| Revision as of 19:38, 25 April 2018 view sourceZaereth (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users12,463 edits →Formation: clarify these are not digestive acids but salivary enzymes, not too unlike our own in function← Previous edit | Revision as of 20:31, 25 April 2018 view source 82.25.81.211 (talk) Edited some text to be more conciseTags: Replaced blankingNext edit → | ||
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| honey is made by bees and is real good | |||
| {{Other uses}} | |||
| {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2016}} | |||
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| <!-- Definition --> | |||
| '''Honey''' is a sweet, viscous food substance produced by ]s and some ].<ref name="Crane1990">{{cite journal | author= ]| title = Honey from honeybees and other insects | journal = Ethology Ecology & Evolution | volume = 3 | issue = sup1 | pages = 100–105 | year = 1990 | doi = 10.1080/03949370.1991.10721919}}</ref> Bees produce honey from the ]y secretions of plants (floral ]) or other insects (aphid ]) through ], ] activity, and water evaporation. Honey is stored in wax structures called ]s.<ref name="Crane1990" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Crane, E., Walker, P., & Day, R. | title=Directory of important world honey sources | publisher=International Bee Research Association | isbn=086098141X|date=1984}}</ref> The variety of honey produced by ]s (the genus ''Apis'') is the best-known, due to its worldwide commercial production and human consumption.<ref name="crane book">{{cite book|last1=Crane|first1=Ethel Eva|title=The World History of Beekeeping and Honey Hunting|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136746703|date=1999}}</ref> Honey is collected from wild bee colonies, or from ] of domesticated bees, a practice known as ]. | |||
| <!-- Sweetness --> | |||
| Honey gets its sweetness from the ]s ] and ], and has about the same relative sweetness as sucrose (]).<ref name="NHB carbs">National Honey Board. . Last accessed 1 June 2012.</ref><ref name="Oregon State University">Oregon State University . Retrieved 1 June 2012.</ref> It has attractive chemical properties for baking and a distinctive flavor when used as a sweetener.<ref name="NHB carbs" /> Most ]s do not grow in honey, so sealed honey does not spoil, even after thousands of years.<ref name=Geiling>{{cite news |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-science-behind-honeys-eternal-shelf-life-1218690/?no-ist |date=22 August 2013 |last=Geiling |first=Natasha |title=The Science Behind Honey’s Eternal Shelf Life |newspaper=] |access-date=2017-01-28}}</ref><ref name="Prescott 1999">{{cite book|author1=Prescott, Lansing |author2=Harley, John P. |author3=Klein, Donald A. |title=Microbiology|publisher=WCB/McGraw-Hill|location=Boston|year=1999|isbn=0-697-35439-3}}</ref> | |||
| <!-- Health effects and Safety --> | |||
| Honey provides 64 ]s in a serving of one ] (15 ml) equivalent to 1272 ] per 100 g.<ref name="Nutrient Data"/> Honey is generally safe,<ref name=Goldman2014/> but may have various, potentially ]s or ]s upon excessive consumption, existing ] conditions, or use of ]s.<ref name=mayo/> | |||
| <!-- History --> | |||
| Honey use and production have a long and varied history as an ancient activity, depicted in ], ], by a cave painting of humans foraging for honey at least 8,000 years ago.<ref name=hunt/><ref name=Crane83/> | |||
| {{TOC limit|3}} | |||
| ==Formation== | |||
| ] on ] of ]]] | |||
| Honey is produced by bees collecting ] for use as sugars consumed to support ] of muscle activity during ] or to be stored as a long-term food supply.<ref name="pnas">{{cite journal|journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A|year=1996|volume=93|issue=22|pages=12616–20|title=Energy metabolism, enzymatic flux capacities, and metabolic flux rates in flying honeybees|authors=Suarez RK, Lighton JR, Joos B, Roberts SP, Harrison JF|pmid=8901631|pmc=38041|doi=10.1073/pnas.93.22.12616}}</ref><ref name="NHB Bee facts"/> During foraging, bees access part of the nectar collected to support metabolic activity of flight muscles, with the majority of collected nectar destined for ], digestion, and storage as honey.<ref name="pnas"/><ref name="cd">{{cite web|url=http://www.dispatch.com/content/stories/science/2014/08/31/how-bees-make-honey-is-complex-process.html|title=How bees make honey is complex process|publisher=The Columbus Dispatch, Columbus, Ohio, USA|author=Binkley D|date=31 August 2014|accessdate=17 November 2015}}</ref> In cold weather or when other food sources are scarce, adult and ]l bees use stored honey as food.<ref name="NHB Bee facts">{{cite web|url=http://www.honey.com/honey-at-home/learn-about-honey/how-honey-is-made |title="Honey and Bees." |accessdate=2015-11-17 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305094736/http://www.honey.com/honey-at-home/learn-about-honey/how-honey-is-made |archivedate=5 March 2010 |df=dmy-all }} National Honey Board</ref> | |||
| By contriving for bee ] to nest in human-made ], people have been able to ] the insects and harvest excess honey. In the hive or in a wild nest, the three types of bees are: | |||
| * a single female ] | |||
| * a seasonally variable number of male ] to fertilize new queens | |||
| * 20,000 to 40,000 female ]s<ref>{{cite web | author = Whitmyre, Val | url = http://groups.ucanr.org/mgnapa/Articles/Honeybees.htm | title = The Plight of the Honeybees | publisher = University of California | access-date= 14 April 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070304202354/http://groups.ucanr.org/mgnapa/Articles/Honeybees.htm | archive-date=4 March 2007}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Leaving the hive, a foraging bee collects sugar-rich flower nectar, sucking it through its ] and placing it in its ] (honey stomach or crop), which lies just fore of its food stomach. The honey stomach holds ~ 40 mg of nectar, or approximately 50% of the bee's unloaded weight, which can require over a thousand flowers and more than an hour to fill.<ref>''Beekeeping: Everything You Need to Know to Start Your First Beehive'' by Joachim Petterson -- Weldonowen 2015 Page 57</ref> Salivary enzymes and proteins from the bee's hypopharyngeal gland is added to the nectar to begin breaking down the sugars, raising the water content slightly. The forager bees then return to the hive where they regurgitate and transfer nectar to the hive bees. The hive bees then use their honey stomachs to ingest and regurgitate the nectar, forming bubbles between their ]s, repeatedly until it is partially digested. The bubbles create a large surface area per volume and a portion of the water is removed through evaporation.<ref>''Honey Bee Biology and Beekeeping'' by Dewey Maurice Caron, Lawrence John Connor -- Wicwas Press 2013 Page 214</ref><ref name="pnas"/><ref name=cd/><ref>{{cite web | author = Standifer LN | url = http://maarec.cas.psu.edu/bkCD/HBBiology/nutrition_supplements.htm | title = Honey Bee Nutrition And Supplemental Feeding | work = Excerpted from "Beekeeping in the United States" | access-date= 14 April 2007}}</ref> Bee ] – ], ], and ] – hydrolyze sucrose to a mixture of glucose and fructose.<ref name=pnas/><ref name=cd/> The bees work together as a group with the regurgitation and digestion for as long as 20 minutes, passing the nectar from one bee to the next, until the product reaches the honeycombs in storage quality.<ref name=cd/> It is then placed in honeycomb cells and left unsealed while still high in water content (about 50--70%) and natural yeasts, which, unchecked, would cause the sugars in the newly formed honey to ferment.<ref name="NHB Bee facts"/><ref>''The BBKA Guide to Beekeeping, Second Edition'' by Ivor Davis, Roger Cullum-Kenyon -- Bloomsbury Publishing 2015 Page 173--174</ref><ref>''Beekeeping as a Business'' by Richard Jones -- Commonwealth Secratariat 1999 Page 49</ref> Bees are one of the few insects that generate body heat, thus the hive bees constantly regulate the hive temperature, either heating with their bodies or cooling with water evaporation, to maintain a fairly constant temperature in the honey-storage areas of ~ {{convert|35|C|F}}. The process continues as hive bees flutter their wings constantly to circulate air and ] water from the honey to a content around 18%, raising the sugar concentration, and preventing ].<ref name="NHB Bee facts"/><ref name=cd/> The bees then cap the cells with wax to seal them.<ref name=cd/> As removed from the hive by a ], honey has a long shelf life and will not ferment if properly sealed.<ref name="NHB Bee facts"/> | |||
| Another source of honey is from a number of wasp species, such as the wasps '']'' and '']'', which are found in South and Central America. These species are known to feed on nectar and produce honey.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = The Nearctic social wasps of the subfamily polybiinae (Hymenoptera; Vespidae)|last = Bequaert|first = J.Q.|date = 1932|journal = Entomologica Americana|doi = |pmid = }}</ref> | |||
| Some wasps, such as the '']'', even consume honey themselves, alternating between feeding on pollen in the middle of their lifecycles and feeding on honey, which can better provide for their energy needs.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Britto |first1=Fábio Barros |first2=Flávio Henrique |last2=Caetano |title=Morphological Features and Occurrence of Degenerative Characteristics in the Hypopharyngeal Glands of the Paper Wasp Polistes versicolor (Olivier) (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) |journal=Micron |volume=37 |issue=8 |year=2006 |pages=742–47 |doi=10.1016/j.micron.2006.03.002}}</ref> | |||
| ==Production== | |||
| ===Collection=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| Honey is collected from wild bee colonies or from domesticated ]s. The honey is stored in honeycombs. Wild bee nests are sometimes located by following a ] bird. The bees may first be pacified by using smoke from a ]. The smoke triggers a feeding instinct (an attempt to save the resources of the hive from a possible fire), making them less aggressive and the smoke obscures the pheromones the bees use to communicate. | |||
| The honeycomb is removed from the hive and the honey may be extracted from that, either by crushing or by using a ]. The honey is then usually filtered to remove beeswax and other debris. | |||
| Before the invention of removable frames, bee colonies were often sacrificed to conduct the harvest. The harvester would take all the available honey and replace the entire colony the next spring. Since the invention of removable frames, the principles of husbandry lead most beekeepers to ensure that their bees have enough stores to survive the winter, either by leaving some honey in the beehive or by providing the colony with a honey substitute such as sugar water or crystalline sugar (often in the form of a "candyboard"). The amount of food necessary to survive the winter depends on the variety of bees and on the length and severity of local winters. | |||
| A wide range of species other than humans are attracted to wild or domestic sources of honey.<ref>{{cite book|title=Animals that eat nectar and honey|author=Alice L. Hopf|date=1979|publisher=Holiday House Incorporated|url=https://books.google.com/?id=STYkAAAAMAAJ|isbn=9780823403387|accessdate=28 May 2016}}</ref> | |||
| ===Preservation=== | |||
| Because of its unique composition and chemical properties, honey is suitable for long-term storage, and is easily assimilated even after long preservation. Honey, and objects immersed in honey, have been preserved for centuries.<ref>"". Dr. M. A. Hagen. The American naturalist, Volume 10. 1876.</ref><ref>1894. . 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Reprinted New York: Dover Publications, 1989)</ref> The key to preservation is limiting access to humidity. In its cured state, honey has a sufficiently high sugar content to inhibit fermentation. If exposed to moist air, its ] properties pull moisture into the honey, eventually diluting it to the point that fermentation can begin.{{cn|date=March 2018}} | |||
| Long shelf life of honey is attributed to an enzyme found in the stomach of bees. The bees mix ] with expelled nectar they previously consumed, which then creates two by-products: ] and ], responsible for honey's acidity and ability to suppress bacterial growth.<ref name=Geiling/> | |||
| ===Adulteration=== | |||
| Adulteration of honey is the addition of other sugars, syrups, or compounds into honey to change its flavor or viscosity, make it cheaper to produce, or increase the fructose content to stave off crystallization. According to the ] of the United Nations, any product labeled as honey or pure honey must be a wholly natural product, although different nations have their own laws concerning labeling.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4613-1119-5_8|title=Authenticity of honey|publisher=|accessdate=30 December 2014|doi=10.1007/978-1-4613-1119-5_8}}</ref> Adulteration of honey is sometimes used as a method of deception when buyers are led to believe that the honey is pure. The practice was common dating back to ancient times, when honey was sometimes blended with plant syrups like ], ], or ] and sold to unsuspecting customers. Sometimes crystallized honey was mixed with flour or other fillers, hiding the adulteration from buyers until the honey was liquefied. In modern times, the most common adulteration-ingredient became clear, almost-flavorless corn syrup, which, when mixed with honey, is often very difficult to distinguish from unadulterated honey.<ref>''The Hive: The Story of the Honeybee and Us'' By Bee Wilson --St. Martins Press 2004 Page 167</ref> | |||
| ] can be used to detect addition of ] and ] by the carbon ]. Addition of sugars originating from corn or sugar cane (], unlike the plants used by bees, and also ], which are predominantly ]) skews the isotopic ratio of sugars present in honey,<ref>{{cite book|title=C3, C4: Mechanisms, and Cellular and Environmental Regulation, of Photosynthesis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EXqeDGfKDhIC&pg=PA469|publisher=University of California Press|pages=469–|id=GGKEY:05LA62Q2TQJ|author1=Edwards, G |author2=Walker, D A|year=1983|quote=Sucrose synthesized by a C3 plant (e.g. sugar beet) can be distinguished from sucrose synthesized by a C4 plant (e.g. sugarcane) due to differences in δ values.}}</ref> but does not influence the isotopic ratio of proteins. In an unadulterated honey, the carbon isotopic ratios of sugars and proteins should match. Levels as low as 7% of addition can be detected.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Hivelights|volume=12|issue=1|year=1999|author=Barry, Carla |url=http://www.honeycouncil.ca/users/folder.asp?FolderID=4846|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080617102807/http://www.honeycouncil.ca/users/folder.asp?FolderID=4846|archivedate=17 June 2008|title=The detection of C4 sugars in honey|publisher=Canadian Honey Council}}</ref> | |||
| In the United States, according to the National Honey Board (a USDA-overseen organization), "honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance... this includes, but is not limited to, water or other ]".<ref>. (PDF). Retrieved on 7 January 2018.</ref> | |||
| ===Worldwide production=== | |||
| {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em;" | |||
| ! colspan=2|Production of natural honey – 2016 | |||
| |- | |||
| ! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country | |||
| ! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| <small>]s | |||
| |- | |||
| |<center> {{CHN}} ||<center>490,839 | |||
| |- | |||
| |<center> {{TUR}} ||<center>105,532 | |||
| |- | |||
| |<center> {{USA}} ||<center>73,428 | |||
| |- | |||
| |<center> {{RUS}} ||<center>69,764 | |||
| |- | |||
| |<center> {{IND}} ||<center>61,335 | |||
| |- | |||
| |<center> {{UKR}} ||<center>59,294 | |||
| |- style="background:#ccc;" | |||
| !<center>'''World''' ||<center>'''1,786,996''' | |||
| |- | |||
| |colspan=3 |<center><small>Source: FAOSTAT<ref name=FAOstat16>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)| title=Production quantity of honey (natural) in 2016, Livestock Primary/World Regions/Production Quantity from pick lists|date=2017|accessdate=28 March 2018}}</ref></center> | |||
| |} | |||
| In 2016, global production of honey was 1.8 million ]s, led by ] with 27% of the world total (table).<ref name=FAOstat16/> Other major producers were ], ], and ].<ref name=FAOstat16/> | |||
| ==Modern uses== | |||
| ===Food=== | |||
| Over its history as a food,<ref name=hunt/> the main uses of honey are in ], ], ]s, such as '']'', as a spread on ], as an addition to various beverages, such as ], and as a sweetener in some commercial beverages. Honey ] and ] are other common flavors used in ]s. | |||
| ===Fermentation=== | |||
| Possibly the world's oldest ] beverage dating to 9,000 years ago,<ref>Patrick E. McGovern, Juzhong Zhang, Jigen Tang, Zhiqing Zhang, Gretchen R. Hall, Robert A. Moreau, Alberto Nuñez, Eric D. Butrym, Michael P. Richards, Chen-shan Wang, Guangsheng Cheng, Zhijun Zhao and Changsui Wang | |||
| PNAS 2004 December, 101 (51) 17593-17598. "Fermented beverages of pre- and proto-historic China" http://www.pnas.org/content/101/51/17593.</ref> ] ("honey wine") is the alcoholic product made by adding ] to the honey–water ], followed by weeks or months of fermentation.<ref name="jib">{{Cite journal|doi=10.1002/jib.239|title=Improvement of mead fermentation by honey-must supplementation|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jib.239/full|journal=Journal of the Institute of Brewing|volume=121|issue=3|pages=405|year=2015|last1=Pereira|first1=Ana Paula|last2=Mendes-Ferreira|first2=Ana|last3=Estevinho|first3=Leticia M.|last4=Mendes-Faia|first4=Arlete}}</ref><ref name="mol">{{cite journal|pmid=25153872|year=2014|author1=Iglesias|first1=A|title=Developments in the fermentation process and quality improvement strategies for mead production|journal=Molecules|volume=19|issue=8|pages=12577–90|last2=Pascoal|first2=A|last3=Choupina|first3=A. B.|last4=Carvalho|first4=C. A.|last5=Feás|first5=X|last6=Estevinho|first6=L. M.|doi=10.3390/molecules190812577|url=http://www.mdpi.com/1420-3049/19/8/12577/htm}}</ref><ref name="reuber">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HGDxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA104|title=21st Century Homestead: Beekeeping|last=Reuber|first=Brant|date=2015-02-21|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781312937338|language=en}}</ref> In modern mead production, the yeast '']'' is commonly used.<ref name=jib/><ref name=mol/> | |||
| Primary fermentation usually takes 28{{ndash}}56 days, after which the must is placed in a secondary fermentation vessel for 6–9 months of ].<ref name=jib/><ref name=mol/><ref name=reuber/> Durations of primary and secondary fermentation producing satisfactory mead may vary considerably according to numerous factors, such as floral origin of the honey and its natural sugar and ] contents, must water percentage, ], additives used, and ] of yeast, among others.<ref name=mol/><ref name="tierney">{{cite web|author1=Tierney, John|title=Making Mead in a Space-Age World|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2014/10/making-mead-in-a-space-age-world/381433/|publisher=The Atlantic|accessdate=20 June 2017|date=21 October 2014}}</ref> Although supplementation of the must with nitrogen, salt or vitamins has been tested to improve mead qualities, there is no evidence that adding nutrients reduced fermentation time or improved quality.<ref name=jib/> ] methods, however, proved effective for enhancing mead quality.<ref name=mol/> | |||
| Mead varieties include drinks called ] (with spices or herbs), ] (with fruit juices, such as grape, specifically called ]), ] (with ]), and sack mead (high concentration of honey),<ref name=mol/> many of which have been developed as commercial products numbering in the hundreds in the United States as of 2014.<ref name=tierney/> Honey is also used to make mead ], called "braggot".<ref>{{cite web|title=Braggot: The Best of Mead and Beer|url=https://www.homebrewersassociation.org/how-to-brew/braggot-the-best-of-mead-and-beer/|publisher=American Home Brewers Association|accessdate=19 June 2017|date=2017}}</ref> | |||
| ==Physical and chemical properties== | |||
| ] | |||
| The physical properties of honey vary, depending on water content, the type of flora used to produce it (pasturage), temperature, and the proportion of the specific sugars it contains. Fresh honey is a ] liquid, containing more sugar than the water can typically dissolve at ambient temperatures. At room temperature, honey is a ] liquid, in which the ] will precipitate into solid granules. This forms a semisolid solution of ] glucose ]s in a solution of ] and other ingredients. | |||
| At the temperature of 20 °C, ] of honey typically ranges between 1.38 and 1.45 kg/l.<ref name="Tomasik2003">{{cite book|author=Piotr Tomasik|title=Chemical and Functional Properties of Food Saccharides|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6RfVqdqxCiUC&pg=PA74|date=20 October 2003|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-49572-8|pages=74–}}</ref> | |||
| ===Phase transitions=== | |||
| The melting point of crystallized honey is between {{convert|40|and|50|C|F}}, depending on its composition. Below this temperature, honey can be either in a ] state, meaning that it will not crystallize until a ] is added, or, more often, it is in a "labile" state, being saturated with enough sugars to crystallize spontaneously.<ref>], p. 355</ref> The rate of crystallization is affected by many factors, but the primary factor is the ratio of the main sugars: fructose to glucose. Honeys that are supersaturated with a very high percentage of glucose, such as ] honey, crystallize almost immediately after harvesting, while honeys with a low percentage of glucose, such as chestnut or ] honey, do not crystallize. Some types of honey may produce very large but few crystals, while others produce many small crystals.<ref name="Piotr Tomasik p. 74">Tomasik, Piotr (2004) ''Chemical and functional properties of food saccharides'', CRC Press, p. 74, {{ISBN|0-8493-1486-0}}</ref> | |||
| Crystallization is also affected by water content, because a high percentage of water inhibits crystallization, as does a high ] content. Temperature also affects the rate of crystallization, with the fastest growth occurring between {{convert|13|and|17|C|F}}. Crystal nuclei (seeds) tend to form more readily if the honey is disturbed, by stirring, shaking, or agitating, rather than if left at rest. However, the ] of microscopic seed-crystals is greatest between {{convert|5|and|8|C|F}}. Therefore, larger but fewer crystals tend to form at higher temperatures, while smaller but more-numerous crystals usually form at lower temperatures. Below 5 °C, the honey will not crystallize, thus the original texture and flavor can be preserved indefinitely.<ref name="Piotr Tomasik p. 74"/> | |||
| Since honey normally exists below its melting point, it is a supercooled liquid. At very low temperatures, honey does not freeze solid. Instead, as the temperatures become lower, the viscosity of honey increases. Like most ]s, the honey becomes thick and sluggish with decreasing temperature. At {{convert|-20|C|F}}, honey may appear or even feel solid, but it continues to flow at very low rates. Honey has a ] between {{convert|-42|and|-51|C|F}}. Below this temperature, honey enters a ]y state and becomes an ] (noncrystalline).<ref>{{cite journal | authors = Kántor Z, Pitsi G, Thoen J | title = Glass Transition Temperature of Honey as a Function of Water Content As Determined by Differential Scanning Calorimetry | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 47 | issue = 6 | pages = 2327–2330 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10794630 | doi = 10.1021/jf981070g }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | authors = Russell EV, Israeloff NE | title = Direct observation of molecular cooperativity near the glass transition | journal = Nature | volume = 408 | issue = 6813 | pages = 695–698 | year = 2000 | pmid = 11130066 | doi = 10.1038/35047037 }}</ref> | |||
| ===Rheology=== | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] of honey is affected greatly by both temperature and water content. The higher the water percentage, the more easily honey ]. Above its melting point, however, water has little effect on viscosity. Aside from water content, the composition of honey also has little effect on viscosity, with the exception of a few types. At {{convert|25|C|F}}, honey with 14% water content generally has a viscosity around 400 ], while a honey containing 20% water has a viscosity around 20 poise. Viscosity increase due to temperature occurs very slowly at first. A honey containing 16% water, at {{convert|70|C|F}}, has a viscosity around 2 poise, while at {{convert|30|C|F}}, the viscosity is around 70 poise. As cooling progresses, honey becomes more viscous at an increasingly rapid rate, reaching 600 poise around {{convert|14|C|F}}. <ref>{{cite book|title=Value-added products from beekeeping|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzzBBbnIJhIC&pg=PA7|year=1996|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|isbn=978-92-5-103819-2|pages=7–8|accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref><ref name="bee-hexagon.net">{{cite web | author=Bogdanov, Stefan | date=2009 | url=http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/4PhysicalPropertiesHoney.pdf | title=Physical Properties of Honey | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090920094501/http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/4PhysicalPropertiesHoney.pdf | archive-date=20 September 2009}}</ref> However, while honey is very viscous, it has rather low ] of 50--60 mJ/m<sup>2</sup>, thus the ] of honey is on the same order as water, ], or most other liquids.<ref>''Wetting of Real Surfaces'' by Edward Yu. Bormashenko -- Walter D Gruyter 2013 Page 4</ref> The high viscosity and wettability of honey lead to the phenomenon of ], which is a time-dependent process in supercooled liquids between the glass-transition temperature (T<sub>g</sub>) and the crystalline-melting temperature.<ref>''Food Engineering Interfaces'' by José Miguel Aguilera, Ricardo Simpson, Jorge Welti-Chanes, Daniela Bermudez Aguirre, Gustavo Barbosa-Canovas -- Springer 2011 Page 479--487</ref> | |||
| A few types of honey have unusual viscous properties. Honeys from ] or ] display ] properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but then liquify when stirred.<ref>], pp. 5–6</ref> | |||
| ===Electrical and optical properties=== | |||
| Because honey contains ]s, in the form of acids and minerals, it exhibits varying degrees of ]. Measurements of the electrical conductivity are used to determine the quality of honey in terms of ash content.<ref name="bee-hexagon.net"/> | |||
| The effect honey has on light is useful for determining the type and quality. Variations in the water content alter the ] of honey. Water content can easily be measured with a ]. Typically, the refractive index for honey ranges from 1.504 at 13% water content to 1.474 at 25%. Honey also has an effect on ], in that it rotates the polarization plane. The fructose gives a negative rotation, while the glucose gives a positive one. The overall rotation can be used to measure the ratio of the mixture.<ref name="bee-hexagon.net"/><ref name="Bee Culture' Page 348">], p. 348</ref> Honey may vary in color between pale yellow and dark brown, but other bright colors may occasionally be found, depending on the source of the sugar harvested by the bees.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/9587260/Bees-producing-MandMs-coloured-honey.html|title=Bees 'producing M&M's coloured honey'|date=4 October 2012|work=Telegraph.co.uk|accessdate=30 December 2014}}</ref> | |||
| ===Hygroscopy and fermentation=== | |||
| Honey has the ability to absorb moisture directly from the air, a phenomenon called ]. The amount of water the honey absorbs is dependent on the relative humidity of the air. Because honey contains yeast, this hygroscopic nature requires that honey be stored in sealed containers to prevent fermentation, which usually begins if the honey's water content rises much above 25%. Honey tends to absorb more water in this manner than the individual sugars allow on their own, which may be due to other ingredients it contains.<ref name="Bee Culture' Page 348"/> | |||
| Fermentation of honey usually occurs after crystallization, because without the glucose, the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often ], to kill any yeast, by heating it above {{convert|70|C|F}}.<ref name="Bee Culture' Page 348"/> | |||
| ===Thermal characteristics=== | |||
| ] | |||
| Like all sugar compounds, honey ]s if heated sufficiently, becoming darker in color, and eventually burns. However, honey contains fructose, which caramelizes at lower temperatures than glucose.<ref>Hans-Dieter Belitz, Werner Grosch, Peter Schieberle Springer Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg 2004 p. 884 {{ISBN|3-540-69933-3}}</ref> The temperature at which caramelization begins varies, depending on the composition, but is typically between {{convert|70|and|110|C|F}}. Honey also contains acids, which act as ]s for caramelization. The specific types of acids and their amounts play a primary role in determining the exact temperature.<ref>Zdzisław E. Sikorski ''Chemical and functional properties of food components'' CRC Press 2007 p. 121 {{ISBN|0-8493-9675-1}}</ref> Of these acids, the amino acids, which occur in very small amounts, play an important role in the darkening of honey. The amino acids form darkened compounds called ]s, during a ]. The Maillard reaction occurs slowly at room temperature, taking from a few to several months to show visible darkening, but speeds up dramatically with increasing temperatures. However, the reaction can also be slowed by storing the honey at colder temperatures.<ref>], p. 350</ref> | |||
| Unlike many other liquids, honey has very poor ] of 0.5 W/(m⋅K) at 13% water content (compared to 401 W/(m⋅K) of ]), taking a long time to reach ].<ref>https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/thermal-conductivity-d_429.html</ref> Melting crystallized honey can easily result in localized caramelization if the heat source is too hot, or if it is not evenly distributed. However, honey takes substantially longer to liquify when just above the melting point than at elevated temperatures.<ref name="bee-hexagon.net"/> Melting 20 kg of crystallized honey, at {{convert|40|C|F}}, can take up to 24 hours, while 50 kg may take twice as long. These times can be cut nearly in half by heating at {{convert|50|C|F}}. However, many of the minor substances in honey can be affected greatly by heating, changing the flavor, aroma, or other properties, so heating is usually done at the lowest temperature possible for the shortest amount of time.<ref>], pp. 40–43</ref> | |||
| ===Acid content and flavor effects=== | |||
| The average ] of honey is 3.9, but can range from 3.4 to 6.1.<ref name="nhb">{{cite web|url=http://www.honey.com/images/downloads/ph-acidsinhoney.pdf |publisher=National Honey Board Food Technology/Product Research Program|title=pH and acids in honey|date=April 2006}}</ref> Honey contains many kinds of acids, both ] and ]. However, the different types and their amounts vary considerably, depending on the type of honey. These acids may be ] or ] (nonaromatic). The aliphatic acids contribute greatly to the flavor of honey by interacting with the flavors of other ingredients.<ref name="nhb"/> | |||
| Organic acids comprise most of the acids in honey, accounting for 0.17–1.17% of the mixture, with ] formed by the actions of an enzyme called ] as the most prevalent.<ref name="nhb"/> Other organic acids are minor, consisting of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], among many others.<ref name="nhb"/><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/jf00060a006|author1=Wilkins, Alistair L. |author2=Lu, Yinrong |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem.|year=1995|volume=43|issue=12|pages=3021–3025|title=Extractives from New Zealand Honeys. 5. Aliphatic Dicarboxylic Acids in New Zealand Rewarewa (Knightea excelsa) Honey}}</ref> | |||
| ==Classification== | |||
| {{refimprove section|date=August 2015}} | |||
| Honey is classified by its floral source, and divisions are made according to the packaging and processing used. Also, ] are identified. In the USA, honey is also graded on its color and optical density by ] standards, graded on the Pfund scale, which ranges from 0 for "water white" honey to more than 114 for "dark amber" honey.<ref>. Fao.org. Retrieved on 14 April 2011.</ref> | |||
| ===Floral source=== | |||
| Generally, honey is classified by the floral source of the nectar from which it was made. Honeys can be from specific types of flower nectars or can be blended after collection. The pollen in honey is traceable to floral source and therefore region of origin. The ] and ] properties of honey can be used to identify the major plant nectar source used in its production.<ref name="honeyRheo">{{cite web|url=http://www.minervascientific.co.uk/bulletins/Rheological_Properties_of_Honey.pdf|format=PDF|title=The Rheological & Mellisopalynological Properties of Honey |publisher=Minerva Scientific|accessdate=10 December 2012|quote="If however, rheological measurements are made on a given sample it can be deduced that the sample is predominantly Manuka (Graph 2) or Kanuka (Graph 3) or a mixture of the two plant species"}}</ref> | |||
| ====Blended==== | |||
| Most commercially available honey is blended,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=OWwCXEZJ-u8C&pg=PA274&dq=Most+commercially+available+honey+is+blended#v=onepage&q=Most%20commercially%20available%20honey%20is%20blended&f=false|title=Homebrewing For Dummies|last=Nachel|first=Marty|date=2008-06-23|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780470374160|language=en}}</ref> meaning it is a mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density, or geographic origin.<ref name="honeydefs">{{cite web|url=http://www.honey.com/images/downloads/honeydefs.pdf|format=PDF|title=Definition of Honey and Honey Products|publisher=National Honey Issac Board|accessdate=3 February 2011|quote="Blended Honey: A homogeneous mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin."}}</ref> | |||
| ====Polyfloral==== | |||
| Polyfloral honey, also known as wildflower honey,<ref name="Honey Floral Source Guide">{{cite web|url=http://www.honey.com/newsroom/press-kits/honey-color-and-flavor|title=Honey Color and Flavor|publisher=National Honey Board|accessdate=3 February 2011|quote=Wildflower honey is often used to describe honey from miscellaneous and undefined flower sources.}}</ref> is derived from the nectar of many types of flowers.<ref name="honeybook_polyfloral">{{cite web|url=http://www.honeybook.net/polyfloral_honey.shtml|title=Varieties of honey: Polyfloral honey|publisher=The Honey Book|accessdate=10 November 2007|quote=Honey that is from wild or commercialized honeybees that is derived from many types of flowers is a resulting Polyfloral honey.}}</ref> | |||
| The taste may vary from year to year, and the aroma and the flavor can be more or less intense, depending on which bloomings are prevalent.<ref>. Mieliditalia.it. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref> | |||
| ====Monofloral==== | |||
| ] is made primarily from the nectar of one type of flower. Different monofloral honeys have a distinctive flavor and color because of differences between their principal ]s.<ref name="mieliditalia1">. Mieliditalia.it. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref> To produce monofloral honey, beekeepers keep beehives in an area where the bees have access to only one type of flower. In practice, because of the difficulties in containing bees, a small proportion of any honey will be from additional nectar from other flower types.<ref>{{Cite book|title = 21st Century Homestead: Beekeeping|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HGDxCQAAQBAJ|publisher = Lulu.com|date = 21 February 2015|isbn = 9781312937338|language = en|first = Brant|last = Reuber}}</ref> Typical examples of North American monofloral honeys are ], ], ], sage, ], ], ], ], and ]. Some typical European examples include ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and varieties from ] and ] trees.{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} In ] (e.g. ]), examples include clover, ], and ] (mainly orange blossoms).{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} The unique flora of ] yields a number of distinctive honeys, with some of the most popular being ], ], ], bush ], Tasmanian ], and ]. | |||
| ===Honeydew honey=== | |||
| Instead of taking nectar, bees can take ], the sweet secretions of ]s or other plant sap-sucking insects. Honeydew honey is very dark brown in color, with a rich fragrance of stewed fruit or fig jam, and is not as sweet as nectar honeys.<ref name="mieliditalia1"/> ]'s ] is a well known source of honeydew-based honeys, as well as some regions in Bulgaria, ] in ], and Northern California in the United States. In Greece, ] (a type of honeydew honey) constitutes 60–65% of the annual honey production.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gounari|first=Sofia|title=Studies on the phenology of Marchalina hellenica (gen.) (Hemiptera: coccoidea, margarodidae) in relation to honeydew flow|journal=Journal of apicultural research|volume=45|issue=1|pages=8–12 |year=2006|doi=10.3896/IBRA.1.45.1.03}}</ref> Honeydew honey is popular in some areas, but in other areas, beekeepers have difficulty selling the stronger-flavored product.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=hVesQl4EBbgC&pg=PA25&dq=Honeydew+honey+is+popular+in+some+areas#v=onepage&q=Honeydew%20honey%20is%20popular%20in%20some%20areas&f=false|title=The Honey Prescription: The Amazing Power of Honey as Medicine|last=Altman|first=Nathaniel|date=2010-03-09|publisher=Inner Traditions / Bear & Co|isbn=9781594773464|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| The production of honeydew honey has some complications and dangers. This honey has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light floral honeys, thus causing ] to the bees{{citation needed|date=April 2015}}, resulting in the death of colonies in areas with cold winters. Good beekeeping management requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas. Bees collecting this resource also have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers. | |||
| ===Classification by packaging and processing=== | |||
| Generally, honey is bottled in its familiar liquid form. However, honey is sold in other forms, and can be subjected to a variety of processing methods. | |||
| {{multiple image | |||
| | align = right | |||
| | direction = vertical | |||
| | width = 200 | |||
| | image1 = Honey comb.jpg | |||
| | caption1 = A ] | |||
| | image2 = Texas State Fair honey.jpg | |||
| | caption2 = A variety of honey flavors and container sizes and styles from the 2008 ] | |||
| }} | |||
| * '''Crystallized honey''' occurs when some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. It is also called "granulated honey" or "candied honey". Honey that has crystallized (or commercially purchased crystallized) can be returned to a liquid state by warming.<ref name="Flottum2010">{{cite book|author=Flottum, Kim |title=The Backyard Beekeeper: An Absolute Beginner's Guide to Keeping Bees in Your Yard and Garden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5xmAIU0MY64C&pg=PA170|year=2010|publisher=Quarry Books|isbn=978-1-61673-860-0|pages=170–|accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> | |||
| * '''Pasteurized honey''' has been heated in a ] process which requires temperatures of {{convert|161|F|C}} or higher. Pasteurization destroys yeast cells. It also liquefies any microcrystals in the honey, which delays the onset of visible crystallization. However, excessive heat exposure also results in product deterioration, as it increases the level of ] (HMF){{Citation needed|reason=Increases the level of something not even proven to be there? How about some citation of a scientifically and statistically relevant study proving both the existence of HMF in honey in any significant quantity AND its increase to significant or dangerous levels by heating? I.e. Onus probandi.|date=January 2014}} and reduces enzyme (e.g. diastase) activity. Heat also affects appearance (darkens the natural honey color), taste, and fragrance.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Subramanian|first1=R.|last2=Hebbar|first2=H. Umesh|last3=Rastogi|first3=N. K.|title=Processing of Honey: A Review|journal=International Journal of Food Properties|volume=10|pages=127–143|year=2007|doi=10.1080/10942910600981708}}</ref> | |||
| * '''Raw honey''' is as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling, or straining, without adding heat (although some honey that has been "minimally processed" is often labeled as raw honey).<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.honey.com/downloads/honeydefs.pdf | title=Definition of Honey and Honey Products | work=honey.com - Approved by the National Honey Board | date=15 June 1996 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203010606/http://www.honey.com/downloads/honeydefs.pdf | archive-date=3 December 2007}}</ref> Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax. | |||
| * '''Strained honey''' has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zztzDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10&dq=%C2%A0Strained+honey+has+been+passed+through+a+mesh+material+to+remove+particulate+material#v=onepage&q=%C2%A0Strained%20honey%20has%20been%20passed%20through%20a%20mesh%20material%20to%20remove%20particulate%20material&f=false|title=Food Safety Management: Chapter 11. Honey, Confectionery and Bakery Products|last=Chaven|first=Suchart|date=2013-11-01|publisher=Elsevier Inc. Chapters|isbn=9780128056509|language=en}}</ref> (pieces of wax, ], other defects) without removing pollen, minerals, or enzymes. | |||
| * '''Filtered honey''' of any type has been filtered to the extent that all or most of the fine particles, pollen grains, air bubbles, or other materials normally found in suspension, have been removed.<ref>{{cite web|title=United States Standards for Grades of Extracted Honey|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011895|publisher=USDA / Agricultural Marketing Service|accessdate=20 January 2012}}</ref> The process typically heats honey to {{convert|150|–|170|F|C}} to more easily pass through the filter.<ref name="Damerow2011">{{cite book|author=Damerow, Gail|title=The Backyard Homestead Guide to Raising Farm Animals: Choose the Best Breeds for Small-Space Farming, Produce Your Own Grass-Fed Meat, Gather Fresh Eggs, Collect Fresh Milk, Make Your Own Cheese, Keep Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Rabbits, Goats, Sheep, Pigs, Cattle, & Bees|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mmhsorsesy0C&pg=PA167|year= 2011|publisher=Storey Publishing, LLC|isbn=978-1-60342-697-8|pages=167–|accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> Filtered honey is very clear and will not crystallize as quickly,<ref name="Damerow2011" /> making it preferred by the supermarket trade.<ref name = "FRTWfB">{{cite book|title=First Regional Training Workshop for Beekeepers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GsMOAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA55|publisher=Bib. Orton IICA / CATIE|pages=55–|year=1992|accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> | |||
| * '''Ultrasonicated honey''' has been processed by ], a nonthermal processing alternative for honey. When honey is exposed to ultrasonication, most of the yeast cells are destroyed. Those cells that survive sonication generally lose their ability to grow, which reduces the rate of honey fermentation substantially. Ultrasonication also eliminates existing crystals and inhibits further crystallization in honey. Ultrasonically aided liquefaction can work at substantially lower temperatures around {{convert|95|F|C}} and can reduce liquefaction time to less than 30 seconds.<ref>. Hielscher.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref> | |||
| * ''']''', also called whipped honey, spun honey, churned honey, honey fondant, and (in the UK) set honey, has been processed to control crystallization. Creamed honey contains a large number of small crystals, which prevent the formation of larger crystals that can occur in unprocessed honey. The processing also produces a honey with a smooth, spreadable consistency.<ref name="Sharma2005">{{cite book|author=Sharma, Rajeev |title=Improve your Health! with Honey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1FkltLNQ-AC&pg=PA33|year=2005|publisher=Diamond Pocket Books|isbn=978-81-288-0920-0|pages=33–|accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> | |||
| * '''Dried honey''' has the moisture extracted from liquid honey to create completely solid, nonsticky granules. This process may or may not include the use of drying and ]s.<ref name="Krell1996">{{cite book|author=Krell, Rainer|title=Value-added Products Froom Beekeeping|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzzBBbnIJhIC&pg=PA25|year=1996|publisher=Food & Agriculture Org.|isbn=978-92-5-103819-2|pages=25–|accessdate=5 January 2016}}</ref> Dried honey is used in baked goods,<ref name="Krell1996" /> and to garnish desserts.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=UDQSCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT23&dq=Dry+honey+used+to++garnish+desserts#v=onepage&q=Dry%20honey%20used%20to%20%20garnish%20desserts&f=false|title=The Honey Book|last=Thacker|first=Emily|date=2012-04-22|publisher=James Direct, Inc.|isbn=9781623970611|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| * ''']''' is still in the honeybees' wax comb. It is traditionally collected using standard wooden ] in ]s. The frames are collected and the comb is cut out in chunks before packaging. As an alternative to this labor-intensive method, plastic rings or cartridges can be used that do not require manual cutting of the comb, and speed packaging. Comb honey harvested in the traditional manner is also referred to as "cut-comb honey".<ref name="Flottum2010" />{{rp|13}}<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213235637/http://beeworks.com/informationcentre/honey_processing.html |date=13 February 2009 }}. Beeworks.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref> | |||
| * '''Chunk honey''' is packed in widemouth containers consisting of one or more pieces of comb honey immersed in extracted liquid honey.<ref name="Flottum2010" />{{rp|13}} | |||
| * '''Honey decoctions''' are made from honey or honey byproducts which have been dissolved in water, then reduced (usually by means of boiling). Other ingredients may then be added. (For example, ] has added citrus.) The resulting product may be similar to ]. | |||
| * '''Baker's honey''' is outside the normal specification for honey, due to a "foreign" taste or odor, or because it has begun to ferment or has been overheated. It is generally used as an ingredient in food processing. Additional requirements exist for labeling baker's honey, including that it may not be sold labelled simply as "honey".<ref>, UK Food Standards Agency. Section 2.5 (p 8), section 4.2 (pp 12-14).</ref> | |||
| ===Grading=== | |||
| {{See also|Food grading}} | |||
| In the US, honey grading is performed voluntarily (USDA does offer inspection and grading "as on-line (in-plant) or lot inspection...upon application, on a fee-for-service basis.") based upon USDA standards. Honey is graded based upon a number of factors, including water content, flavor and aroma, absence of defects, and clarity. Honey is also classified by color, though it is not a factor in the grading scale.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ams.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/Extracted_Honey_Standard%5B1%5D.pdf|title=United States Standards for Grades of Extracted Honey|publisher=USDA|accessdate=2016-04-08}}</ref> | |||
| '''The honey grade scale is''': | |||
| {| class="wikitable" | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Grade | |||
| ! Soluble solids | |||
| ! Flavor and aroma | |||
| ! Absence of defects | |||
| ! Clarity | |||
| |- | |||
| ! A | |||
| | ≥ 81.4% | |||
| | Good—"has a good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is free from caramelized flavor or objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source" | |||
| | Practically free—"contains practically no defects that affect the appearance or edibility of the product" | |||
| | Clear—"may contain air bubbles which do not materially affect the appearance of the product and may contain a trace of pollen grains or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not affect the appearance of the product" | |||
| |- | |||
| ! B | |||
| | ≥ 81.4% | |||
| | Reasonably good—"has a reasonably good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a reasonably good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is practically free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source" | |||
| | Reasonably free—"may contain defects which do not materially affect the appearance or edibility of the product" | |||
| | Reasonably clear—"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not materially affect the appearance of the product" | |||
| |- | |||
| ! C | |||
| | ≥ 80.0% | |||
| | Fairly good—"has a fairly good, normal flavor and aroma for the predominant floral source or, when blended, a fairly good flavor for the blend of floral sources and the honey is reasonably free from caramelized flavor and is free from objectionable flavor caused by fermentation, smoke, chemicals, or other causes with the exception of the predominant floral source" | |||
| | Fairly free—"may contain defects which do not seriously affect the appearance or edibility of the product" | |||
| | Fairly clear—"may contain air bubbles, pollen grains, or other finely divided particles of suspended material which do not seriously affect the appearance of the product" | |||
| |- | |||
| ! Substandard | |||
| | Fails Grade C | |||
| | Fails Grade C | |||
| | Fails Grade C | |||
| | Fails Grade C | |||
| |} | |||
| Other countries may have differing standards on the grading of honey. ], for example, certifies honey grades based on additional factors, such as the Fiehe's test, and other empirical measurements.<ref>, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE (Department of Agriculture and Co-operation) New Delhi, 24 December 2008</ref> | |||
| ===Indicators of quality=== | |||
| High-quality honey can be distinguished by fragrance, taste, and consistency. Ripe, freshly collected, high-quality honey at {{convert|20|°C|°F|abbr=on}} should flow from a knife in a straight stream, without breaking into separate drops.<ref name="Honey production">{{cite web | author=Bogdanov, Stefan | date=2008 | url=http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/Honey%20ProductionCorr.pdf | title=Honey production | work=Bee Product Science | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305184128/http://www.bee-hexagon.net/files/file/fileE/Honey/Honey%20ProductionCorr.pdf | archivedate=5 March 2009}}</ref> After falling down, the honey should form a bead. The honey, when poured, should form small, temporary layers that disappear fairly quickly, indicating high viscosity. If not, it indicates excessive water content (over 20%)<ref name="Honey production"/> | |||
| of the product. Honey with excessive water content is not suitable for long-term preservation.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Allan, Matthew | url=http://www.beedata.com/data2/basic_honey_processing.htm | title=Basic Honey Processing | journal=Beekeeping in a Nutshell | volume=5 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010217104623/http://www.beedata.com/data2/basic_honey_processing.htm | archive-date=17 February 2001}}</ref> | |||
| In jars, fresh honey should appear as a pure, consistent fluid, and should not set in layers. Within a few weeks to a few months of extraction, many varieties of honey crystallize into a cream-colored solid. Some varieties of honey, including tupelo, acacia, and sage, crystallize less regularly. Honey may be heated during bottling at temperatures of {{convert|40|–|49|C|F}} to delay or inhibit crystallization. Overheating is indicated by change in enzyme levels, for instance, ] activity, which can be determined with the Schade or the ] methods. A fluffy film on the surface of the honey (like a white foam), or marble-colored or white-spotted crystallization on a container's sides, is formed by air bubbles trapped during the bottling process. | |||
| A 2008 Italian study determined ] can be used to distinguish between different honey types, and can be used to pinpoint the area where it was produced. Researchers were able to identify differences in acacia and polyfloral honeys by the differing proportions of ] and ], as well as differing levels of aromatic ]s ] and ]. This ability allows greater ease of selecting compatible stocks.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/cen-v086n035.p043|journal=]|year=2008|volume=86|title=Keeping Tabs on Honey|pages=43–44|issue=35}}</ref> | |||
| ==Nutrition== | |||
| {{nutritional value|name=Honey|kJ=1272|protein=0.3 g|fat=0 g|carbs=82.4 g|sugars=82.12 g|fiber=0.2 g|sodium_mg=4|potassium_mg=52|vitC_mg=0.5|riboflavin_mg=0.038|niacin_mg=0.121|pantothenic_mg=0.068|folate_ug=2|iron_mg=0.42|magnesium_mg=2|phosphorus_mg=4|zinc_mg=0.22|calcium_mg=6|vitB6_mg=0.024|water=17.10 g|note=}} | |||
| In a 100-gram serving, honey provides 304 kilo] with no ]s in significant content.<ref name="Nutrient Data">{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/6287?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=honey&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby=|title=Full Report (All Nutrients): 19296, Honey|publisher=USDA National Nutrient Database, Agricultural Research Service, Release 28|date=2015|accessdate=30 October 2015}}</ref> Composed of 17% water and 82% ], honey has low content of ], ], and ]. | |||
| ===Sugar profile=== | |||
| A mixture of sugars and other carbohydrates, honey is mainly fructose (about 38%) and glucose (about 32%),<ref name="NHB carbs"/> with remaining sugars including ], sucrose, and other ].<ref name="NHB carbs"/> Its ] ranges from 31 to 78, depending on the variety.<ref>Arcot, Jayashree and Brand-Miller, Jennie (March 2005) . A report for the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. RIRDC Publication No 05/027. rirdc.infoservices.com.au</ref> The specific composition, color, aroma, and flavor of any batch of honey depend on the flowers foraged by bees that produced the honey.<ref name="hunt">{{cite book|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89094204153;view=1up;seq=3|publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin, No. 653|authors=Hunt CL, Atwater HW|date=7 April 1915|title=Honey and Its Uses in the Home|accessdate=2 April 2015}}</ref> | |||
| One 1980 study found that mixed ] honey from several United States regions typically contains:<ref name="Comp">{{cite web|url=http://www.beesource.com/resources/usda/honey-composition-and-properties|title=Beesource Beekeeping: Honey Composition and Properties|publisher=Beesource.com|date=October 1980|accessdate=6 February 2011}}</ref> | |||
| * Fructose: 38.2% | |||
| * Glucose: 31.3% | |||
| * Maltose: 7.1% | |||
| * Sucrose: 1.3% | |||
| * Water: 17.2% | |||
| * ]: 1.5% | |||
| * ]: 0.2% | |||
| * Other/undetermined: 3.2% | |||
| A 2013 ] study of 20 different honeys from Germany found that their sugar contents comprised: | |||
| * Fructose: 28% to 41% | |||
| * Glucose: 22% to 35% | |||
| The average ratio was 56% fructose to 44% glucose, but the ratios in the individual honeys ranged from a high of 64% fructose and 36% glucose (one type of flower honey; table 3 in reference) to a low of 50% fructose and 50% glucose (a different floral source). This NMR method was not able to quantify maltose, ], and the other minor sugars as compared to fructose and glucose.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Qualitative and Quantitative Control of Honeys Using NMR Spectroscopy and Chemometrics|url = https://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/825318|journal = ISRN Analytical Chemistry|date = 12 May 2013|pages = 1–9|volume = 2013|doi = 10.1155/2013/825318|language = en|first = Marc|last = Ohmenhaeuser|first2 = Yulia B.|last2 = Monakhova|first3 = Thomas|last3 = Kuballa|first4 = Dirk W.|last4 = Lachenmeier}}</ref> | |||
| ==Medical== | |||
| ===Wounds and burns=== | |||
| Some evidence shows that honey may help healing in skin wounds after surgery and mild (partial thickness) burns when used in a dressing, but in general, the evidence for the use of honey in wound treatment is of such low quality that firm conclusions cannot be drawn.<ref name=Jull2015>{{Cite journal |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD005083.pub4/full |title=Honey as a topical treatment for wounds |last=Jull |first=Andrew B. |last2=Cullum |first2=Nicky |last3=Dumville |first3=Jo C. |last4=Westby |first4=Maggie J. |last5=Deshpande |first5=Sohan |last6=Walker |first6=Natalie |year=2015 |journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |issue=3 |pages=CD005083 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |pmid=25742878 |doi=10.1002/14651858.cd005083.pub4 |quote=Honey appears to heal partial thickness burns more quickly than conventional treatment (which included polyurethane film, paraffin gauze, soframycin-impregnated gauze, sterile linen and leaving the burns exposed) and infected post-operative wounds more quickly than antiseptics and gauze.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Majtan |first1=J |title=Honey: an immunomodulator in wound healing |journal=Wound Repair Regen. |date=2014 |volume=22 |issue=2 Mar–Apr |pages=187–192 |doi=10.1111/wrr.12117 |pmid=24612472}}</ref> Evidence does not support the use of honey-based products in the treatment of ] or ].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Meara S, Al-Kurdi D, Ologun Y, Ovington LG, Martyn-St James M, Richardson R |title=Antibiotics and antiseptics for venous leg ulcers |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=1 |issue= 1|pages=CD003557 |year=2014 |pmid=24408354 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003557.pub5 |type=Systematic review}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Eekhof JA, Van Wijk B, Knuistingh Neven A, van der Wouden JC |title=Interventions for ingrowing toenails |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=4 |issue= 4|pages=CD001541 |year=2012 |pmid=22513901 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001541.pub3 |type=Systematic review}}</ref> | |||
| ===Antibiotic=== | |||
| Components of honey under preliminary research for their potential ] include ], ], and royalisin (also called defensin-1).<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Methylglyoxal-induced modifications of significant honeybee proteinous components in manuka honey: Possible therapeutic implications|url = http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0367326X12000512|journal = Fitoterapia|date = 1 June 2012|pages = 671–677|volume = 83|issue = 4|doi = 10.1016/j.fitote.2012.02.002|first = Juraj|last = Majtan|first2 = Jaroslav|last2 = Klaudiny|first3 = Jana|last3 = Bohova|first4 = Lenka|last4 = Kohutova|first5 = Maria|last5 = Dzurova|first6 = Maria|last6 = Sediva|first7 = Maria|last7 = Bartosova|first8 = Viktor|last8 = Majtan|pmid=22366273}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=22095907|year=2012|author1=Kwakman|first1=P. H|title=Antibacterial components of honey|journal=IUBMB Life|volume=64|issue=1|pages=48–55|last2=Zaat|first2=S. A|doi=10.1002/iub.578|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/iub.578/full}}</ref> | |||
| ===Cough=== | |||
| For chronic and acute coughs, a ] found no strong evidence for or against the use of honey.<ref name="lozenges">{{cite journal |vauthors=Mulholland S, Chang AB |title=Honey and lozenges for children with non-specific cough |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=2 |pages=CD007523 |year=2009 |pmid=19370690 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007523.pub2 |type=Systematic review}}</ref><ref name="cough">{{cite journal |vauthors=Oduwole O, Meremikwu MM, Oyo-Ita A, Udoh EE |title=Honey for acute cough in children |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=CD007094 |year=2014 |pmid=25536086 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD007094.pub4 |type=Systematic review}}</ref> For treating children, the study concluded that honey possibly helps more than no treatment.<ref name="cough" /> | |||
| The UK ] recommends avoiding giving ] cough and ] medication to children under six, and suggests "a homemade remedy containing honey and lemon is likely to be just as useful and safer to take", but warns that honey should not be given to babies because of the risk of infant ].<ref name="nhs-cough">{{cite web |publisher=] |title=Cough | accessdate=18 June 2014 |date=20 June 2013 |url=http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/cough/pages/introduction.aspx}}</ref> The World Health Organization recommends honey as a treatment for coughs and sore throats, including for children, stating that no reason exists to believe it is less effective than a commercial remedy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cough and cold remedies for the treatment of acute respiratory infections in young children |url=http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/documents/fch_cah_01_02/en/ |website=World Health Organization |accessdate=15 October 2015}}</ref> Honey is recommended by one Canadian physician for children over the age of one for the treatment of coughs, as it is deemed as effective as ] and more effective than ].<ref name=Goldman2014>{{cite journal |last1=Goldman |first1=Ran D. |title=Honey for treatment of cough in children |journal=Canadian Family Physician |date=December 2014 |volume=60 |issue=12 |pages=1107–1110 |pmid=25642485 |pmc=4264806 |url=http://www.cfp.ca/content/60/12/1107.long |accessdate=15 October 2015 |type=Systematic review}}</ref> | |||
| ===Other=== | |||
| No evidence shows the benefit of using honey to treat ],<ref name="mayo">{{cite web |publisher=] |title=Honey |accessdate=24 September 2015 |date=1 November 2013 |url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/drugs-supplements/honey/evidence/hrb-20059618}}</ref> although honey may be useful for controlling ] of ] or ] applied in cancer treatment.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=J Clin Nurs|year=2008|volume=17|issue=19|pages=2604–23|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2702.2008.02304.x|pmid=18808626|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0025570/|title=A systematic review of honey uses and its potential value within oncology care|authors=Bardy J, Slevin NJ, Mais KL, Molassiotis A}}</ref> | |||
| Consumption is sometimes advocated as a treatment for ] due to ], but scientific evidence to support the claim is inconclusive.<ref name=mayo/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healthline.com/health/allergies/honey-remedy|title=Honey for Allergies|author=Dale Kiefer|date=4 May 2012}}</ref> Honey is generally considered ineffective for the treatment of ].<ref name=mayo/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rudmik L, Hoy M, Schlosser RJ, Harvey RJ, Welch KC, Lund V, Smith TL | title = Topical therapies in the management of chronic rhinosinusitis: an evidence-based review with recommendations | journal = Int Forum Allergy Rhinol | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–98 | date = April 2013 | doi = 10.1002/alr.21096 | pmid = 23044832 | type = Review }}</ref> | |||
| Although the majority of calories in honey is from fructose, honey does not cause increased weight gain<ref>{{Cite journal|pmid = 19155427|year = 2008|author1 = Bogdanov|first1 = S|title = Honey for nutrition and health: A review|journal = Journal of the American College of Nutrition|volume = 27|issue = 6|pages = 677–89|last2 = Jurendic|first2 = T|last3 = Sieber|first3 = R|last4 = Gallmann|first4 = P|doi=10.1080/07315724.2008.10719745}}</ref> and fructose by itself is not an independent factor for weight gain.<ref name="aim">{{cite journal|vauthors=Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ, Mirrahimi A, Yu ME, Carleton AJ, Beyene J, Chiavaroli L, Di Buono M, Jenkins AL, Leiter LA, Wolever TM, Kendall CW, Jenkins DJ |title=Effect of Fructose on Body Weight in Controlled Feeding Trials: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Ann Intern Med|year=2012|volume=156 | issue = 4 |pages=291–304|pmid=22351714|doi=10.7326/0003-4819-156-4-201202210-00007}}</ref> | |||
| ===Health hazards=== | |||
| Although honey is generally safe when taken in typical food amounts,<ref name=mayo/><ref name=Goldman2014/> there are various, potential ]s or ]s it may have in combination with excessive consumption, existing ] conditions or ]s.<ref name=mayo/> Included among these are mild reactions to high intake, such as ], ], or ] in about 10% of children, according to one study.<ref name=Goldman2014/> No symptoms of anxiety, insomnia, or hyperactivity were detected with honey consumption compared to ], according to another study.<ref name=Goldman2014/> Honey consumption may interact adversely with existing ], high ] levels (as in ]), or ]s used to control ], among other ] conditions.<ref name=mayo/> | |||
| People who have a ] may be at risk of bacterial or fungal infection from eating honey,<ref name=safety>{{cite book|editors=Prakash V, Martin-Belloso O, Keener L, Astley SB, Braun S, McMahon H, Lelieveld H|work=Regulating Safety of Traditional and Ethnic Foods|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2glBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223|year=2015|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=978-0-12-800620-7|page=223|title=Safety of Honey|author=Grigoryan K}}</ref> although there is no high-quality clinical evidence that this occurs commonly.<ref name=mayo/> | |||
| ====Botulism==== | |||
| Infants can develop ] after consuming honey contaminated with '']'' endospores.<ref name="NHB botulism">{{cite web | url=http://www.honey.com/nhb/about-honey/frequently-asked-questions/category/honey-properties/ | title=The National Honey Board: Frequently Asked Questions | work=Honey.com | accessdate=6 February 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100201094727/http://www.honey.com/nhb/about-honey/frequently-asked-questions/category/honey-properties/ | archive-date=1 February 2010}}</ref> | |||
| Infantile botulism shows geographical variation. In the UK, only six cases have been reported between 1976 and 2006,<ref name="FSA botulism">{{cite web | url=http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/infantbotulismreport.pdf | title=Report on Minimally Processed Infant Weaning Foods and the Risk of Infant Botulism | format=PDF | date=July 2006 | work=Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Food | accessdate=9 January 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019005426/http://www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/pdfs/infantbotulismreport.pdf |archive-date=19 October 2010}}</ref> yet the U.S. has much higher rates: 1.9 per 100,000 live births, 47.2% of which are in California.<ref name="CdcBotulism">, Handbook for Epidemiologists, Clinicians, and Laboratory Workers, Atlanta, GA. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1998)</ref> While the risk honey poses to infant health is small, taking the risk is not recommended until after one year of age, and then giving honey is considered safe.<ref name="ENY128">. Edis.ifas.ufl.edu. Retrieved on 9 January 2012.</ref> | |||
| ====Toxic honey==== | |||
| {{main|Bees and toxic chemicals#Toxic honey}} | |||
| ] is a result of eating honey containing ]s.<ref name=JansenKleerekooper2012>{{cite journal|last1=Jansen|first1=Suze A.|last2=Kleerekooper|first2=Iris|last3=Hofman|first3=Zonne L. M.|last4=Kappen|first4=Isabelle F. P. M.|last5=Stary-Weinzinger|first5=Anna|last6=van der Heyden|first6=Marcel A. G.|title=Grayanotoxin Poisoning: ‘Mad Honey Disease’ and Beyond|journal=Cardiovascular Toxicology|volume=12|issue=3|year=2012|pages=208–215|doi=10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2|pmid=22528814|pmc=3404272}}</ref> Honey produced from flowers of ]s, ], ], and ]s may cause honey intoxication. Symptoms include dizziness, weakness, excessive perspiration, nausea, and vomiting. Less commonly, low blood pressure, shock, heart rhythm irregularities, and convulsions may occur, with rare cases resulting in death. Honey intoxication is more likely when using "natural" unprocessed honey and honey from farmers who may have a small number of hives. Commercial processing, with pooling of honey from numerous sources, is thought to dilute any toxins.<ref name="FDA">{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314133504/http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodSafety/FoodborneIllness/FoodborneIllnessFoodbornePathogensNaturalToxins/BadBugBook/ucm071128.htm|date=14 March 2010|title="Grayanotoxin"}} in the ''Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook'', FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.</ref> | |||
| Toxic honey may also result when bees are proximate to ] bushes (''Coriaria arborea'') and the vine hopper insect ('']''). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison ] into honey.<ref name="NBA">{{citation | url=http://nba.org.nz/uploads/starting-with-bees-tutin-section.pdf | title=Tutu Bush and Toxic Honey | work=National Beekeepers Association, New Zealand | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005173024/http://nba.org.nz/uploads/starting-with-bees-tutin-section.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2011}}</ref> Only a few areas in New Zealand (the ], Eastern ] and the ]) frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma, and violent convulsions.{{mcn|date=April 2015}} To reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand. Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within {{convert|3|km|mi|abbr=on}} of their apiary. {{citation needed|reason=needed for section in general|date=April 2015}} Intoxication is rarely dangerous.<ref name=JansenKleerekooper2012/> | |||
| ==History and culture== | |||
| Honey use and production has a long and varied history.<ref name=hunt /> In many cultures, honey has associations that go beyond its use as a food. It is frequently used as a ] and ] of sweetness.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=HGDxCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA102&lpg=PA102&dq=In+many+cultures,+honey+has+associations+that+go+beyond+its+use+as+a+food.+It+is+frequently+used+as+a+talisman+and+symbol+of+sweetness#v=onepage&q=In%20many%20cultures,%20honey%20has%20associations%20that%20go%20beyond%20its%20use%20as%20a%20food.%20It%20is%20frequently%20used%20as%20a%20talisman%20and%20symbol%20of%20sweetness&f=false|title=21st Century Homestead: Beekeeping|last=Reuber|first=Brant|date=2015-02-21|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781312937338|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| ===Ancient times=== | |||
| ] in Spain]] | |||
| Honey collection is an ancient activity.<ref name=Crane83/> Humans apparently began hunting for honey at least 8,000 years ago, as evidenced by a cave painting in ], Spain.<ref name=Crane83>Crane, Eva (1983) ''The Archaeology of Beekeeping'', Cornell University Press, {{ISBN|0-8014-1609-4}}</ref> The painting is a ] rock painting, showing two honey hunters collecting honey and honeycomb from a wild bee nest. The figures are depicted carrying baskets or gourds, and using a ] or series of ropes to reach the wild nest. | |||
| The ] bird guides humans to wild bee hives<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Isack HA, Reyer HU | title = Honeyguides and honey gatherers: interspecific communication in a symbiotic relationship | journal = Science | volume = 243 | issue = 4896 | pages = 1343–6 | year = 1989 | pmid = 17808267 | doi = 10.1126/science.243.4896.1343 | bibcode = 1989Sci...243.1343I }}</ref> and this behavior may have evolved with early hominids.<ref>Short, Lester, Horne, Jennifer and Diamond, A. W. (2003). "Honeyguides". In Christopher Perrins (Ed.). Firefly Encyclopedia of Birds. Firefly Books. pp. 396–397. {{ISBN|1-55297-777-3}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/00306525.1981.9633599|title=A Review of African Birds Feeding in Association with Mammals|year=1981|last1=Dean|first1=W. R. J.|last2=MacDonald|first2=I. A. W.|journal=Ostrich|volume=52|issue=3|pages=135–155}}</ref> | |||
| The oldest known honey remains were found in the country of ]. Archaeologists found honey remains on the inner surface of clay vessels unearthed in an ancient tomb, dating back some 4,700–5,500 years.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s00334-006-0067-5|title=The first find in southern Georgia of fossil honey from the Bronze Age, based on palynological data|year=2006|last1=Kvavadze|first1=Eliso|last2=Gambashidze|first2=Irina|last3=Mindiashvili|first3=Giorgi|last4=Gogochuri|first4=Giorgi|journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany|volume=16|issue=5|pages=399–404}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704110909/http://www.cncworld.tv/news/v_show/23243_Georgian_ancient_honey.shtml |date=4 July 2012 }}. cncworld.tv (31 March 2012). Retrieved on 10 July 2012.</ref><ref>. ] (30 March 2012). Retrieved on 3 July 2015.</ref> In ancient Georgia, several types of honey were buried with a person for their journey into the afterlife, including linden, berry, and meadow-flower varieties.<ref> guildofscientifictroubadours.com (2 April 2012). Retrieved on 10 July 2012.</ref> | |||
| In ], honey was used to sweeten cakes and biscuits, and was used in many other dishes. Ancient Egyptian and ]ern peoples also used honey for ] the dead.<ref>] The Cartoon History of the Universe Vol.2</ref> The fertility god of Egypt, ], was offered honey. | |||
| In ], honey was produced from the ] to the ] periods. In 594 BC,<ref>{{cite book|author=Pliny|title=XI.9.19}}</ref> beekeeping around ] was so widespread that ] passed a law about it: "He who sets up hives of bees must put them {{convert|300|ft|m|abbr=off}} away from those already installed by another".<ref>{{cite book|author=Plutarch|title=Life of Solon|page=23}}</ref><ref name="crane book" /> Greek archaeological excavations of pottery located ancient hives.<ref name="Princeton University Press">{{cite book|last1=Bresson|first1=Alain|title=The Making of the Ancient Greek Economy: Institutions, Markets and Growth|publisher=Princeton University Press|url=https://books.google.com/?id=wU9FCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA130&dq=honey+ancient+greek#v=onepage&q=honey%20ancient%20greek&f=false|accessdate=16 December 2015|isbn=9781400852451|date=2015-11-03}}</ref> According to ], Greek beekeepers of the Hellenistic period did not hesitate to move their hives over rather long distances to maximise production, taking advantage of the different vegetative cycles in different regions.<ref name="Princeton University Press"/> | |||
| In the absence of sugar, honey was an integral sweetening ingredient in Greek and Roman cuisine. During Roman times, honey was part of many recipes and it is mentioned in the work of many authors, such as ], ], ], and others.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}} | |||
| The spiritual and therapeutic use of honey in ] is documented in both the ] and the ] texts, which were both composed at least 4,000 years ago.<ref name="Pećanac-">{{cite journal | authors = Pećanac M, Janjić Z, Komarcević A, Pajić M, Dobanovacki D, Misković SS | title = Burns treatment in ancient times | journal = Med Pregl | volume = 66 | issue = 5–6 | pages = 263–7 | year = 2013 | doi = 10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00603-5 | pmid = 23888738 }}</ref> | |||
| Beekeeping in ] has existed since ancient times and appears to be untraceable to its origin. In the book ''Golden Rules of Business Success'' written by ] (or Tao Zhu Gong) during the ], some parts mention the art of beekeeping and the importance of the quality of the wooden box for beekeeping that can affect the quality of its honey.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} | |||
| Honey was also cultivated in ancient ]. The ] used honey from the ] for culinary purposes, and continue to do so today. The Maya also regard the bee as sacred (see ]). | |||
| Some cultures believed honey had many practical health uses. It was used as an ointment for rashes and burns, and to help soothe sore throats when no other practices were available. | |||
| ===Folk medicine and wound research=== | |||
| In ]s and ], honey has been used both orally and topically to treat various ailments including ] disturbances, ]s, ] ]s, and ]s by ancient Greeks and Egyptians, and in ] and ].<ref name="Pećanac-" /> | |||
| Proposed for treating wounds and burns, honey may have ] properties as first reported in 1892 and be useful as a safe, ]al wound treatment.<ref name="future">{{cite journal |last1=Maddocks |first1=Sarah E |last2=Jenkins |first2=Rowena E |title=Honey: a sweet solution to the growing problem of antimicrobial resistance? |journal=Future Microbiology |year=2013 |volume=8 |issue=11 |pages=1419–1429 |doi=10.2217/fmb.13.105 |pmid=24199801 }}</ref><ref name="wild">{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=JA |last2=McGrane |first2=OL |last3=Wedmore |first3=IS |title=Wound care in the wilderness: is there evidence for honey? |journal=Wilderness Environ Med. |year=2014 |volume=25 |issue=1 (Mar)|pages=103–110 |doi=10.1016/j.wem.2013.08.006 |pmid=24393701}}</ref> Though its supposed antimicrobial properties may be due to high ] even when diluted with water, it is more effective than plain sugar water of a similar viscosity.<ref name="future" /><ref name="wild" /> Definitive clinical conclusions about the efficacy and safety of treating wounds, however, are not possible from this limited research.<ref name=Jull2015/> | |||
| The ] that bees use to make the honey may have a role in its properties, particularly by bees foraging from the manuka myrtle, '']'', as proposed in one study.<ref name="future" /> | |||
| ===Religious significance=== | |||
| '''Ancient Greeks Religion''' | |||
| In ], the food of ] and the 12 ] was honey in the form of nectar and ].<ref>{{Cite book|title = Harvard Studies in Classical Philology|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kNeTxae8vV4C|publisher = Harvard University Press|date = 1 April 1980|isbn = 9780674379305|language = en|first = Albert|last = Henrichs}}</ref> | |||
| '''Hinduism''' | |||
| In ], honey ('']'') is one of the five elixirs of immortality ('']''). In temples, honey is poured over the deities in a ritual called ''Madhu ]''. The ''Vedas'' and other ancient literature mention the use of honey as a great medicinal and health food.<ref name="fjnet.com"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080319080236/http://www.fjnet.com/english/society/t20061117_41041.htm |date=19 March 2008 }} by Marguerite Theophil, United Press International, 16 November 2006, accessed 9 August 2008</ref> | |||
| '''Judaism''' | |||
| In Jewish tradition, honey is a symbol for the new year, '']''. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten to bring a sweet new year. Some ''Rosh Hashanah'' greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CD8U0PXesiMC&lpg=PA6&dq=rosh%20hashanah%20%22honey%20straws%22&pg=PA121#v=onepage&q=straws&f=false|title=Napa Valley's Jewish Heritage|last=Michalski|first=Henry|last2=Mendelsohn|first2=Donna|last3=Valley|first3=Jewish Historical Society of Napa|date=2012-01-01|publisher=Arcadia Publishing|isbn=9780738588988|language=en}}</ref> | |||
| The ] contains many references to honey. In the ], Samson found a swarm of bees and honey in the carcass of a lion (14:8). In Old Testament law, offerings were made in the temple to God. The ] says that "Every grain offering you bring to the Lord must be made without yeast, for you are not to burn any yeast or honey in a food offering presented to the Lord" (2:11). In the ], ] is forced into a confrontation with his father ] after eating honey in violation of a rash oath Saul has made.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|14:24–47|NKJV}}</ref> Proverbs 16:24 in the JPS Tanakh 1917 version says "Pleasant words are as a honeycomb, Sweet to the soul, and health to the bones." ] famously describes the ] as a "land flowing with ] and honey" (33:3). However, most Biblical commentators write that the original Hebrew in the Bible (דבש ''devash'') refers to the sweet syrup produced from the juice of ] (''silan'').<ref>Berel, Rabbi. (24 September 2005) . Aish.com. Retrieved on 6 February 2011.</ref> In 2005 an apiary dating from the 10th century B.C. was found in Tel Rehov, Israel that contained 100 hives and is estimated to produce half a ton of honey annually.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mazar|first1=Amihai|last2=Panitz-Cohen|first2=Nava|title=It Is the Land of Honey: beekeeping at Tel Rehov|journal=]|date=2007|volume=70|issue=4|pages=202–219}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=The Hebrew University of Jerusalem|title=First Beehives In Ancient Near East Discovered|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/09/070904114558.htm|website=ScienceDaily|publisher=ScienceDaily|accessdate=6 October 2015}}</ref> Pure honey is considered ], though it is produced by a flying insect, a non-kosher creature; other products of non-kosher animals are not kosher.<ref> Chabad.org. Retrieved 30 November 2010.</ref> | |||
| '''Buddhism''' | |||
| In Buddhism, honey plays an important role in the festival of '']'', celebrated in India and ]. The day commemorates ]'s making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. The legend has it that while he was there, a ] brought him honey to eat. On ''Madhu Purnima'', Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to ]. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in ].<ref name="fjnet.com"/> | |||
| '''Christianity''' | |||
| In the Christian ], ], ] is said to have lived for a long period of time in the wilderness on a diet consisting of locusts and wild honey. | |||
| '''Islam''' | |||
| In Islam, an entire chapter (]h) in the ] is called '']'' (the Bees). According to his teachings ('']''), ] strongly recommended ].<ref>Sahih Bukhari vol. 7, book 71, number 584, 585, 588 and 603.</ref> The Qur'an promotes honey as a nutritious and healthy food. Below is the English translation of those specific verses: | |||
| {{bquote|And thy Lord taught the Bee to build its cells in hills, on trees, and in (men's) habitations; Then to eat of all the produce (of the earth), and find with skill the spacious paths of its Lord: there issues from within their bodies a drink of varying colours, wherein is healing for men: verily in this is a Sign for those who give thought .<ref name="'Abdullah Yusuf 'Ali">{{cite book|first='Abdullah |last=Yusuf 'Ali |title=An Nahl, Al-Quran Chapter 16 (The Bee) quoted from "The Holy Qur'an: Original Arabic Text with English Translation & Selected Commentaries" |url=http://muslimaccess.com/quraan/translations/yusufali/016.htm |accessdate=20 May 2013 |publisher=Saba Islamic Media |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130226013840/http://muslimaccess.com/quraan/translations/yusufali/016.htm |archivedate=26 February 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>}} | |||
| {{Clear}} | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|Food}} | |||
| {{div col|colwidth=30em}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * '']''{{nsmdns}}a 2012 Swiss documentary film on the current state of honey bees and beekeeping | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{div col end}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ==Bibliography== | |||
| * {{cite book|author=Krell, R.|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|title=Value-added products from beekeeping|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzzBBbnIJhIC&pg=PA5|year=1996|isbn=978-92-5-103819-2|ref=Krell|accessdate=5 January 2016}} | |||
| * {{cite book|author1=Root, A. I. |author2=Root, E. R. |title=The ABC and Xyz of Bee Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0PoSYNEsh0C&pg=PA355|year=2005|publisher=Kessinger Publishing|isbn=978-1-4179-2427-1|ref=Root|accessdate=5 January 2016}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{wikimedia|collapsible=true|c=Category:Honey}} | |||
| * | |||
| * {{Cite NSRW|short=x|wstitle=Honey}} | |||
| {{Sugar}} | |||
| {{BeeColonyMemberTypes}} | |||
| {{Non-timber forest products}} | |||
| {{Yunnan cuisine}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 20:31, 25 April 2018
honey is made by bees and is real good