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| {{Distinguish|Madras|Madrassi}} | |||
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| '''Madrasa''' ({{lang-ar|مدرسة}}, ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}},'' ] {{lang|ar|مدارس}}, ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madāris}}'') is the ]ic word for any ], whether secular or religious (of any religion), and whether a ], ], or ]. The word is variously ] ''madrasah'', ''medresa'', ''madrassa'', ''madraza'', ''medrese'', etc. In the ], the word usually refers to a specific type of religious school or college for the study of the ], though this may not be the only subject studied. In countries like India, not all students in madrasas are Muslims; there is also a modern curriculum.<ref>Shaikh Azizur Rahman (2013) aljazeera.com</ref> | |||
| ==Definition== | |||
| {{Refimprove section|date=January 2010}} | |||
| {{Islam|expanded=all}} | |||
| The word ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' derives from the triconsonantal ] د-ر-س ''D-R-S'' 'to learn, study', through the ''wazn'' (form/stem) {{rtl-lang|ar|مفعل(ة)}}; {{transl|ar|ALA|mafʻal(ah)}}, meaning "a place where something is done". Therefore, ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' literally means "a place where learning and studying take place". The word is also present as a ] with the same innocuous meaning in many Arabic-influenced languages, such as: ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="Word Any Where">{{cite web|url=http://www.wordanywhere.com/cgi-bin/fetch.pl?&word=madrasah&words=madarasaa%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadarasaa.gif&words=madhuraaj%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhuraaj.gif&words=madhuraasav%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhuraasav.gif&words=madhuraaxar%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhuraaxar.gif&words=madhurikaa%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhurikaa.gif&words=madras%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=madrigal%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=matrix%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=mattress%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=meteoric%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=metric%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=metrical%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=muutraashay%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmuutraashay.gif&num_items=16&related=true&pos=0 |title=Madarasaa |publisher=WordAnywhere |accessdate=2007-06-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927215219/http://www.wordanywhere.com/cgi-bin/fetch.pl?&word=madrasah&words=madarasaa%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadarasaa.gif&words=madhuraaj%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhuraaj.gif&words=madhuraasav%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhuraasav.gif&words=madhuraaxar%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhuraaxar.gif&words=madhurikaa%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmadhurikaa.gif&words=madras%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=madrigal%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=matrix%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=mattress%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=meteoric%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=metric%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=metrical%2CEnglish%2CHindi%2C&words=muutraashay%2CHindi%2CEnglish%2C%2Fimages%2Fh2e%2Fmuutraashay.gif&num_items=16&related=true&pos=0 |archivedate=2007-09-27 |df= }} | |||
| </ref> In the Arabic language, the word {{lang|ar|مدرسة}} ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' simply means the same as ''school'' does in the English language, whether that is private, public or parochial school, as well as for any primary or secondary school whether ], non-Muslim, or secular.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thoughtco.com/glossary-madrassa-or-madrasa-2352961|title=Alternate Spellings of Madrassa|work=ThoughtCo|access-date=2017-05-30}}</ref><ref> | |||
| ''{{transl|ar|ALA|Madrasah ʻāmmah}}'' ({{lang-ar|مدرسة عامة}}) translates as ']', ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah khāṣṣah}}'' ({{lang-ar|مدرسة خاصة}}) translates as 'private school', ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah dīnīyah}}'' ({{lang-ar|مدرسة دينية}}) translates as ']', ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah Islāmīyah}}'' ({{lang-ar|مدرسة إسلامية}}) translates as 'Islamic school', and ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah jāmiʻah}}'' ({{lang-ar|مدرسة جامعة}}) translates as 'university'.</ref> Unlike the use of the word ''school'' in British English, the word ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' more closely resembles the term ''school'' in American English, in that it can refer to a university-level or post-graduate school as well as to a primary or secondary school. For example, in the ] during the ], madaris had lower schools and specialised schools where the students became known as ''danişmends''.<ref name = "Ottoman">İnalcık, Halil. 1973. "Learning, the Medrese, and the Ulema." In ''The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600''. New York: Praeger, pp. 165–178. | |||
| </ref> The usual Arabic word for a university, however, is {{lang|ar|جامعة}}'' ({{transl|ar|ALA|jāmiʻah}})''. The ] ] '']'' also connotes the meaning of a place of learning; the related term '']'' literally refers to study or learning, but has acquired mystical and religious connotations. | |||
| However, in English (and Croatian), the term ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' usually refers to the specifically Islamic institutions. A typical Islamic school usually offers two courses of study: a ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ḥifẓ}}'' course teaching memorization of the ] (the person who commits the entire Qur'an to memory is called a ]); and an ] course leading the candidate to become an accepted scholar in the community. A regular curriculum includes courses in ], ] (Qur'anic interpretation), ] (Islamic law), ]s (recorded sayings and deeds of ]), ] (logic), and ]. In the Ottoman Empire, during the Early Modern Period, the study of hadiths was introduced by Süleyman I.<ref name = "Ottoman"/> Depending on the educational demands, some madaris also offer additional advanced courses in ], English and other foreign languages, as well as science and world history. Ottoman madaris along with religious teachings also taught "styles of writing, grammary, syntax, poetry, composition, natural sciences, political sciences, and etiquette."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| People of all ages attend, and many often move on to becoming ]s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21654.pdf|title=Islamic religious schools, Madrasas: Background|last=Blanchard|first=Christopher M.|date=2008|website=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305093937/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21654.pdf|archive-date=2005-03-05|dead-url=yes|access-date=}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} The certificate of an ''ʻālim'', for example, requires approximately twelve years of study.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} A good number of the ''ḥuffāẓ'' (plural of ''ḥāfiẓ'') are the product of the madaris. The madaris also resemble colleges, where people take evening classes and reside in dormitories. An important function of the madaris is to admit orphans and poor children in order to provide them with education and training. Madaris may enroll female students; however, they study separately from the men.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} | |||
| ==Islamic education== | |||
| The term "Islamic education" means education in the light of Islam itself, which is rooted in the teachings of the Quran - holy book of Muslims. Islamic education and Muslim education are not the same. Because Islamic education has epistemological integration which is founded on Tawhid - Oneness or monotheism.<ref>Baba, S., Salleh, M. J., Zayed, T. M., & Harris, R. (2015). . The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, 32(2).</ref><ref>Baba, S., & Zayed, T. M. (2015). . Journal of Islam, Law and Judiciary, 1(1), 45–62.</ref> | |||
| ==Early history== | |||
| {{See also|Nizamiyya|List of oldest madrasahs in continuous operation}} | |||
| The first institute of madrasa education was at the estate of ] near a hill called ], where ] was the teacher and the students were some of his followers.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} After Hijrah (migration) the madrasa of "Suffa" was established in ] on the east side of the ] mosque. ] was appointed there by Muhammad as teacher and among the students.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} In the curriculum of the madrasa, there were teachings of The Qur'an, The Hadith, fara'iz, ], ], treatises of ], etc. There were also trainings of horse-riding, art of war, handwriting and calligraphy, athletics and martial arts. The first part of madrasa based education is estimated from the first day of "]" to the first portion of the "Umaiya" caliphate.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} | |||
| Established in 859, ] (located in {{transl|ar|ALA|al-Qarawīyīn}} Mosque) in the city of ], ], is considered the oldest university in the world by some scholars,<ref name="founding-1">while other scholars have argued that this distinction belongs to the ], also founded in 859. | |||
| * {{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |authorlink=John L. Esposito |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |origyear= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2003 |month= |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-19-512559-2 |oclc= |doi= |id= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=|page=328 }} | |||
| * Kettani, M. Ali. ''Engineering Education in the Arab World''. Middle East Journal, 1974, 28(4):441.</ref> though the existence of universities in the medieval Muslim world is debated.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}} It was founded by ], the daughter of a wealthy merchant named {{transl|ar|ALA|Muḥammad al-Fihrī}}. This was later followed by the establishment of ] in 959 in ], Egypt.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} | |||
| During the late ] period, the ] vizier ] created one of the first major official academic institutions known in history as the ], based on the informal ''{{transl|ar|ALA|majālis}}'' (sessions of the shaykhs). {{transl|ar|ALA|Niẓām al-Mulk}}, who would later be murdered by the ] (''{{transl|ar|ALA|Ḥashshāshīn}}''), created a system of state madaris (in his time they were called the Niẓāmiyyahs, named after him) in various ʻAbbāsid cities at the end of the 11th century.{{Citation needed|date=June 2014}} | |||
| ]'s Madrasa, ], built in the early-14th century in ], India.]] | |||
| During the rule of the ]<ref>Jonathan Berkey, ''The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), ''passim''</ref> and ]<ref>Ira Lapidus, ''Muslim Cities in the Later Middle Ages'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), ''passim''</ref> dynasties and their successor states in the medieval Middle East, many of the ruling elite founded madaris through a religious endowment known as the ]. Not only was the madrasa a potent symbol of status but it was an effective means of transmitting wealth and status to their descendants. Especially during the Mamluk period, when only former slaves could assume power, the sons of the ruling {{transl|ar|ALA|Mamlūk}} elite were unable to inherit. Guaranteed positions within the new madaris thus allowed them to maintain status. Madaris built in this period include the Mosque-{{transl|ar|ALA|Madrasah}} of ] {{transl|ar|ALA|Ḥasan}} in Cairo. | |||
| ] and the ] consider the period between the 11th and 14th centuries to be the "]" of Arabic and ], initiated by ]'s successful ] into the {{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}} curriculum and the subsequent rise of ].<ref name=Stanford>{{cite web|author=Tony Street|title=Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic|publisher=]|date=July 23, 2008|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/arabic-islamic-language|accessdate=2008-12-05}}</ref> | |||
| At the beginning of the ] or Islamic Empire, the reliance on ] initially confined sponsorship and scholarly activities to major centres.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}} Within several centuries, the development of ] such as the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' and '']'' eventually introduced such activities to provincial towns and dispersed them across the ] and ]. In addition to religious subjects, they also taught the "rational sciences," as varied as ], ], ], ], ], philosophy, magic, and ], depending on the curriculum of the specific institution in question.<ref>{{citation|title=Between doubts and certainties: on the place of history of science in Islamic societies within the field of history of science|author=Sonja Brentjes|journal=NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin|publisher=]|issn=1420-9144|volume=11|issue=2|date=June 2003|doi=10.1007/BF02908588|pages=65–79 }}</ref> The madaris, however, were not centres of advanced scientific study; scientific advances in Islam were usually carried out by scholars working under the patronage of royal courts.<ref>{{citation | last = Sabra | first = A. I. | author-link = A. I. Sabra | editor-last = Shank | editor-first = Michael H. | contribution = Situating Arabic Science: Locality versus Essence | title = The Scientific Enterprise in Antiquity and the Middle Ages | place = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | origyear = 1996 | year = 2000 | pages = 215–31 | isbn = 0-226-74951-7}}, pages 225-7</ref> During the ], the Caliphate experienced a growth in ], having the highest literacy rate of the ], comparable to ]' literacy in ] but on a much larger scale.<ref>{{citation|title=Delivering Education|author=Andrew J. Coulson|page=117|publisher=]|url=http://media.hoover.org/documents/0817928928_105.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-11-22}}</ref> The emergence of the ] and madrasa institutions played a fundamental role in the relatively high literacy rates of the medieval Islamic world.<ref>{{citation|author=Edmund Burke|title=Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity|journal=]|volume=20|issue=2|date=June 2009|publisher=]|doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0045|pages=165–186 }}</ref> | |||
| The following excerpt provides a brief synopsis of the historical origins and starting points for the teachings that took place in the Ottoman madaris in the Early Modern Period: | |||
| {{quote| | |||
| Taşköprülüzâde's concept of knowledge and his division of the sciences provides a starting point for a study of learning and medrese education in the Ottoman Empire. Taşköprülüzâde recognises four stages of knowledge—spiritual, intellectual, oral and written. Thus all the sciences fall into one of these seven categories: calligraphic sciences, oral sciences, intellectual sciences, spiritual sciences, theoretical rational sciences, and practical rational sciences. The first Ottoman medrese was created in İznik in 1331, when a converted Church building was assigned as a medrese to a famous scholar, Dâvûd of Kayseri. Suleyman made an important change in the hierarchy of Ottoman medreses. He established four general medreses and two more for specialised studies, one devoted to the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ḥadīth}}'' and the other to medicine. He gave the highest ranking to these and thus established the hierarchy of the medreses which was to continue until the end of the empire.<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| }} | |||
| ===Elementary education=== | |||
| {{Main article|Maktab}} | |||
| ], Sher-Dor Madrasa in ]]] | |||
| In the medieval Islamic world, an elementary school was known as a ''{{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}}'', which dates back to at least the 10th century.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}} Like madaris (which referred to higher education), a {{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}} was often attached to an endowed mosque. In the 11th century, the famous Persian ] and teacher ] (known as ''Avicenna'' in the West), in one of his books, wrote a chapter about the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}}'' entitled "The Role of the Teacher in the Training and Upbringing of Children," as a guide to teachers working at ''{{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}}'' schools. He wrote that children can learn better if taught in ] instead of individual ] from private ]s, and he gave a number of reasons for why this is the case, citing the value of competition and ] among pupils, as well as the usefulness of group discussions and ]s. {{transl|ar|ALA|Ibn Sīnā}} described the curriculum of a ''{{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}}'' school in some detail, describing the curricula for two stages of education in a ''{{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}}'' school.<ref name=Asimov>{{citation|title=The Age of Achievement: Vol 4|last=M. S. Asimov|first=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|publisher=]|year=1999|isbn=81-208-1596-3|pages=33–4}}</ref> | |||
| ====Primary education==== | |||
| {{transl|ar|ALA|Ibn Sīnā}} wrote that children should be sent to a ''{{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}}'' school from the age of 6 and be taught primary education until they reach the age of 14. During which time, he wrote, they should be taught the Qur'an, ], Arabic, ], ], and manual skills (which could refer to a variety of practical skills).<ref name=Asimov/> | |||
| ====Secondary education==== | |||
| {{transl|ar|ALA|Ibn Sīnā}} refers to the secondary education stage of ''{{transl|ar|ALA|maktab}}'' schooling as a period of specialisation when pupils should begin to acquire manual skills, regardless of their social status. He writes that children after the age of 14 should be allowed to choose and specialise in subjects they have an interest in, whether it was reading, manual skills, literature, preaching, ], ], ], ], or any other subject or profession they would be interested in pursuing for a future career. He wrote that this was a transitional stage and that there needs to be flexibility regarding the age in which pupils graduate, as the student's emotional development and chosen subjects need to be taken into account.<ref>{{citation|title=The Age of Achievement: Vol 4|last=M. S. Asimov|first=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1999|isbn=81-208-1596-3|pages=34–5}}</ref> | |||
| ===Higher education=== | |||
| {{See also|Ijazah}} | |||
| ], Egypt]] | |||
| During its formative period, the term ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' referred to a higher education institution, whose curriculum initially included only the "religious sciences", whilst ] and the ] were often excluded.<ref name="Huff">Toby E. Huff (2003), ''The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West'', ], pp. 77–8</ref> The curriculum slowly began to diversify, with many later madaris teaching both the religious and the "secular sciences",<ref>{{citation|title=The Age of Achievement: Vol 4|last=M. S. Asimov|first=Clifford Edmund Bosworth|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|year=1999|isbn=81-208-1596-3|page=37}}</ref> such as ], ] and ]. Some madaris further extended their curriculum to ], politics, ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{citation|title=From Jami`ah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|year=2006|quote=The main subjects taught were Quranic exegesis, theology, jurisprudence and the principles of jurisprudence, grammar and syntax, the Traditions of Muhammad(''ḥadīth''), logic and, sometimes, philosophy and mathematics. In addition to the above, other subjects such as literary studies, history, politics, ethics, music, metaphysics, medicine, astronomy and chemistry were also taught.}}</ref> The curriculum of a {{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}} was usually set by its founder, but most generally taught both the religious sciences and the physical sciences. Madaris were established throughout the Islamic world, examples being the 9th century ], the 10th century ] (the most famous), the 11th century ], as well as 75 madaris in Cairo, 51 in ] and up to 44 in ] between 1155 and 1260. Many more were also established in the ] cities of ], ], ], ] (]), ], ], ] and ] during the ].<ref>{{Citation|contribution=education|title=]|year=2008|contribution-url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179408/education|accessdate=2008-09-30|publisher=]}}</ref> | |||
| In the Ottoman Empire during the early modern period, "Madaris were divided into lower and specialised levels, which reveals that there was a sense of elevation in school. Students who studied in the specialised schools after completing courses in the lower levels became known as ''danişmends''."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| While "{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}" can now refer to any type of school, the term ''{{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}}'' was originally used to refer more specifically to a medieval Islamic centre of learning, mainly teaching ] and ], usually affiliated with a mosque, and funded by an early ] known as '']''.<ref name=Alatas>{{citation|title=From Jamiʻah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–132|doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|year=2006}}</ref> | |||
| ====Law school==== | |||
| {{See also|Sharia|Fiqh}} | |||
| Madaris were largely centred on the study of ''{{transl|ar|ALA|fiqh}}'' (Islamic jurisprudence). The '']'' ("licence to teach and issue legal opinions") in the medieval Islamic ] system had its origins in the 9th century after the formation of the '']'' (schools of jurisprudence). George Makdisi considers the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ijāzah}}'' to be the origin of the European doctorate.<ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism">{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 |doi=10.2307/604423|publisher=American Oriental Society|jstor=604423}}</ref> However, in an earlier article, he considered the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ijāzah}}'' to be of "fundamental difference" to the medieval doctorate, since the former was awarded by an individual teacher-scholar not obliged to follow any formal criteria, whereas the latter was conferred on the student by the collective authority of the faculty.<ref name="Makdisi Madrasa and University 260">George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", ''Studia Islamica'', No. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (260)</ref> To obtain an ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ijāzah}}'', a student "had to study in a guild school of law, usually four years for the basic undergraduate course" and ten or more years for a ] course. The "doctorate was obtained after an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose." These were scholarly exercises practised throughout the student's "career as a graduate student of law." After students completed their post-graduate education, they were awarded ''ijaza''s giving them the status of '']'' 'scholar of jurisprudence', '']'' 'scholar competent in issuing ]s', and ''{{transl|ar|ALA|mudarris}}'' 'teacher'.<ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism"/> | |||
| ] Madrasa, c. 1906]] | |||
| The Arabic term ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ijāzat al-tadrīs}}'' was awarded to ] who were qualified to teach. According to Makdisi, the Latin title ''licentia docendi'' 'licence to teach' in the European university may have been a translation of the Arabic,<ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism"/> but the underlying concept was very different.<ref name="Makdisi Madrasa and University 260"/> A significant difference between the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ijāzat al-tadrīs}}'' and the ''licentia docendi'' was that the former was awarded by the individual scholar-teacher, while the latter was awarded by the chief official of the university, who represented the collective faculty, rather than the individual scholar-teacher.<ref>Toby Huff, ''Rise of Early Modern Science'' 2nd. ed. p. 78-79; 136, 155.</ref> | |||
| Much of the study in the {{transl|ar|ALA|madrasah}} college centred on examining whether certain opinions of law were orthodox. This scholarly process of "determining orthodoxy began with a question which the Muslim layman, called in that capacity ''{{transl|ar|ALA|mustaftī}}'', presented to a ], called '']'', soliciting from him a response, called '']'', a ] (the ] covers ] as well as ]). The ''mufti'' (professor of legal opinions) took this question, studied it, researched it intensively in the sacred scriptures, in order to find a solution to it. This process of scholarly research was called '']'', literally, the exertion of one's efforts to the utmost limit."<ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism"/> | |||
| ====Medical school==== | |||
| {{See also|Bimaristan}} | |||
| Though ] was most often taught at the ] teaching hospitals, there were also several ] dedicated to the teaching of medicine. For example, of the 155 madrasa colleges in 15th century Damascus, three of them were medical schools.<ref>{{citation|last=Gibb|first=H. A. R.|contribution=The University in the Arab-Moslem World|editor-last=Bradby|editor-first=Edward|title=The University Outside Europe: Essays on the Development of University|pages=281–298 |year=1970|publisher=Ayer Publishing|isbn=0-8369-1548-8}}</ref> | |||
| Toby Huff argues that no medical degrees were granted to students, as there was no faculty that could issue them, and that, therefore, no system of examination and certification developed in the Islamic tradition like that of medieval Europe.<ref>Toby Huff, Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West, 2nd ed., Cambridge 2003, {{ISBN|0-521-52994-8}}, p. 191-193</ref> However, the historians Andrew C. Miller, Nigel J. Shanks and Dawshe Al-Kalai point out that, during this era, physician licensure became mandatory in the ].<ref name=Miller>{{cite news |url=http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/content/99/12/615.short |first=Andrew C |last=Miller |title=Jundi-Shapur, bimaristans, and the rise of academic medical centres |work=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |doi=10.1258/jrsm.99.12.615 |date=December 2006 |volume=99 |number=12 |pages=615–617 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130201153053/http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/content/99/12/615.short |archivedate=2013-02-01 |df= }}</ref><ref name=Shanks/> In 931 AD, Caliph ] learned of the death of one of his subjects as a result of a physician's error.<ref name=Shanks>{{cite journal|author=Nigel J. Shanks, Dawshe Al-Kalai|title=Arabian medicine in the Middle Ages|journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine|date=January 1984|volume=77|pages=60–65|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1439563/pdf/jrsocmed00227-0074.pdf|pmc=1439563|pmid=6366229|issue=1}}</ref> He immediately ordered his ] ] to examine and prevent doctors from practicing until they passed an examination.<ref name=Shanks/><ref name=Miller/> From this time on, licensing exams were required and only qualified physicians were allowed to practice medicine.<ref name=Shanks/><ref name=Miller/> | |||
| In the Early Modern Period in the Ottoman Empire, "Suleyman I added new curriculums to the Ottoman medreses of which one was medicine, which alongside studying of the {{transl|ar|ALA|ḥadīth}} was given highest rank."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| ====Madrasa and university====<!--note: "Islamic university," "Jāmiʿah," and "Jamiah" redirect here. Repair if section title is changed--> | |||
| :''Note: The word ''{{transl|ar|ALA|jāmiʻah}}'' ({{lang-ar|جامعة}}) simply means 'university'. For more information, see ] (disambiguation).'' | |||
| Scholars like ] and ] have argued that, starting in the 10th century, some ] madaris indeed became ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=]|title=The History of Libraries in the Arab World: A Diffusionist Model|journal=Libraries & the Cultural Record|volume=23|issue=4|page=459}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Traditional Islam in the modern world|publisher=]|page=125}}</ref> However, scholars like ], Toby Huff and Norman Daniel<ref>Toby Huff, ''Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West'', 2nd ed., Cambridge 2003, {{ISBN|0-521-52994-8}}, p. 179-185</ref><ref name='NDaniel1'>{{cite journal | title = Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi" | journal = Journal of the American Oriental Society | year = 1984 | first = Norman | last = Daniel | volume = 104 | issue = 3 | pages = 586–8| id = | jstor = 601679 | quote = The first section, typology of institutions and the law of waqf, is crucial to the main thesis, since the college is defined in terms of the charitable trust, or endowment, as in Europe: it is admitted that the university, defined as a corporation, has no Islamic parallel. | doi=10.2307/601679}}</ref> argue that the European ] has no parallel in the medieval Islamic world.<ref>George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", ''Studia Islamica'', No. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (264): {{quote|Thus the university, as a form of social organisation, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the middle ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.}} Toby Huff, ''Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West'', 2nd ed., Cambridge 2003, {{ISBN|0-521-52994-8}}, p. 133-139, 149-159, 179-189</ref> Darleen Pryds questions this view, pointing out that madaris and European universities in the Mediterranean region shared similar foundations by princely patrons and were intended to provide loyal administrators to further the rulers' agenda.<ref>{{Citation | last = Pryds | first = Darleen | editor-last = Courtenay | editor-first = William J. | editor2-last = Miethke | editor2-first = Jürgen | editor3-last = Priest | editor3-first = David B. | year = 2000 | title = Universities and Schooling in Medieval Society | chapter = ''Studia'' as Royal Offices: Mediterranean Universities of Medieval Europe | series = Education and Society in the Middle Ages and Renaissance | volume = 10 | publisher = Brill | publication-place = Leiden | pages = 83–99 | isbn = 90-04-11351-7 | issn = 0926-6070}}</ref> A number of scholars regard the university as uniquely European in origin and characteristics.<ref>Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX–XX</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nuria Sanz, Sjur Bergan|title=The heritage of European universities, Volume 548|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M09rKWhN3soC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Heritage+of+European+Universities&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AZ8LT6SED-Hv0gH_kImMBg&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=arab-oriental&f=false|publisher=]|page=121}}</ref><ref>de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde: , Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. 47-55</ref><ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Doctor, doctoratus">{{Citation | last = Verger | first = J. | contribution = Doctor, doctoratus | title = ] | volume = 3 | at=cols. 1155–1156 | publisher = J.B. Metzler | place = Stuttgart | year = 1999}}</ref><ref name="Lexikon des Mittelalters: Licentia">{{Citation | last = Verger | first = J. | contribution = Licentia | title = ] | volume = 5 | at=cols. 1957–1958 | publisher = J.B. Metzler | place = Stuttgart | year = 1999}}</ref> According to '']'', however, the earliest universities were founded in ] and ], predating the first European ].<ref name="britannica1">'']'': , 2012, retrieved 26 July 2012)</ref><ref name="britannica2">'']'': , 2012, retrieved 26 July 2012</ref> | |||
| ] in ] is recognised by many historians as the oldest degree-granting university in the world, having been founded in 859 by ].<ref name="founding-2">{{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |authorlink=John L. Esposito |coauthors= |editor= |others= |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam |origyear= |url= |format= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |date= |year=2003 |month= |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= |language= |isbn=0-19-512559-2 |oclc= |doi= |id= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=|page=328 }}</ref><ref name="Kettani">Kettani, M. Ali. ''Engineering Education in the Arab World''. Middle East Journal, 1974, 28(4):441.</ref><ref>''Civilization: The West and the Rest'' by Niall Ferguson, Publisher: Allen Lane 2011 - {{ISBN|978-1-84614-273-4}}</ref> While the madrasa college could also issue degrees at all levels, the ''jāmiʻah''s (such as {{transl|ar|ALA|al-Qarawīyīn}} and ]) differed in the sense that they were larger institutions, more universal in terms of their complete source of studies, had individual faculties for different subjects, and could house a number of mosques, madaris, and other institutions within them.<ref name=Alatas/> Such an institution has thus been described as an "Islamic university".<ref>{{citation|author=Edmund Burke|title=Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity|journal=]|volume=20|issue=2|date=June 2009|publisher=]|doi=10.1353/jwh.0.0045|pages=165–186 }}</ref> | |||
| Al-Azhar University, founded in Cairo, Egypt in 975 by the Ismaʻīlī Shīʻī ] as a ''{{transl|ar|ALA|jāmiʻah}}'', had individual ]<ref>{{citation|title=A History of Christian-Muslim Relations|first=Hugh|last=Goddard|year=2000|publisher=]|isbn=0-7486-1009-X|page=99}}</ref> for a theological ], ] and ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name=Alatas-123>{{citation|title=From Jamiʻah to University: Multiculturalism and Christian–Muslim Dialogue|first=Syed Farid|last=Alatas|journal=Current Sociology|volume=54|issue=1|pages=112–132 |doi=10.1177/0011392106058837|year=2006|quote=One such ''jamiʻ'' was that of al-Azhar in Cairo. This was established during the last quarter of the 10th century by the Fatimids to teach the principles of jurisprudence, grammar, philosophy, logic and astronomy. It is here that we may find the origins of the modern universitas.}}</ref> The postgraduate doctorate in law was only obtained after "an oral examination to determine the originality of the candidate's theses", and to test the student's "ability to defend them against all objections, in disputations set up for the purpose."<ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism"/> ] also delivered lectures on ] at al-Azhar, while ] delivered lectures on medicine and astronomy there during the time of ].<ref>{{citation|title=Muqarnas, Volume 13|first=Gulru|last=Necipogulu|publisher=]|year=1996|isbn=90-04-10633-2|page=56}}</ref> Another early ''{{transl|ar|ALA|jāmiʻah}}'' was the ] (founded 1091), which has been called the "largest university of the Medieval world."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://metapress.com/|title=Metapress - Discover More|date=24 June 2016|publisher=}}</ref> ], established by the ] ] ] in 1233, in addition to teaching the religious subjects, offered courses dealing with philosophy, mathematics and the ]s. | |||
| However, the classification of madaris as "universities" is disputed on the question of understanding of each institution on its own terms. In madaris, the '']'' were only issued in one field, the Islamic religious law of ], and in no other field of learning.<ref>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 |doi=10.2307/604423|publisher=American Oriental Society|jstor=604423}}: {{quote|There was no other doctorate in any other field, no license to teach a field, except that of the religious law. To obtain a doctorate, one had to study in a guild school of law.}}</ref> Other academic subjects, including the natural sciences, philosophy and literary studies, were only treated "ancillary" to the study of the Sharia.<ref>Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa." Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010, retrieved 20/03/2010: {{quote|Madrasa,...in mediaeval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only.}}</ref> For example, a natural science like astronomy was only studied (if at all) to supply religious needs, like the time for prayer.<ref name="Lessnoff">{{Citation| last=Lessnoff| first=Michael| editor-last=Malešević| editor-first=Siniša| editor2-last=Haugaard| editor2-first=Mark| chapter=Islam, Modernity and Science |title=Ernest Gellner and contemporary social thought|year=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge |isbn= 978-0-521-70941-5 |page=196}}</ref> This is why ] was considered adequate, and is still taught in some modern day madaris.<ref name="Lessnoff" /> The Islamic law undergraduate degree from al-Azhar, the most prestigious madrasa, was traditionally granted without final examinations, but on the basis of the students' attentive attendance to courses.<ref>Jomier, J. "al- Azhar (al-Ḏj̲āmiʿ al-Azhar)." Encyclopædia of Islam, Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010 {{quote|There was no examination at the end of the course of study. Many of the students were well advanced in years. Those who left al-Azhar obtained an idjāza or licence to teach; this was a certificate given by the teacher under whom the student had followed courses, testifying to the student's diligence and proficiency.}}</ref> In contrast to the medieval doctorate which was granted by the collective authority of the faculty, the Islamic degree was not granted by the teacher to the pupil based on any formal criteria, but remained a "personal matter, the sole prerogative of the person bestowing it; no one could force him to give one".<ref>George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", ''Studia Islamica'', No. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (260): {{quote|Perhaps the most fundamental difference between the two systems is embodied in their systems of certification; namely, in medieval Europe, the ''licentia docendi'', or license to teach; in medieval Islam, the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ijāzah}}'', or authorization. In Europe, the license to teach was a license to teach a certain field of knowledge. It was conferred by the licensed masters acting as a corporation, with the consent of a Church authority, in Paris, by the Chancellor of the Cathedral Chapter... Certification in the Muslim East remained a personal matter between the master and the student. The master conferred it on an individual for a particular work, or works. Qualification, in the strict sense of the word, was supposed to be a criterion, but it was at the full discretion of the master, since, if he chose, he could give an ijaza to children hardly able to read, or even to unborn children. This was surely an abuse of the system... but no official system was involved. The ijaza was a personal matter, the sole prerogative of the person bestowing it; no one could force him to give one.}}</ref> | |||
| Medievalist specialists who define the university as a legally autonomous corporation disagree with the term "university" for the Islamic madaris and ''jāmi‘ah''s because the ] (from Latin ''universitas'') was structurally different, being a legally autonomous corporation rather than a '']'' institution like the madrasa and ''{{transl|ar|ALA|jāmiʻah}}''.<ref>Toby Huff, ''Rise of early modern science'' 2nd ed. (Cambridge University, 2003) p. 149.</ref> Despite the many similarities, medieval specialists have coined the term "Islamic college" for madrasa and ''{{transl|ar|ALA|jāmiʻah}}'' to differentiate them from the legally autonomous corporations that the medieval European universities were. In a sense, the madrasa resembles a ] in that it has most of the features of a university, but lacks the corporate element. Toby Huff summarises the difference as follows: {{quote|From a structural and legal point of view, the madrasa and the university were contrasting types. Whereas the madrasa was a pious endowment under the law of religious and charitable foundations (waqf), the universities of Europe were legally autonomous corporate entities that had many legal rights and privileges. These included the capacity to make their own internal rules and regulations, the right to buy and sell property, to have legal representation in various forums, to make contracts, to sue and be sued."<ref>Toby Huff, ''Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West'', 2nd ed., Cambridge, 2003, p. 133-139, 149-159, 179-189 (179)</ref>}} As Muslim institutions of higher learning, the madrasa had the legal designation of ]. In central and eastern Islamic lands, the view that the madrasa, as a charitable endowment, will remain under the control of the donor (and their descendent), resulted in a "spurt" of establishment of madaris in the 11th and 12th centuries. However, in Western Islamic lands, where the ] views prohibited donors from controlling their endowment, madaris were not as popular. Unlike the ] designation of Western institutions of higher learning, the waqf designation seemed to have led to the exclusion of non-orthodox religious subjects such a philosophy and natural science from the curricula.<ref>C. E. Bosworth: Untitled review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', No. 2 (1983), pp. 304-305</ref> | |||
| The madrasa of {{transl|ar|ALA|al-Qarawīyīn}}, one of the two surviving madaris that predate the founding of the earliest ] and are thus claimed to be the "first universities" by some authors, has acquired official university status as late as 1947.<ref>Kevin Shillington: "Encyclopedia of African history", Vol. 1, New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 2005, {{ISBN|1-57958-245-1}}, p. 1025</ref> The other, al-Azhar, did acquire this status in name and essence only in the course of numerous reforms during the 19th and 20th century, notably the one of 1961 which introduced non-religious subjects to its curriculum, such as economics, engineering, medicine, and agriculture.<ref>Skovgaard-Petersen, Jakob. "al-Azhar, modern period. 1. From madrasa to university" Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE. Edited by: Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas and Everett Rowson. Brill, 2010, retrieved 20/03/2010</ref> It should also be noted that many medieval universities were run for centuries as Christian ]s or ]s prior to their formal establishment as ''universitas scholarium''; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the university dates back to the 6th century AD,<ref>Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0-87249-376-8}}, pp. 126-7, 282-98</ref> thus well preceding the earliest madaris. George Makdisi, who has published most extensively on the topic<ref>Extensive bibliography in: Pedersen, J.; Rahman, Munibur; Hillenbrand, R. "Madrasa." ], Second Edition. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2010, retrieved 20/03/2010</ref> concludes in his comparison between the two institutions: {{quote|Thus the university, as a form of social organization, was peculiar to medieval Europe. Later, it was exported to all parts of the world, including the Muslim East; and it has remained with us down to the present day. But back in the middle ages, outside of Europe, there was nothing anything quite like it anywhere.<ref name="Makdisi Madrasa and University 264">George Makdisi: "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", ''Studia Islamica'', No. 32 (1970), pp. 255-264 (264)</ref>}} | |||
| Nevertheless, Makdisi has asserted that the European university borrowed many of its features from the Islamic madrasa, including the concepts of a degree and doctorate.<ref name="Makdisi Scholasticism"/> Makdisi and Hugh Goddard have also highlighted other terms and concepts now used in modern universities which most likely have Islamic origins, including "the fact that we still talk of professors holding the 'chairman' of their subject" being based on the "traditional Islamic pattern of teaching where the professor sits on a chair and the students sit around him", the term ']' being derived from the way in which Islamic students "sat in a circle around their professor", and terms such as "having ']s', ']' a subject, and obtaining 'degrees', can all be traced back" to the Islamic concepts of ''{{transl|ar|ALA|aṣḥāb}}'' ('], as of Muhammad'), ''{{transl|ar|ALA|qirāʼah}}'' ('reading aloud the Qur'an') and '']'' ('licence ') respectively. Makdisi has listed eighteen such parallels in terminology which can be traced back to their roots in Islamic education. Some of the practices now common in modern universities which Makdisi and Goddard trace back to an Islamic root include "practices such as delivering inaugural lectures, wearing academic robes, obtaining doctorates by defending a thesis, and even the idea of ] are also modelled on Islamic custom."<ref name="RelationsHughGoddard1">{{citation|title=A History of Christian-Muslim Relations|first=Hugh|last=Goddard|year=2000|publisher=]|isbn=0-7486-1009-X|page=100|oclc=237514956}}</ref> The Islamic scholarly system of '']'' and '']'', meaning ] and ] respectively, formed the basis of the "scholarly system the West has practised in university scholarship from the Middle Ages down to the present day."<ref name=G-Makdisi>{{citation|last=Makdisi|first=George|title=Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=109|issue=2|date=April–June 1989|pages=175–182 |doi=10.2307/604423|publisher=American Oriental Society|jstor=604423}}</ref> According to Makdisi and Goddard, "the idea of academic freedom" in universities was also "modelled on Islamic custom" as practised in the medieval Madrasa system from the 9th century. Islamic influence was "certainly discernible in the foundation of the first deliberately planned university" in Europe, the ] founded by ] in 1224.<ref name="RelationsHughGoddard1"/> | |||
| However, all of these facets of medieval university life are considered by standard scholarship to be independent medieval European developments with no tracable Islamic influence.<ref>Cf. ], J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart 1999, individual entries on: Baccalarius; Collegium; Disputatio; Grade, universitäre; Magister universitatis, Professor; Rector; Studia humanitatis; Universität</ref> Generally, some reviewers have pointed out the strong inclination of Makdisi of overstating his case by simply resting on "the accumulation of close parallels", but all the while failing to point to convincing channels of transmission between the Muslim and Christian world.<ref name="Daniel 1984, 586f.">Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1984), pp. 586-588 (586f.)</ref> Norman Daniel points out that the Arab equivalent of the Latin disputation, the taliqa, was reserved for the ruler's court, not the madrasa, and that the actual differences between Islamic ] and medieval European ] were profound.<ref name="Daniel 1984, 586f."/> The taliqa only reached Islamic Spain, the only likely point of transmission, after the establishment of the first medieval universities.<ref name="Daniel 1984, 586f."/> In fact, there is no Latin translation of the taliqa and, most importantly, no evidence of Latin scholars ever showing awareness of Arab influence on the Latin method of disputation, something they would have certainly found noteworthy.<ref name="Daniel 1984, 586f."/> Rather, it was the medieval reception of the Greek ] which set the scholastic ] in motion.<ref name="Daniel 1984, 587"/> Daniel concludes that resemblances in method had more to with the two religions having "common problems: to reconcile the conflicting statements of their own authorities, and to safeguard the data of revelation from the impact of ]"; thus Christian scholasticism and similar Arab concepts should be viewed in terms of a parallel occurrence, not of the transmission of ideas from one to the other,<ref name="Daniel 1984, 587">Norman Daniel: Review of "The Rise of Colleges. Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West by George Makdisi", Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 104, No. 3 (Jul. - Sep., 1984), pp. 586-588 (587)</ref> a view shared by Hugh Kennedy.<ref>Hugh Kennedy: ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society'', Third Series, Vol. 2, No. 2 (1992), pp. 272-273 (272): {{quote|It is more likely that the undeniable similarities sprang from similar circumstances. Both cultural traditions had sacred writings which needed to be examined, both had systems of law that looked back to ancient precedent, neither culture knew printing (which meant that dictation and verbal communication were so important).}}</ref> | |||
| Toby Huff, in a discussion of Makdisi's hypothesis, argues: | |||
| {{quote|It remains the case that no equivalent of the bachelor's degree, the licentia docendi, or higher degrees ever emerged in the medieval or early modern Islamic madrasas.<ref>Toby Huff, ''Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West'', 2nd ed., Cambridge 2003, {{ISBN|0-521-52994-8}}, p. 155</ref>}} | |||
| ] criticized Huff's views regarding the legal autonomy of European universities and limited curriculum of Madrasahs, demonstrating that there were many Madrasahs dedicated to the teaching of non-religious subjects and arguing that Madrasahs generally had greater legal autonomy than medieval European universities. According to Saliba, Madrasahs "were fully protected from interference in their curriculum by the ] that established them in the first place." Examples include the Dakhwariyya madrasah in ], which was ], a subject also taught at ]; the Madrasah established by Kamal al-Din Ibn Man`a (d. 1242) in ] which taught astronomy, ], and the ] the ]s; ]’s Madrasah in ] which taught ]; and ] madrasahs in ] which taught astronomy along with religious studies. According to Saliba:<ref>{{citation|author=]|title=Flying Goats And Other Obsessions: A Response to Toby Huff's Reply|journal=Bulletin of the Royal Institute for Inter-Faith Studies|volume=4|issue=2|year=2002|url=http://baheyeldin.com/history/george-saliba-2.html|accessdate=2010-04-02}}</ref> | |||
| {{quote|As I noted in my original article, students in the medieval Islamic world, who had the full freedom to chose their teacher and the subjects that they would study together, could not have been worse off than today’s students, who are required to pursue a specific curriculum that is usually designed to promote the ideas of their elders and preserve tradition, rather than introduce them to innovative ideas that challenge ‘received texts.’ Moreover, if Professor Huff had looked more carefully at the European institutions that produced science, he would have found that they were mainly academies and royal courts protected by individual potentates and not the universities that he wishes to promote. But neither universities nor courts were beyond the reach of the ], which is another point that he seems to neglect.}} | |||
| ===Female education=== | |||
| {{See also|Women in Islam|Women's literary salons and societies in the Arab World|List of female Muslim scholars}} | |||
| Prior to the 12th century, women accounted for less than one percent of the world’s Islamic scholars. However, ] and ] have since found evidence of over 8,000 female scholars since the 15th century.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nadwi|first=Mohammad Akram|title=al-Muhaddithat|date=2013|publisher=Oxford: Interface Publications}}</ref> al-Sakhawi devotes an entire volume of his 12-volume ] ''{{transl|ar|ALA|al-Ḍawʾ al-lāmiʻ}}'' to female scholars, giving information on 1,075 of them.<ref>{{citation|title=Women in Iran from the Rise of Islam to 1800|last=Guity Nashat|first=Lois Beck|publisher=]|year=2003|isbn=0-252-07121-2|page=69}}</ref> More recently, the scholar Mohammad Akram Nadwi, currently a researcher from the ], has written 40 volumes on the ] (the women scholars of hadith), and found at least 8,000 of them.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/25/magazine/25wwlnEssay.t.html|title=A Secret History|date=25 February 2007|work=The New York Times}}</ref> | |||
| From around 750, during the ], women "became renowned for their brains as well as their beauty".<ref>Doreen Insgrams (1983), ''The Awakened: Women in Iraq'', p. 22, Third World Centre for Research and Publishing Ltd., Lebanon</ref> In particular, many well known women of the time were trained from childhood in ], dancing and ]. Mahbuba was one of these. Another feminine figure to be remembered for her achievements was Tawaddud, "a slave girl who was said to have been bought at great cost by ] because she had passed her examinations by the most eminent ] in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]".<ref>Doreen Insgrams (1983), ''The Awakened: Women in Iraq'', p. 23, Third World Centre for Research and Publishing Ltd., Lebanon</ref> Moreover, among the most prominent feminine figures was Shuhda who was known as "the Scholar" or "the Pride of Women" during the 12th century in ]. Despite the recognition of women's aptitudes during the Abbasid dynasty, all these came to an end in ] with the ] in 1258.<ref>Anthony Nutting, ''The Arabs''. (Hollis and Carter, 1964), p. 196</ref> | |||
| Women played an important role in the foundations of many Islamic educational institutions, such as ]'s founding of the ] in 859. This continued through to the ] in the 12th and 13th centuries, when 160 mosques and madaris were established in Damascus, 26 of which were funded by women through the ] (]) system. Half of all the royal ] for these institutions were also women.<ref>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=0-313-32270-8|page=197}}</ref> | |||
| According to the ] scholar ] in the 12th century, there were opportunities for ] in the ], writing that women could study, earn '']s'' (]s), and qualify as ] and teachers. This was especially the case for learned and scholarly families, who wanted to ensure the highest possible education for both their sons and daughters.<ref>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=0-313-32270-8|pages=196 & 198}}</ref> Ibn ʻAsakir had himself studied under 80 different female teachers in his time. Female education in the Islamic world was inspired by ], such as ], a successful businesswoman, and 'A'isha, a strong leader and interpreter of the Prophet's actions. According to a hadith attributed both to Muhammad and 'A'isha, the women of Medina were praiseworthy because of their desire for religious knowledge:<ref>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=0-313-32270-8|page=196}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=ibn al-Hajjaj|first1=Muslim|title=Sahih Muslim|url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/3/72|accessdate=11 November 2017}}</ref> | |||
| {{quote|How splendid were the women of the ''ansar''; shame did not prevent them from becoming learned in the faith.}} | |||
| While it was not common for women to enroll as students in formal ], it was common for women to attend informal lectures and study sessions at mosques, madaris and other public places. While there were no legal restrictions on female education, some men did not approve of this practice, such as Muhammad ibn al-Hajj (d. 1336) who was appalled at the behaviour of some women who informally ] lectures in his time:<ref name=Lindsay>{{citation|title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World|first=James E.|last=Lindsay|publisher=]|year=2005|isbn=0-313-32270-8|page=198}}</ref> | |||
| {{quote| what some women do when people gather with a shaykh to hear books. At that point women come, too, to hear the readings; the men sit in one place, the women facing them. It even happens at such times that some of the women are carried away by the situation; one will stand up, and sit down, and shout in a loud voice. her ''awra'' will appear; in her house, their exposure would be forbidden — how can it be allowed in a mosque, in the presence of men?}} | |||
| The term '']'' is often translated as 'that which is indecent', which usually meant the exposure of anything other than a woman's face and hands, although scholarly interpretations of the ''{{transl|ar|ALA|ʻawrah}}'' and ] have always tended to vary, with some more or less strict than others.<ref name=Lindsay/> | |||
| ==Madaris by region== | |||
| {{Expand section|date=December 2009}} | |||
| ] in Cairo, Egypt]] | |||
| ===Madaris in the Ottoman Empire=== | |||
| "The first Ottoman Medrese was created in İznik in 1331 and most Ottoman medreses followed the traditions of Sunni Islam."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> "When an Ottoman sultan established a new medrese, he would invite scholars from the Islamic world—for example, Murad II brought scholars from Persia, such as ʻAlāʼ al-Dīn and Fakhr al-Dīn who helped enhance the reputation of the Ottoman medrese".<ref name = "Ottoman"/> This reveals that the Islamic world was interconnected in the early modern period as they travelled around to other Islamic states exchanging knowledge. This sense that the Ottoman Empire was becoming modernised through ] is also recognised by Hamadeh who says: "Change in the eighteenth century as the beginning of a long and unilinear march toward westernisation reflects the two centuries of reformation in sovereign identity."<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hamadeh | first1 = Shirine | year = 2004 | title = Ottoman Expressions of Early Modernity and the 'Inevitable' Question of Westernization | url = | journal = The Journal of Architectural Historians | volume = 63 | issue = 1| pages = 32–51 | doi=10.2307/4127991}}</ref> | |||
| İnalcık also mentions that while scholars from for example Persia travelled to the Ottomans in order to share their knowledge, Ottomans travelled as well to receive education from scholars of these Islamic lands, such as Egypt, Persia and Turkestan.<ref name = "Ottoman"/> Hence, this reveals that similar to today's modern world, individuals from the early modern society travelled abroad to receive education and share knowledge and that the world was more interconnected than it seems. Also, it reveals how the system of "schooling" was also similar to today's modern world where students travel abroad to different countries for studies. Examples of Ottoman madaris are the ones built by Mehmed the Conqueror. He built eight madaris that were built "on either side of the mosque where there were eight higher madaris for specialised studies and eight lower medreses, which prepared students for these."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> The fact that they were built around, or near mosques reveals the religious impulses behind madrasa building and it reveals the interconnectedness between institutions of learning and religion. The students who completed their education in the lower medreses became known as danismends.<ref name = "Ottoman"/> This reveals that similar to the education system today, the Ottomans' educational system involved different kinds of schools attached to different kinds of levels. For example, there were lower madaris and specialised ones, and for one to get into the specialised area meant that he had to complete the classes in the lower one in order to adequately prepare himself for higher learning.<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| ] in ], 1840]] | |||
| This is the rank of madaris in the Ottoman Empire from the highest ranking to the lowest: (From İnalcık, 167).<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| # Semniye | |||
| # Darulhadis | |||
| # Madaris built by earlier sultans in Bursa. | |||
| # Madaris endowed by great men of state. | |||
| Although Ottoman madaris had a number of different branches of study, such as calligraphic sciences, oral sciences, and intellectual sciences, they primarily served the function of an Islamic centre for spiritual learning. "The goal of all knowledge and in particular, of the spiritual sciences is knowledge of God."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> Religion, for the most part, determines the significance and importance of each science. As İnalcık mentions: "Those which aid religion are good and sciences like astrology are bad."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| However, even though mathematics, or studies in logic were part of the madrasa's curriculum, they were all centred around religion. Even mathematics had a religious impulse behind its teachings. "The Ulema of the Ottoman medreses held the view that hostility to logic and mathematics was futile since these accustomed the mind to correct thinking and thus helped to reveal divine truths"<ref name = "Ottoman"/> – key word being "divine". İnalcık also mentions that even philosophy was only allowed to be studied so that it helped to confirm the doctrines of Islam."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> Hence, madaris – schools were basically religious centres for religious teachings and learning in the Ottoman world. Although scholars such as Goffman have argued that the Ottomans were highly tolerant and lived in a pluralistic society, it seems that schools that were the main centres for learning were in fact heftily religious and were not religiously pluralistic, but centred around Islam. Similarly, in Europe "Jewish children learned the Hebrew letters and texts of basic prayers at home, and then attended a school organised by the synagogue to study the Torah."<ref name = "WH">Wiesner-Hanks, E. Merry. ''Early Modern Europe 1450–1789''. New York: U of Cambridge P, 2006.</ref> Wiesner-Hanks also says that Protestants also wanted to teach "proper religious values."<ref name = "WH"/> This shows that in the early modern period, Ottomans and Europeans were similar in their ideas about how schools should be managed and what they should be primarily focused on. Thus, Ottoman madaris were very similar to present day schools in the sense that they offered a wide range of studies; however, these studies, in their ultimate objective, aimed to further solidify and consolidate Islamic practices and theories. | |||
| ====Curricula==== | |||
| As is previously mentioned, religion dominated much of the knowledge and teachings that were endowed upon students. "Religious learning as the only true science, whose sole aim was the understanding of God's word."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> Thus, it is important to keep this impulse in mind when going over the curriculum that was taught. | |||
| The following is taken from İnalcık.<ref name = "Ottoman"/> | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| * A) Calligraphic sciences—such as styles of writing. | |||
| * B) Oral sciences—such as Arabic language, grammar and syntax. | |||
| * C) Intellectual sciences—logic in Islamic philosophy. | |||
| * D) Spiritual sciences—theoretical, such as Islamic theology and mathematics; and practical, such as Islamic ethics and politics. | |||
| </blockquote> | |||
| ====Social life and the medrese==== | |||
| As with any other country during the Early Modern Period, such as Italy and Spain in Europe, the Ottoman social life was interconnected with the medrese. Medreses were built in as part of a Mosque complex where many programmes, such as aid to the poor through soup kitchens, were held under the infrastructure of a mosque, which reveals the interconnectedness of religion and social life during this period. "The mosques to which medreses were attached, dominated the social life in Ottoman cities."<ref name = "Goffman">Goffman, Daniel. ''The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe''. United Kingdom: U of Cambridge P, 2002.</ref> Social life was not dominated by religion only in the Muslim world of the Ottoman Empire; it was also quite similar to the social life of Europe during this period. As Goffman says: "Just as mosques dominated social life for the Ottomans, churches and synagogues dominated life for the Christians and Jews as well."<ref name = "Goffman"/> Hence, social life and the medrese were closely linked, since medreses taught many curricula, such as religion, which highly governed social life in terms of establishing orthodoxy. "They tried moving their developing state toward Islamic orthodoxy."<ref name = "Goffman"/> Overall, the fact that mosques contained medreses comes to show the relevance of education to religion in the sense that education took place within the framework of religion and religion established social life by trying to create a common religious orthodoxy. Hence, medreses were simply part of the social life of society as students came to learn the fundamentals of their societal values and beliefs. | |||
| ===Madaris in South Asia=== | |||
| {{Refimprove section|date=January 2010}} | |||
| ====Bangladesh==== | |||
| There are three different madrasa education systems in Bangladesh: the original darse nizami system, the redesigned nizami system, and the higher syllabus alia nisab. The first two categories are commonly called ] or non-government madaris.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=ABM Saiful Islam |year=2012 |chapter=Madrasah |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Madrasah |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=]}}</ref> Amongst them the most notable are ] in Hathazari, ], in Patiya, and ] in ]. | |||
| In 2006 there were 15,000 registered Qawmi madaris with the Befaqul Mudarressin of Bangladesh Qawmi Madrasah Education Board,<ref name="dstar1">{{cite news |title=Qawmi madrasas under watch |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=82099 |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=2009-03-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023205118/http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=82099 |archive-date=2012-10-23}}</ref> though the figure could be well over double that number if unregistered madaris were counted.<ref name=saminaahmed2005>Ahmed, Samina. '' {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303083724/http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/publication-type/speeches/2005/testimony-of-samina-ahmed-to-us-senate-foreign-relations-committee.aspx |date=2011-03-03 }}''. 19 Apr 2005.</ref> | |||
| ====India==== | |||
| ], India. ]] | |||
| ], India. This mosque dates back to the 1700s and is where ] used to pray.]] | |||
| In ] the majority of these schools follow the ] school of thought. The religious establishment forms part of the mainly two large divisions within the country, namely the Deobandis, who dominate in numbers (of whom the ] constitutes one of the biggest madaris) and the Barelvis, who also make up a sizeable portion (Sufi-oriented). Some notable establishments include: ], Mubarakpur, Manzar Islam Bareilly, Jamia Nizamdina New Delhi, Jamia Nayeemia Muradabad which is one of the largest learning centres for the Barelvis. The HR{{Clarify|date=May 2010}} ministry of the government of India has recently{{When|date=June 2011}} declared that a Central Madrasa Board would be set up. This will enhance the education system of madaris in India. Though the madaris impart Quranic education mainly, efforts are on to include Mathematics, Computers and science in the curriculum. | |||
| In July 2015, the state government of ] created a stir de-recognised madrasa education, receiving critisicm from several political parties with the NCP accusing the ruling BJP of creating Hindu-Muslim friction in the state, and Kamal Farooqui of the All India Muslim Personal Law Board saying it was "ill-designed"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2015/07/indian-state-derecognises-madrassa-education-150702141231360.html|title=Indian state de-recognises madrasa education|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/madrassaeducated-children-will-be-considered-outofschool-maharashtra-govt/article7379718.ece?homepage=true|title=In Maharashtra, students obtaining full-time religious education to be considered uneducated|first=Alok Deshpande, Omar|last=Rashid|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| ; Expansion | |||
| After the British occupation of India and the emergence of Darul Ulum Manazar-e Islam Bareilly Sharif, Indian Muslim Scholars left India to establish madaris in other regions of the world. Some of the most notable of these madaris are Darul Ulum Holocombe, which produced scholars such as ], or ]. These offshoot schools symbolise an emotional drive based upon both religion and patriotism that is not evident elsewhere.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} | |||
| ; Madaris and Arabic Colleges in Kerala | |||
| {{main article|Education in Kerala#Madrasas and Arabic Colleges}} | |||
| The ] and Islamic educational system has also become a channel for employment in the Middle East in modern times in Kerala.<ref>Yoginder Sikand. Bastions of Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India. (Delhi: Penguin Books), 2005, pp. 122-125</ref> Originating in 8th century ] for primary children, Arabic and Islamic schooling in Kerala was patronised and funded by the British colonial government. | |||
| Today, the system of Arabic and Islamic education has grown and further integrated with ] government administration. In 2005, an estimated 6,000 Muslim Arabic teachers taught in Kerala government schools, with over 500,000 Muslim students. State-appointed committees, not private mosques or religious scholars outside the government, determine the curriculum and accreditation of new schools and colleges. Primary education in Arabic and Islamic studies is available to ] almost entirely in after-school madrasa programs - sharply unlike full-time madaris common in north India, which may replace formal schooling. Arabic colleges (over eleven of which exist within the state-run ] and the ]) provide B.A. and Masters' level degrees. At all levels, instruction is co-educational, with many women instructors and professors.<ref name="Yoginder Sikand 2005, p. 126-128">Yoginder Sikand. Bastions of Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India. (Delhi: Penguin Books), 2005, p. 126-128</ref> Islamic education boards are independently run by the following organizations, accredited by the Kerala state government: Samastha Kerala Islamic Education Board, ], ], and ].<ref>Yoginder Sikand. Bastions of Believers: Madrasas and Islamic Education in India. (Delhi: Penguin Books), 2005, p. 129</ref> | |||
| With ] rather than ] as the ] of Kerala Muslims, these madaris and colleges are relatively unknown and unlinked from ]-based madaris in the rest of India, due to the linguistic barrier.<ref name="Yoginder Sikand 2005, p. 126-128"/> | |||
| ====Pakistan==== | |||
| {{Main article|Madrassas in Pakistan}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The madaris rose as colleges of learning in the Islamic world in the 11th century, though there were institutions of learning earlier. They catered not only to the religious establishment, though that was the dominant influence over them, but also the secular one. To the latter they supplied physicians, administrative officials, judges and teachers. Even to this day many Registered madaris are Working effectively and coping up with Modern Education System such as Jamia-tul-Madina which is a chain of Islamic schools in Pakistan and in European and other countries established by ]. The Jamia-tul-Madina are also known as Faizan-e-Madina. Dawat-e-Islami has grown its network of Madaris from Pakistan to Europe. | |||
| ===Madaris in Southeast Asia=== | |||
| In Southeast Asia, Muslim students have a choice of attending a secular government or an Islamic school. Madaris or Islamic schools are known as ''Sekolah Agama'' ({{lang-ms|religious school}}) in ] and ], โรงเรียนศาสนาอิสลาม ({{lang-th|school of Islam}}) in ] and ''madaris'' in the ]. In countries where Islam is not the majority or state religion, Islamic schools are found in regions such as southern Thailand (near the Thai-Malaysian border) and the southern Philippines in ], where a significant Muslim population can be found. | |||
| ====Indonesia==== | |||
| {{main article|Pesantren}} | |||
| ====Singapore==== | |||
| {{main article|Madrasahs in Singapore}} | |||
| ]]] | |||
| In Singapore, madrasahs are private schools which are overseen by ] (MUIS, ''Islamic Religious Council of Singapore''). There are six Madrasahs in Singapore, catering to students from Primary 1 to Secondary 4 (and ] equivalent, or "Pre-U", at several schools).<ref>{{cite news|title=Contrasting views of madrasahs in multi-ethnic Singapore|url=http://news.asiaone.com/News/Education/Story/A1Story20090219-123165.html|publisher=]|date=19 February 2009}}</ref> Four Madrasahs are coeducational and two are for girls.<ref>{{cite web|title=Background of Madrasahs|url=http://www.muis.gov.sg/cms/services/Madrasah_sub.aspx?id=204|publisher=]|date=1994}}</ref> Students take a range of Islamic Studies subjects in addition to mainstream ] curriculum subjects and sit for the ] and ] like their peers. In 2009, MUIS introduced the "Joint Madrasah System" (JMS), a joint collaboration of Madrasah Al-Irsyad Al-Islamiah primary school and secondary schools Madrasah Aljunied Al-Islamiah (offering the ''ukhrawi'', or religious stream) and Madrasah Al-Arabiah Al-Islamiah (offering the academic stream).<ref>{{cite web|title=About JMS|url=http://www.muis.gov.sg/cms/JMS/subpage.aspx?id=17539|publisher=]}}</ref> The JMS aims to introduce the ] (IB) programme into the Madrasah Al-Arabiah Al-Islamiah by 2019.<ref>{{cite web|title=JMS Timeline|url=http://www.muis.gov.sg/cms/JMS/subpage.aspx?id=17587|publisher=]}}</ref> Students attending a madrasah are required to wear the traditional Malay attire, including the ] for boys and ] for girls, in contrast to mainstream government schools which ban religious headgear as Singapore is officially a secular state. For students who wish to attend a mainstream school, they may opt to take classes on weekends at the ''madrasah'' instead of enrolling full-time. | |||
| ====Philippines==== | |||
| {{Main article|Education in the Philippines}} | |||
| In 2004, madaris were mainstreamed in 16 ] nationwide, primarily in Muslim-majority areas in ] under the auspices of the ] (DepEd). The DepEd adopted ''Department Order No. 51'', which instituted Arabic-language and Islamic Values instruction for Muslim children in state schools, and authorised implementation of the Standard Madrasa Curriculum (SMC) in private-run madaris. While there are state-recognised Islamic schools, such as Ibn Siena Integrated School in the ], Sarang Bangun LC in ] and SMIE in ], their Islamic studies programmes initially varied in application and content. | |||
| Since 2005, the ]-funded DepEd project Basic Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM) has assisted a group of private madaris seeking a Permit To Operate from the government and implement the SMC. These private madaris are scattered throughout Regions ], ] and the ]. | |||
| ===Madaris in Muslim-minority countries=== | |||
| ], Israel]] | |||
| ] ] in ], China]] | |||
| ====South Africa==== | |||
| In South Africa, the madaris also play a social and cultural role in giving after-school religious instruction to children of Muslims who attend government or private non-religious schools. However, increasing numbers of more affluent Muslims' children attend fully-fledged private Islamic schools, which combine secular and religious education. Among Muslims of ] origin, madaris also used to provide instruction in Urdu, although this is far less common today than it used to be. | |||
| ==== Canada ==== | |||
| The first Madressa established in North America, Al-Rashid Islamic Institute, was established in Cornwall, Ontario in 1983 and has graduates who are ] and ]. The seminary was established by Mazhar Alam under the direction of his teacher the leading Indian Tablighi scholar Muhammad Zakariya Kandhlawi and focuses on the Hanafi school of thought . Due to its proximity to the US border city of Messina the school has historically had a high ratio of US students. Their most prominent graduate Shaykh Muhammad Alshareef completed his Hifz in the early 1990s then went on to form the ]. | |||
| ====United States==== | |||
| On May 26, 2012, Congressman ] of Indiana called for additional Madaris in the United States.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://nation.foxnews.com/andre-carson/2012/07/05/muslim-congressman-american-schools-should-be-modeled-after-madrassas-where-foundation-koran | title=Muslim Congressman: American Schools Should Be Modeled After Madrassas, 'Where The Foundation Is The Koran' |publisher=Fox News Channel |date=July 5, 2012}}</ref> There is a madrassa in ] called Shia Ithna-Asheri Jamaat of New York.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sijny.org/site/docs/membership/sijny_application.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-11-08 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20130301170650/http%3A//www.sijny.org/site/docs/membership/sijny_application.pdf |archivedate=2013-03-01 |df= }}</ref> à It would be Presently, the Darul Uloom in New York City, an affiliate of ] in Pakistan, also serves as a madrassa. | |||
| ==Misuse of the word== | |||
| Western commentators ] often perceive madaris as places of radical revivalism with a connotation of ] and ], frequently associated in the Western press with ]. In Arabic the word ''madrasa'' simply means "school" and does not imply a political or religious affiliation, radical or otherwise. Madaris have varied curricula, and are not all religious. Some madaris in India, for example, have a secularised identity.<ref> | |||
| {{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4829140.stm | work=BBC News | title=What role for madrassas that teach Hindus? | date=2006-03-31 | accessdate=2010-05-12 | first=Sunita | last=Nahar}} | |||
| </ref> Although early madaris were founded primarily to gain "knowledge of God" they also taught subjects such as mathematics and poetry. For example, in the Ottoman Empire, "Madrasahs had seven categories of sciences that were taught, such as: styles of writing, oral sciences like the Arabic language, grammar, rhetoric, and history and intellectual sciences, such as logic."<ref name = "Ottoman"/> This is similar to the Western world, in which universities began as institutions of the ]. | |||
| The ] examined bias in United States newspaper coverage of Pakistan since the ], and found the term has come to contain a loaded political meaning:<ref name=YG20070621>{{cite web | |||
| |first = Susan | |||
| |last = Moeller | |||
| |title = Jumping on the US Bandwagon for a "War on Terror" | |||
| |date = 2007-06-21 | |||
| |url = http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=9324 | |||
| |work = ] | |||
| |publisher = Yale Center for the Study of Globalization | |||
| |deadurl = yes | |||
| |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090505191457/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=9324 | |||
| |archivedate = 2009-05-05 | |||
| |df = | |||
| }}</ref> | |||
| <blockquote>When articles mentioned "madrassas," readers were led to infer that all schools so-named are anti-American, anti-Western, pro-terrorist centres having less to do with teaching basic literacy and more to do with political indoctrination.</blockquote> | |||
| Various American public figures have, in recent times, used the word in a negative context, including ],<ref name="YG20070621"/> | |||
| ],<ref name=Rumsfeld20031016>{{cite news | |||
| |first=Donald | |||
| |last=Rumsfeld | |||
| |title=Rumsfeld's war-on-terror memo | |||
| |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/executive/rumsfeld-memo.htm | |||
| |work=] | |||
| |format=Transcript | |||
| |date=2003-10-16 | |||
| |accessdate=2008-01-14}}</ref> and ].<ref name=tribind20040311>{{cite news | |||
| |title=Madrassas breeding grounds of terrorists: Powell | |||
| |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040312/world.htm#2 | |||
| |work=] | |||
| |date=2004-03-11 | |||
| |accessdate=2008-01-14}}</ref> | |||
| '']'' published in January 2007 a correction for misusing the word "madrassa" in a way that assumed it meant a radical Islamic school. The correction stated: | |||
| <blockquote> | |||
| An article about a pointed exchange over a Web site report that said Senator Barack Obama had attended an Islamic school or madrassa in Indonesia as a child referred imprecisely to madrassas. While some teach a radical version of Islam, most historically have not.<ref name=NYTapology> | |||
| {{cite news | |||
| | author= Bill Carter | |||
| | date= 2007-01-27|origyear=revised version | |||
| | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/24/us/politics/24obama.html | |||
| | title=Rivals CNN and Fox News Spar Over Obama Report | |||
| | work= The New York Times | |||
| | accessdate = 2014-09-13 | |||
| }} | |||
| </ref></blockquote> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|Education|Religion}} | |||
| {| | |||
| | valign=top | | |||
| * ] and ]—]ish religious schooling | |||
| * ]—most common madrasa curriculum in South Asia | |||
| * ]—another similar type of Islamic school | |||
| * ]—used in Shi'a Islam {{ns|21}} | |||
| | valign=top | | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| |} | |||
| == References == | |||
| === Citations === | |||
| {{Reflist|2}} | |||
| === Sources === | |||
| * Esplanada, Jerry E. (2009-07-20). "Mainstreaming Madrasa. The Philippine Daily Inquirer." Retrieved 2010-11-25. | |||
| ==Further reading== | |||
| * Ali, Saleem H. , Oxford University Press, 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-19-547672-9}} | |||
| * Evans, Alexander. , '']'', Jan/Feb 2006. | |||
| * Malik, Jamal (ed.). . London and New York: Routledge, 2008. | |||
| * Malik, Jamal. ''Colonialization of Islam: Dissolution of Traditional Institutions in Pakistan''. New Delhi: Manohar Publications, and Lahore: Vanguard Ltd., 1996. | |||
| * Rahman, Tariq. . Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2004. Reprinted 2006. {{ISBN|978-0-19-597863-6}}. Chapter on "Madrassas". | |||
| * Tanweer, Bilal. "". '']'', 6 May 2007. About a talk given by Dr. Nomanul Haq (University of Pennsylvania) at the ] (LUMS), Pakistan. | |||
| * Ziad, Waleed. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027051746/http://geocities.com/ziadnumis/thenews |date=October 27, 2009 |title="Madaris in Perspective" }}. Reprinted from '']'', March 21, 2004. | |||
| * | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Commonscatinline|Madrasahs}} | |||
| {{Wiktionary}} | |||
| {{Islam topics}} | |||
| {{Islamic educational institutions}} | |||
| {{Theology}} | |||
| {{Islamic architecture}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
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