were previously up to {{convert|4,000|ft|m}}, and are now only {{convert|100|ft|m}} in some areas, making shipping impossible and dangerous. These problems also made the delivery of relief aid more challenging. Compiling new navigational charts may take months or years. However, officials hope that piracy in the region will drop off as a result of the tsunami.<ref>Staff Writer. "." ]/Associated Press. 5 January 2005.</ref> | |||
| Countries in the region appealed to tourists to return, pointing out that most tourist infrastructure is undamaged. However, tourists were reluctant to do so for psychological reasons. Even beach resorts in parts of Thailand which were completely untouched by the tsunami were hit by cancellations.<ref>Chapter 6, "Thailand", in Jayasuriya, Sisira and Peter McCawley, . Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA USA: Edward Elgar, 2010.</ref> | |||
| ===Environmental impact=== | |||
| ], North of ], Thailand ASTER Images and SRTM Elevation Model.]] | |||
| Beyond the heavy toll on human lives, the Indian Ocean earthquake has caused an enormous environmental impact that will affect the region for many years to come. It has been reported that severe damage has been inflicted on ]s such as ]s, ]s, forests, coastal ]s, vegetation, sand ]s and ] formations, animal and plant ] and ]. In addition, the spread of solid and liquid waste and industrial chemicals, ] and the destruction of ] collectors and treatment plants threaten the environment even further, in untold ways. The environmental impact will take a long time and significant resources to assess.<ref>Staff Writer. "." ''UN Atlas of the Oceans''. Retrieved 10 March 2005.</ref> | |||
| According to specialists, the main effect is being caused by poisoning of the ] supplies and of the soil by ] infiltration and a deposit of a salt layer over arable land. It has been reported that in the Maldives, 16 to 17 coral reef atolls that were overcome by sea waves are completely without fresh water and could be rendered uninhabitable for decades. Uncountable wells that served communities were invaded by sea, sand, and earth; and ]s were invaded through porous rock. Salted-over soil becomes sterile, and it is difficult and costly to restore for agriculture. It also causes the death of plants and important soil micro-organisms. Thousands of rice, mango, and banana plantations in Sri Lanka were destroyed almost entirely and will take years to recover. On the island's east coast, the tsunami contaminated wells on which many villagers relied for drinking water. The Colombo-based ] monitored the effects of saltwater and concluded that the wells recovered to pre-tsunami drinking water quality one and a half years after the event.<ref> ], 2010. Downloaded 25 February 2011</ref> ] developed protocols for cleaning wells contaminated by saltwater; these were subsequently officially endorsed by the ] as part of its series of Emergency Guidelines.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160212053301/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/technotes/en/ |date=12 February 2016 }} Page. Retrieved 25 February 2011</ref> | |||
| The ] (UNEP) is working with governments of the region in order to determine the severity of the ecological impact and how to address it.{{update inline|reason=Still working? What's the outcome?|date=May 2015}}<ref>Falt, Eric. "." ''United Nations Environment Programme.''</ref> UNEP has decided to earmark a US$1,000,000 emergency fund and to establish a Task Force to respond to requests for technical assistance from countries affected by the tsunami.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=434&ArticleID=4818&l=en|title=United Nations Environment Programme; Environment for Development|accessdate=22 April 2006|archiveurl=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060412095140/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=434&ArticleID=4818&l=en|archivedate=12 April 2006 |deadurl=no}}</ref> In response to a request from the ], the Australian Government sent ecological experts to help restore marine environments and coral reefs—the lifeblood of Maldivian tourism. Much of the ecological expertise has been rendered from work with the ], in Australia's northeastern waters. | |||
| ===Other effects=== | |||
| ], ]]] | |||
| ;Psychological trauma | |||
| Many health professionals and aid workers have reported widespread psychological trauma associated with the tsunami. Traditional beliefs in many of the affected regions state that a relative of the family must bury the body of the dead, and in many cases, no body remained to be buried. Women in Aceh required a special approach from foreign aid agencies, and continue to have unique needs. | |||
| ;Conflicts and a cease-fire | |||
| The hardest hit area, ], is considered to be a religiously conservative Islamic society and has had no tourism nor any Western presence in recent years due to ] between the ] and ]. Some believe that the tsunami was divine punishment for lay Muslims shirking their daily prayers and/or following a materialistic lifestyle. Others have said that ] was angry that there were Muslims killing other Muslims in an ongoing conflict.<ref>Broadway, Bill. "." '']''. 8 January 2005.</ref> Saudi cleric ] attributed it to divine retribution against non-Muslim vacationers "who used to sprawl all over the beaches and in pubs overflowing with wine" during Christmas break.<ref> by Brian Murphy, January 2005</ref> | |||
| The widespread devastation caused by the tsunami led the main rebel group ] to declare a cease-fire on 28 December 2004 followed by the Indonesian government, and the two groups resumed long-stalled peace talks, which resulted in a peace agreement signed 15 August 2005. The agreement explicitly cites the tsunami as a justification.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/15_08_05_aceh.pdf|title=Memorandum of Understanding between Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement|format=PDF|date=15 August 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012|work=BBC News}}</ref> | |||
| ;Media coverage | |||
| In a poll conducted in 27 countries by ] for ], 15 percent of respondents named the tsunami the most significant event of the year. Only the ] was named by as many respondents.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/30_12_05_ws_events_poll.pdf|title=Most significant events of 2005|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=30 December 2005|publisher=]|accessdate=26 September 2013}}, and {{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4566826.stm|title=Iraq war and tsunami top BBC poll|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|date=30 December 2005|publisher=]|accessdate=26 September 2013}}, see also {{cite book|last1=Brighton|first1=Paul|authorlink1=Paul Brighton|last2=Foy|first2=Dennis|authorlink2=Dennis Foy|title=News Values|year=2007|publisher=Sage|location=London|isbn=978-1412946001|page=44}}</ref> The extensive international media coverage of the tsunami, and the role of mass media and journalists in reconstruction, were discussed by editors of newspapers and broadcast media in tsunami-affected areas, in special video-conferences set up by the Asia Pacific Journalism Centre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.apjc.org.au/program6.html|title=Asia Pacific Journalism Centre — Home Page|accessdate=24 October 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013035339/http://www.apjc.org.au/program6.html|archivedate=13 October 2007 |deadurl=yes}}</ref> | |||
| ;Fraud, false alarms, and panic | |||
| The 26 December 2004 Asian tsunami left both the people and government of India in a state of heightened alert. On 30 December 2004, four days after the tsunami, the ]-based company Terra Research notified the India government that its sensors indicated there was a possibility of 7.9 to 8.1 magnitude tectonic shift in the next 12 hours between ] and New Zealand.<ref name="Press">] (30 December 2004) "Alert scaled down, capping day long confusion."</ref> In response, the India ] minister announced that a fresh onslaught of deadly tsunami were likely along the India southern coast and ] and ], even as there was no sign of turbulence in the region.<ref name="Press"/> The announcement generated panic in the Indian Ocean region and caused thousands to flee their homes, which resulted in jammed roads.<ref name="Tran">Tran, Tina. (30 December 2004) ] " {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621044212/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/world/20041230-1108-tsunami-falsewarning.html |date=21 June 2009 }}"</ref> The announcement was a false alarm and the Home Affairs minister withdrew their announcement.<ref name="Tran"/> On further investigation, the India government learned that the consulting company Terra Research was run from the home of a self-described ] who had no telephone listing and maintained a website where he sold copies of his detection system.<ref>] (31 December 2004) ""</ref> Three days after the announcement, ] president ] called ] minister ] to express her concern about Sibal's 30 December public warning being "]".<ref>] (2 January 2005) ""</ref> | |||
| ;Impact on Sweden | |||
| The tsunami had a severe humanitarian and political impact in Sweden. The hardest hit country outside Asia, 543 Swedish tourists, mainly in Thailand, died. With no single incident having killed more Swedish people since the ] in 1709, the ] was heavily criticized for lack of action. | |||
| ;Tsunami warning system | |||
| ], a meteorologist who predicted the tsunami before it hit, was assigned the development of the Thai tsunami warning system. The Indian Ocean Tsunami warning system was formed in early 2005 immediately after the tragedy of 26 December 2004 to provide an early warning of tsunamis for inhabitants around the Indian Ocean coasts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ioc-tsunami.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=74&Itemid=278&lang=en|title=TWFP|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| ;Effect on the Earth | |||
| The changes in the distribution of masses inside the Earth due to the earthquake had several consequences. It ] by 2.5 ]. It also changed slightly the shape of the Earth, more specifically it decreased Earth's oblateness by about one part in 10 billion, consequentially increasing ] a little and thus shortening the length of the day by 2.68 microseconds.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cook-Anderson|first1=Gretchen|last2=Beasley|first2=Dolores|url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2005/jan/HQ_05011_earthquake.html|title=NASA Details Earthquake Effects on the Earth|publisher=] (press release).|date=January 10, 2005}}</ref> | |||
| ==In popular culture== | |||
| ===''Apung 1''=== | |||
| *'']'', a 2,600-ton ship, was flung some 2–3 km inland by the tsunami, and has become a popular tourist attraction in ] | |||
| ===Films and television=== | |||
| * '']'' (2005), a 24-minute documentary film, and its full-length follow-up ''Children of Tsunami: The Journey Continues''. | |||
| * '']'' (2011), an Indonesian movie. | |||
| * '']'' (2006), a two-part television miniseries about its after-effects. | |||
| * '']'' (2012), an English-language Spanish film based on the story of ] and her family. | |||
| * '']'' (2008), a Tamil disaster film which culminates with 2004 tsunami. | |||
| * '']'' (2014), a Tamil drama film which culminates with the 2004 tsunami. | |||
| * ''The Wave That Shook The World'' (2005), a PBS ] educational television-series documentary about the 2004 tsunami. | |||
| * '']'' (2010), a main character's life is affected after surviving the tsunami while on vacation. | |||
| * ''Tsunami: Caught on Camera'' (2009), a minute-by-minute account of the 2004 tsunami told through amateur video footage of witnesses from Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka. | |||
| * ''Naked Science: Tsunami Warning'' (2009), an episode of an American documentary television series that premiered in 2004 on the National Geographic Channel with the episode dedicated to the events of 26 December 2004 and implications of a worldwide tsunami warning system. | |||
| ===Literature=== | |||
| * ''The Killing Sea,'' a 2006 novel by Richard Lewis, tells the story of two teenagers- a tourist and a local- as they struggle to survive in the days after the tsunami. | |||
| *''Wave,'' a memoir by Sonali Daraniyagala, details the impact of the tsunami on Sri Lanka and the Indian subcontinent. | |||
| ===Museum=== | |||
| * ], located in ], was designed as a symbolic reminder of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami disaster, as well as an educational center and an emergency disaster shelter in case the area is ever hit by a tsunami again. | |||
| ===Rediscovery of Mahabalipuram=== | |||
| *Another result of the tsunami, respective of Indian culture, was the water that washed away centuries of sand from some of the ruins of a 1,200-year-old lost city at ] on the south coast of India. The site, containing such notable structures as a half-buried granite lion near a 7th-century Mahablipuram temple and a relic depicting an elephant, is part of what archaeologists believe to be an ancient port city that was swallowed by the sea hundreds of years ago.<ref>Staff Writer. "." ''].'' 26 February 2005. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008073227/http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18524883.800 |date=8 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4302115.stm|title=India finds more 'tsunami gifts'|publisher=BBC News|date=27 February 2005|accessdate=24 December 2012}}</ref> | |||
| ===Music=== | |||
| *The song "12/26" by ] was written about the event and the humanitarian efforts by other countries afterward, from the perspective of a victim whose whole family died in the disaster. | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|Disasters|Indonesia|India|Thailand|Sri Lanka|2000s}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ], a prominent ] doctor who took charge of identifying the bodies | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em|refs= | |||
| <ref name="AsiaNews-Myanmar">{{cite web| title = Myanmar is withholding true casualties figures, says Thai priest| date = 4 January 2005| quote = A missioner in Ranong, a town on the border between Thailand and Myanmar, says locals talk about 600 victims. Burmese political dissidents say the same.| publisher = AsiaNews.it| url = http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=2255| accessdate =12 February 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009053106/http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&art=2255 |archivedate=9 October 2006}}</ref> | |||
| <ref name=Satake>{{citation|title=Long-Term Perspectives on Giant Earthquakes and Tsunamis at Subduction Zones|url=http://cires1.colorado.edu/~bilham/Honshu2011/Satake%20and%20Atwater.pdf|first=K.|last=Satake|authorlink=Kenji Satake|first2=B.|last2=Atwater|authorlink2=Brian Atwater|year=2007|journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|publisher=]|volume=35|page=351|doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.35.031306.140302}}</ref> | |||
| }} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Sister project links|2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake|s=2004 Indian Ocean tsunami bulletins}} | |||
| * – Amateur Seismic Centre (ASC) | |||
| * – ] | |||
| * , Coastal Engineering Journal, 48 4: 355–370 | |||
| * , Journal La Houille Blanche, No. 2, pp. 25–32 | |||
| * – ] & ] | |||
| * {{Newseum front page archive|year=04|day=27|month=12}} | |||
| * – ] | |||
| * – ] | |||
| * – ] | |||
| * , Speaker: Tom Casadevall, 26 September 2006. Sponsored by and , University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. | |||
| {{Earthquakes in 2004}} | |||
| {{Earthquakes in India}} | |||
| {{Earthquakes in Indonesia}} | |||
| {{Natural disasters in India}} | |||
| {{DEFAULTSORT:2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake}} | |||
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