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| {{Infobox music genre | |||
| | name = Jazz | |||
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| | stylistic_origins = {{hlist|]|]|]|]|]|]|]}} | |||
| | cultural_origins = Late 19th century, ] | |||
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| '''Jazz''' is a ] that originated in the ] communities of ], United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm|title=Jazz Origins in New Orleans - New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park |publisher=National Park Service |access-date=2017-03-19}}</ref> in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and developed from roots in ] and ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sbg.ac.at/ges/people/wagnleitner/usa3/nov26frame.htm |title="The Jazz Book": A Map of Jazz Styles |last=Germuska |first=Joe |publisher=WNUR-FM, Northwestern University |via=] |access-date=2017-03-19}}</ref> Jazz is seen by many as "America's classical music".<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title=On the Instrumental Origins of Jazz |last=Roth |first=Russell |journal=] |issn=0003-0678 |date=1952 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=305–16 |doi=10.2307/3031415|jstor=3031415 }}</ref> Since the 1920s ], jazz has become recognized as a major form of musical expression. It then emerged in the form of independent ] and ]al styles, all linked by the common bonds of African-American and ] musical parentage with a performance orientation.<ref name="Hennessey">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/From_jazz_to_swing_black_jazz_musicians.html?id=nvskngEACAAJ |last=Hennessey |first=Thomas |title=From Jazz to Swing: Black Jazz Musicians and Their Music, 1917–1935 |type=Ph.D. dissertation |publisher=] |year=1973 |pages=470–473 }}</ref> Jazz is characterized by ] and ]s, ], ]s and ]. Jazz has roots in ], and in ] including ] and ], as well as European military band music.<ref>Ferris, Jean (1993) ''America's Musical Landscape''. Brown and Benchmark. {{ISBN|0697125165}}. pp. 228, 233</ref> Intellectuals around the world have hailed jazz as "one of America's original art forms".<ref>Starr, Larry, and Christopher Waterman. IIP Digital. Oxford University Press, 26 July 2008.</ref> | |||
| As jazz spread around the world, it drew on different national, regional, and local musical cultures, which gave rise to many distinctive styles. ] began in the early 1910s, combining earlier brass-band marches, French ]s, ], ragtime and ] with collective ] ]. In the 1930s, heavily arranged dance-oriented ] ]s, ], a hard-swinging, bluesy, improvisational style and ] (a style that emphasized ] waltzes) were the prominent styles. ] emerged in the 1940s, shifting jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music" which was played at faster tempos and used more chord-based improvisation. ] developed near the end of the 1940s, introducing calmer, smoother sounds and long, linear melodic lines. | |||
| The 1950s saw the emergence of ], which explored playing without regular meter, beat and formal structures, and in the mid-1950s, ] emerged, which introduced influences from ], ], and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. ] developed in the late 1950s, using the ], or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. ] appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s, combining jazz improvisation with ]'s rhythms, electric instruments, and highly amplified stage sound. In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called ] became successful, garnering significant radio airplay. Other styles and genres abound in the 2000s, such as ] and ]. | |||
| {{TOC limit|3}} | |||
| == <span id="Definition"></span> Etymology and definition== | |||
| {{Main|Jazz (word)}} | |||
| ] made an early contribution to the genre's etymology]] | |||
| ], 1915, '']'' from the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York]] | |||
| The origin of the ] has resulted in considerable research, and its history is well documented. It is believed to be related to ''jasm'', a slang term dating back to 1860 meaning "pep, energy".<ref name="baseball" /> The earliest written record of the word is in a 1912 article in the ''Los Angeles Times'' in which a minor league baseball pitcher described a pitch which he called a ''jazz ball'' "because it wobbles and you simply can't do anything with it".<ref name="baseball">{{cite news| last1=Wilton| first1=Dave|title=The baseball origin of 'jazz'|url=http://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2015/04/jazz-baseball/|accessdate=20 June 2016|work=]|publisher=]|date=6 April 2015}}</ref> | |||
| The use of the word in a musical context was documented as early as 1915 in the ''Chicago Daily Tribune.''<ref name=CDT>{{Cite news |url=http://www.omf.paris-sorbonne.fr/IMG/pdf/1915_article_Seagrove.pdf |title=Blues is Jazz and Jazz Is Blues |last=Seagrove |first=Gordon |newspaper=] |format=PDF |date=July 11, 1915 |accessdate=November 4, 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120130130212/http://www.omf.paris-sorbonne.fr/IMG/pdf/1915_article_Seagrove.pdf |archivedate=January 30, 2012 |via=] }} Archived at Observatoire Musical Français, ].</ref> Its first documented use in a musical context in New Orleans was in a November 14, 1916 ''Times-Picayune'' article about "jas bands".<ref>{{cite web|author=Benjamin Zimmer|author-link=Benjamin Zimmer| title="Jazz": A Tale of Three Cities|url=http://www.visualthesaurus.com/cm/wordroutes/1876/|website=Word Routes|publisher=The Visual Thesaurus|date=June 8, 2009|accessdate=June 8, 2009}}</ref> In an interview with NPR, musician ] offered his recollections of the original slang connotations of the term, saying: "When Broadway picked it up, they called it 'J-A-Z-Z'. It wasn't called that. It was spelled 'J-A-S-S'. That was dirty, and if you knew what it was, you wouldn't say it in front of ladies."<ref></ref> The American Dialect Society named it the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.americandialect.org/1999_words_of_the_year_word_of_the_1990s_word_of_the_20th_century|title=1999 Words of the Year, Word of the 1990s, Word of the 20th Century, Word of the Millennium|date=13 January 2000|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| Jazz is difficult to define because it encompasses a wide range of music spanning a period of over 100 years, from ] to the ]-infused ]. Attempts have been made to define jazz from the perspective of other musical traditions, such as European music history or African music. But critic ] argues that its terms of reference and its definition should be broader,<ref name="Joachim E. Berendt 1981. Page 371">Joachim E. Berendt. ''The Jazz Book: From Ragtime to Fusion and Beyond''. Translated by H. and B. Bredigkeit with Dan Morgenstern. 1981. Lawrence Hill Books, p. 371.</ref> defining jazz as a "form of ] which originated in the United States through the confrontation of the Negro with European music"<ref name="Berendt1964">{{cite book|last=Berendt|first=Joachim Ernst|title=The New Jazz Book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pjgYAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=4 August 2013|year=1964|publisher=P. Owen|page=278}}</ref> and arguing that it differs from European music in that jazz has a "special relationship to time defined as 'swing{{'"}}. Jazz involves "a spontaneity and vitality of musical production in which improvisation plays a role" and contains a "sonority and manner of phrasing which mirror the individuality of the performing jazz musician".<ref name="Joachim E. Berendt 1981. Page 371"/> In the opinion of ], "most of us would say that inventing meaning while letting loose is the essence and promise of jazz".<ref>{{cite news| last=Christgau| first=Robert|authorlink=Robert Christgau|date=October 28, 1986|url=http://www.robertchristgau.com/xg/cg/cgv10-86.php| title=Christgau's Consumer Guide|newspaper=]|location=New York|accessdate=September 10, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| A broader definition that encompasses different eras of jazz has been proposed by Travis Jackson: "it is music that includes qualities such as swing, improvising, group interaction, developing an 'individual voice', and being open to different musical possibilities".<ref name="Elsdon" /> Krin Gibbard argued that "jazz is a construct" which designates "a number of musics with enough in common to be understood as part of a coherent tradition".<ref>{{Cite book|author1=Cooke, Mervyn |author2=Horn, David G. |title=The Cambridge companion to jazz|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-66388-5|pages=1, 6}}</ref> In contrast to commentators who have argued for excluding types of jazz, musicians are sometimes reluctant to define the music they play. ], one of jazz's most famous figures, said, "It's all music."<ref>{{cite journal| last=Luebbers| first=Johannes| date=September 8, 2008|title=It's All Music|journal=Resonate}}</ref> | |||
| ==Elements and issues== | |||
| ===Improvisation=== | |||
| ], saxophone player ], and drummer ] performing in 1978]] | |||
| {{Main|Jazz improvisation}} | |||
| Although jazz is considered difficult to define, in part because it contains many subgenres, ] is one of its key elements.{{citation needed|date=March 2018}} The centrality of improvisation is attributed to the influence of earlier forms of music such as ], a form of folk music which arose in part from the ]s and ]s of African-American slaves on plantations. These work songs were commonly structured around a repetitive ] pattern, but early blues was also improvisational. ] performance is evaluated more by its fidelity to the ], with less attention given to interpretation, ornamentation, and accompaniment. The classical performer's goal is to play the composition as it was written. In contrast, jazz is often characterized by the product of interaction and collaboration, placing less value on the contribution of the composer, if there is one, and performer.<ref>Giddins 1998, 70.</ref> The jazz performer interprets a tune in individual ways, never playing the same composition twice. Depending on the performer's mood, experience, and interaction with band members or audience members, the performer may change melodies, harmonies, and time signatures.<ref>Giddins 1998, 89.</ref> | |||
| In early ], a.k.a. New Orleans jazz, performers took turns playing melodies and improvising ]. In the ] era of the 1920s–'40s, ] relied more on ] which were written or learned by ear and memorized. Soloists improvised within these arrangements. In the ] era of the 1940s, big bands gave way to small groups and minimal arrangements in which the melody was stated briefly at the beginning and most of the song was improvised. ] abandoned ] to allow musicians to improvise even more. In many forms of jazz, a soloist is supported by a ] of one or more chordal instruments (piano, guitar), double bass, and drums. The rhythm section plays chords and rhythms that outline the song structure and complement the soloist.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101027050049/http://www.drumbook.org/drum-lessons/jazz-drums/jazz-drumming/ |date=2010-10-27 }} – Drumbook.org</ref> In ] and ], the separation of soloist and band is reduced, and there is license, or even a requirement, for the abandoning of chords, scales, and meters. | |||
| ===Tradition and race=== | |||
| Since the emergence of bebop, forms of jazz that are commercially oriented or influenced by popular music have been criticized. According to Bruce Johnson, there has always been a "tension between jazz as a commercial music and an art form".<ref name="Elsdon">In by Peter Elsdon, ''FZMw (Frankfurt Journal of Musicology)'' No. 6, 2003.</ref> Traditional jazz enthusiasts have dismissed bebop, free jazz, and jazz fusion as forms of debasement and betrayal. An alternative view is that jazz can absorb and transform diverse musical styles.<ref name="gilbert">{{cite web|url=http://www.metrotimes.com/music/features/19/12/jazz.html |title=Jazz Inc.: The bottom line threatens the creative line in corporate America's approach to music |accessdate=2001-07-20 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010720153446/http://www.metrotimes.com/music/features/19/12/jazz.html |archivedate=2001-07-20 |df= }} by Andrew Gilbert, '']'', December 23, 1998.</ref> By avoiding the creation of norms, jazz allows avant-garde styles to emerge.<ref name="Elsdon" /> | |||
| For some African Americans, jazz has drawn attention to African-American contributions to culture and history. For others, jazz is a reminder of "an oppressive and racist society and restrictions on their artistic visions".<ref>{{cite journal|title=African American Musicians Reflect On 'What Is This Thing Called Jazz?' In New Book By UC Professor|journal=Oakland Post|date=20 March 2001|volume=38|issue=79|pages=7|url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/367372060/fulltext?accountid=14244|accessdate=December 6, 2011}}</ref> ] argues that there is a "white jazz" genre that expresses ].<ref>{{Cite book|page=42|title=The LeRoi Jones/Amiri Baraka Reader|author=Imamu Amiri Baraka|edition=2|publisher=]|year=2000|isbn=978-1-56025-238-2}}</ref> White jazz musicians appeared in the midwest and in other areas throughout the U.S. ], who ran the Reliance band in New Orleans in the 1910s, was called "the father of white jazz".<ref>{{citation | title=A Short History of Jazz |author=Bob Yurochko |publisher=] |year=1993 |isbn=9780830415953 |page=10 |quote=He is known as 'The Father of White Jazz'...}}</ref> The ], whose members were white, were the first jazz group to record, and ] was one of the most prominent jazz soloists of the 1920s.<ref>{{Cite book|page=94|title=Jazz Writings|author=Philip Larkin|publisher=]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8264-7699-9}}</ref> The Chicago School (or Chicago Style) was developed by white musicians such as ], ], ], and ]. Others from Chicago such as ] and ] became leading members of swing during the 1930s.<ref>{{Cite book|page=569|title=The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia |editor=Andrew R. L. Cayton |editor2=Richard Sisson |editor3=Chris Zacher |publisher=]|year=2006|isbn=978-0-253-00349-2}}</ref> Many bands included both black and white musicians. These musicians helped change attitudes toward race in the U.S.<ref>{{cite news|work=Wall Street Journal|title=How Jazz Helped Hasten the Civil Rights Movement| first=Nat|last=Hentoff | year=15 Jan 2009}}</ref> | |||
| ===Roles of women=== | |||
| ] sang "]" at the ]. ]] | |||
| ] was known for her improvisational style and scatting.]] | |||
| ] have contributed throughout jazz history. Although ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] were recognized for their vocal talent, women received less recognition for their accomplishments as bandleaders, composers, and instrumentalists. This group includes pianist ] and songwriters ] and ]. Women began playing instruments in jazz in the early 1920s, drawing particular recognition on piano.<ref name=Murph>{{cite web|title = NPR's Jazz Profiles: Women In Jazz, Part 1|url = https://www.npr.org/programs/jazzprofiles/archive/women_1.html|website = www.npr.org|accessdate = 2015-04-24|first = John|last = Murph}}</ref> Popular musicians of the time were ], ], ], ], ] | |||
| When male jazz musicians were drafted during World War II, many ] took over.<ref name=Murph /> ], which was founded in 1937, was a popular band that became the first all-female integrated band in the U.S. and the first to travel with the ], touring Europe in 1945. Women were members of the big bands of ] and ]. From the 1950s onwards many women jazz instrumentalists became prominent, some sustaining lengthy careers. Over the decades, some of the most distinctive improvisers, composers and bandleaders in jazz have been women.<ref>{{cite book|last = Placksin|first= Sally|title = Jazzwomen: 1900 to the Present, their words, lives, and music|location=London|date = 1985|publisher = Pluto Press}}</ref> | |||
| == Origins and early history == | |||
| Jazz originated in the late 19th to early 20th century as interpretations of American and European classical music entwined with African and slave folk songs and the influences of West African culture.<ref name=listverse>{{cite web|title=15 Most Influential Jazz Artists|url=http://listverse.com/2010/02/27/15-most-influential-jazz-artists/|publisher=Listverse|accessdate=27 July 2014|date=2010-02-27}}</ref> Its composition and style have changed many times throughout the years with each performer's personal interpretation and improvisation, which is also one of the greatest appeals of the genre.<ref name=definejazz>{{cite web|last1=Criswell |first1=Chad |title=What Is a Jazz Band? |url=https://suite.io/chad-criswell/88s26b |accessdate=25 July 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728201650/https://suite.io/chad-criswell/88s26b |archivedate=28 July 2014 |df= }}</ref> | |||
| ===Blended African and European music sensibilities=== | |||
| ] from a century later]] | |||
| ]'', African-Americans dance to banjo and percussion.]] By the 18th century, slaves gathered socially at a special market, in an area which later became known as Congo Square, famous for its African dances.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/history_early.htm|title = Jazz Origins in New Orleans|publisher = U.S. National Park Service|website = New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park|date = April 14, 2015}}</ref> | |||
| By 1866, the ] had brought nearly 400,000 Africans to North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/|title=How Many Slaves Landed in the U.S.? |website =The African Americans: Many Rivers to Cross |date=3 January 2013|publisher=PBS|deadurl = no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921182328/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/how-many-slaves-landed-in-the-us/ |archivedate=September 21, 2015|last = Gates|first = Henry Louis, Jr. }}</ref> The slaves came largely from ] and the greater ] basin and brought strong musical traditions with them.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=7–9}}</ref> The African traditions primarily use a single-line melody and ] pattern, and the rhythms have a ] structure and reflect African speech patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DeVeaux|first=Scott|date=1991|title=Constructing the Jazz Tradition: Jazz Historiography|jstor=3041812|journal=Black American Literature Forum|volume=25|issue=3|pages=525–560|doi=10.2307/3041812}}</ref> | |||
| An 1885 account says that they were making strange music (Creole) on an equally strange variety of 'instruments'—washboards, washtubs, jugs, boxes beaten with sticks or bones and a drum made by stretching skin over a flour-barrel.<ref name=":0" /><ref>, Volume 19 of Delphi Series Eight, Delphi Classics, 2017, {{ISBN|1786560909}}</ref> | |||
| Lavish festivals featuring African-based dances to drums were organized on Sundays at ''Place Congo'', or ], in New Orleans until 1843.<ref>"The primary instrument for a cultural music expression was a long narrow African drum. It came in various sized from three to eight feet long and had previously been banned in the South by whites. Other instruments used were the triangle, a jawbone, and early ancestors to the banjo. Many types of dances were performed in Congo Square, including the 'flat-footed-shuffle' and the 'Bamboula.'" {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141202083601/http://aaregistry.org/historic_events/view/congo-square-soul-new-orleans |date=2014-12-02 }}</ref> There are historical accounts of other music and dance gatherings elsewhere in the southern United States. ] said of percussive slave music: | |||
| <blockquote>Usually such music was associated with annual festivals, when the year's crop was harvested and several days were set aside for celebration. As late as 1861, a traveler in North Carolina saw dancers dressed in costumes that included horned headdresses and cow tails and heard music provided by a sheepskin-covered "gumbo box", apparently a frame drum; triangles and jawbones furnished the auxiliary percussion. There are quite a few from the southeastern states and Louisiana dating from the period 1820–1850. Some of the earliest Delta settlers came from the vicinity of New Orleans, where drumming was never actively discouraged for very long and homemade drums were used to accompany public dancing until the outbreak of the Civil War.<ref>{{cite book|last =Palmer|first = Robert |date=1981|page = 37|title = Deep Blues|location = New York|publisher = Viking Penguin|isbn = 9780670495115}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Another influence came from the harmonic style of ]s of the church, which black slaves had learned and incorporated into their own music as ].<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=14–17, 27–28}}</ref> The ] are undocumented, though they can be seen as the secular counterpart of the spirituals. However, as ] points out, whereas the spirituals are ], rural blues and early jazz "was largely based on concepts of ]."<ref>Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 112).</ref> | |||
| ] in 1843, featuring tambourine, fiddle, banjo and ]]] | |||
| During the early 19th century an increasing number of black musicians learned to play European instruments, particularly the violin, which they used to parody European dance music in their own ] dances. In turn, European-American ] performers in ] popularized the music internationally, combining ] with European harmonic accompaniment. In the mid-1800s the white New Orleans composer ] adapted slave rhythms and melodies from Cuba and other Caribbean islands into piano salon music. New Orleans was the main nexus between the Afro-Caribbean and African-American cultures. | |||
| ===African rhythmic retention=== | |||
| {{See also|Traditional sub-Saharan African harmony}} | |||
| The "]" outlawed drumming by slaves, which meant that African drumming traditions were not preserved in North America, unlike in Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere in the Caribbean. African-based rhythmic patterns were retained in the United States in large part through "body rhythms" such as stomping, clapping, and ].<ref name= palmer39>{{harvnb|Palmer|1981|p=39}}</ref> | |||
| In the opinion of jazz historian ], what preceded New Orleans jazz before 1890 was "Afro-Latin music", similar to what was played in the Caribbean at the time.<ref>Borneman, Ernest (1969: 104). Jazz and the Creole Tradition." ''Jazz Research'' I: 99–112.</ref> A three-stroke pattern known in Cuban music as ] is a fundamental rhythmic figure heard in many different slave musics of the Caribbean, as well as the ] folk dances performed in New Orleans ] and Gottschalk's compositions (for example "Souvenirs From Havana" (1859)). Tresillo is the most basic and most prevalent duple-pulse rhythmic ] in ] and the music of the ].<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008: 124, 287). ''The World that made New Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square''. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. {{ISBN|1-55652-958-9}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|pp=38–46}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] is heard prominently in New Orleans ] music and in other forms of popular music from that city from the turn of the 20th century to present.<ref>Wynton Marsalis states that ] is the New Orleans "]." "Wynton Marsalis part 2." ''60 Minutes''. CBS News (June 26, 2011).</ref> "By and large the simpler African rhythmic patterns survived in jazz ... because they could be adapted more readily to European rhythmic conceptions," jazz historian ] observed. "Some survived, others were discarded as the Europeanization progressed."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=19}}</ref> | |||
| In the post-Civil War period (after 1865), African Americans were able to obtain surplus military bass drums, snare drums and fifes, and an original African-American drum and fife music emerged, featuring tresillo and related syncopated rhythmic figures.<ref>Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 52). ''Africa and the Blues''. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.</ref> This was a drumming tradition that was distinct from its Caribbean counterparts, expressing a uniquely African-American sensibility. "The snare and bass drummers played syncopated ]," observed the writer Robert Palmer, speculating that "this tradition must have dated back to the latter half of the nineteenth century, and it could have not have developed in the first place if there hadn't been a reservoir of polyrhythmic sophistication in the culture it nurtured."<ref name= palmer39/> | |||
| ==="Spanish tinge"—the Afro-Cuban rhythmic influence=== | |||
| ] began incorporating ] rhythmic motifs in the 19th century when the ] (Cuban ]) gained international popularity.<ref>"-Latin rhythms have been absorbed into black American styles far more consistently than into white popular music, despite Latin music's popularity among whites" (Roberts 1979: 41).</ref> Musicians from ] and New Orleans would take the twice-daily ferry between both cities to perform, and the habanera quickly took root in the musically fertile Crescent City. ] states that the musical genre habanera "reached the U.S. twenty years before the first rag was published."<ref>Roberts, John Storm (1999: 12) ''Latin Jazz''. New York: Schirmer Books.</ref> For the more than quarter-century in which the ], ], and proto-jazz were forming and developing, the habanera was a consistent part of African-American popular music.<ref>Roberts, John Storm (1999: 16) ''Latin Jazz''. New York: Schirmer Books.</ref> | |||
| Habaneras were widely available as sheet music and were the first written music which was rhythmically based on an African motif (1803).<ref>Manuel, Peter (2009: 67). ''Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean.'' Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</ref> From the perspective of African-American music, the ''habanera rhythm'' (also known as ''congo'',<ref name="ReferenceA">Manuel, Peter (2009: 69). ''Creolizing Contradance in the Caribbean''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.</ref> ''tango-congo'',<ref>Acosta, Leonardo (2003: 5). ''Cubano Be Cubano Bop; One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba''. Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Books.</ref> or '']''.<ref>Mauleón (1999: 4), ''Salsa Guidebook for Piano and Ensemble''. Petaluma, California: Sher Music. {{ISBN|0-9614701-9-4}}.</ref>) can be thought of as a combination of ] and the ].<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|p=42}}</ref> The habanera was the first of many Cuban music genres which enjoyed periods of popularity in the United States and reinforced and inspired the use of tresillo-based rhythms in African-American music. | |||
| ] | |||
| New Orleans native ]'s piano piece "Ojos Criollos (Danse Cubaine)" (1860) was influenced by the composer's studies in Cuba: the habanera rhythm is clearly heard in the left hand.<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008: 125). ''The World that made New Orleans: from Spanish silver to Congo Square''. Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books. {{ISBN|1-55652-958-9}}</ref> In Gottschalk's symphonic work "A Night in the Tropics" (1859), the tresillo variant ] appears extensively.<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008:125). ''Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo.'' Chicago: Chicago Review Press.</ref> The figure was later used by Scott Joplin and other ragtime composers. | |||
| ] | |||
| Comparing the music of New Orleans with the music of Cuba, ] observes that ] is the New Orleans "clave", a Spanish word meaning 'code' or 'key', as in the key to a puzzle, or mystery.<ref>"Wynton Marsalis part 2." ''60 Minutes''. CBS News (June 26, 2011).</ref> Although technically the pattern is only half a ], Marsalis makes the point that the single-celled figure is the ] of New Orleans music. ] called the rhythmic figure the '']'' and considered it an essential ingredient of jazz.<ref name="ReferenceB">Morton, Jelly Roll (1938: Library of Congress Recording) ''The Complete Recordings By Alan Lomax''.</ref> | |||
| ===Ragtime=== | |||
| {{Main|Ragtime}} | |||
| ] in 1903]] | |||
| The abolition of ] in 1865 led to new opportunities for the education of freed African Americans. Although strict segregation limited employment opportunities for most blacks, many were able to find work in entertainment. Black musicians were able to provide entertainment in dances, ]s, and in ], during which time many marching bands were formed. Black pianists played in bars, clubs, and brothels, as ] developed.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=28, 47}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cnx.org/content/m10878/latest/|title=Ragtime|accessdate=October 18, 2007|author=Catherine Schmidt-Jones|year=2006|publisher=Connexions }}</ref> | |||
| Ragtime appeared as sheet music, popularized by African-American musicians such as the entertainer ], whose hit songs appeared in 1895. Two years later, ] recorded a medley of these songs as a ] solo known as "Rag Time Medley".<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=28–29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/firstragtimerecords.html|title=The First Ragtime Records (1897–1903)|accessdate=October 18, 2007 }}</ref> Also in 1897, the white composer ] published his "]" as the first written piano instrumental ragtime piece, and ] published his "Harlem Rag", the first rag published by an African-American. | |||
| The classically trained pianist ] produced his "]" in 1898 and, in 1899, had an international hit with "]", a multi-] ragtime ] with four parts that feature recurring themes and a bass line with copious ]s. Its structure was the basis for many other rags, and the ]s in the right hand, especially in the transition between the first and second strain, were novel at the time.<ref>Tanner, Paul, David W. Megill, and Maurice Gerow. ''Jazz''. 11th edn. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2009, pp. 328-331.</ref> | |||
| ]" by ] (1899), seventh chord ]{{sfn|Benward|Saker|2003|p= 203}} {{audio|Maple Leaf Rag seventh chord resolution.mid|Play}}. The seventh resolves ] by ].]] | |||
| African-based rhythmic patterns such as ] and its variants, the habanera rhythm and ], are heard in the ragtime compositions of ], ], and others. Joplin's "Solace" (1909) is generally considered to be within the habanera genre:<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Matthiesen, Bill (2008: 8). ''Habaneras, Maxixies & Tangos The Syncopated Piano Music of Latin America''. Mel Bay. {{ISBN|0-7866-7635-3}}</ref> both of the pianist's hands play in a syncopated fashion, completely abandoning any sense of a ] rhythm. ] postulates that the tresillo/habanera rhythm "found its way into ragtime and the cakewalk,"<ref>Sublette, Ned (2008:155). ''Cuba and its Music; From the First Drums to the Mambo.'' Chicago: Chicago Review Press.</ref> whilst Roberts suggests that "the habanera influence may have been part of what freed black music from ragtime's European bass."<ref>Roberts, John Storm (1999: 40). ''The Latin Tinge''. Oxford University Press.</ref> | |||
| ===Blues=== | |||
| {{Main|Blues}} | |||
| ====African genesis==== | |||
| ] | |||
| Blues is the name given to both a musical form and a music genre,<ref>Kunzler's ''Dictionary of Jazz'' provides two separate entries: blues, an originally African-American genre (p. 128), and the blues form, a widespread musical form (p. 131).</ref> which originated in ] communities of primarily the "]" of the United States at the end of the 19th century from their ], ]s, ]s, ] and ]s and rhymed simple narrative ].<ref name="The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles">{{cite web |title=The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles |publisher=How To Play Blues Guitar |accessdate=2008-08-11 |url=http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/the-blues/the-evolution-of-different-blues-styles/ |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5msLYV7tu?url=http://how-to-play-blues-guitar.com/the-blues/the-evolution-of-different-blues-styles/ |archivedate=2010-01-18 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> | |||
| The African use of pentatonic scales contributed to the development of ]s in blues and jazz.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=11–14}}</ref> As Kubik explains: | |||
| <blockquote>Many of the rural blues of the Deep South are ''stylistically'' an extension and merger of basically two broad accompanied song-style traditions in the west central Sudanic belt: | |||
| * A strongly Arabic/Islamic song style, as found for example among the ]. It is characterized by melisma, wavy intonation, pitch instabilities within a pentatonic framework, and a declamatory voice. | |||
| * An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of pentatonic song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents (1999: 94).<ref>Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 96).</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ====W. C. Handy: early published blues==== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] became intrigued by the folk blues of the Deep South whilst traveling through the Mississippi Delta. In this folk blues form, the singer would improvise freely within a limited melodic range, sounding like a field holler, and the guitar accompaniment was slapped rather than strummed, like a small drum which responded in syncopated accents, functioning as another "voice".<ref>Palmer (1981: 46).</ref> Handy and his band members were formally trained African-American musicians who had not grown up with the blues, yet he was able to adapt the blues to a larger band instrument format and arrange them in a popular music form. | |||
| Handy wrote about his adopting of the blues: | |||
| <blockquote>The primitive southern Negro, as he sang, was sure to bear down on the third and seventh tone of the scale, slurring between major and minor. Whether in the cotton field of the Delta or on the Levee up St. Louis way, it was always the same. Till then, however, I had never heard this slur used by a more sophisticated Negro, or by any white man. I tried to convey this effect ... by introducing flat thirds and sevenths (now called blue notes) into my song, although its prevailing key was major ..., and I carried this device into my melody as well.<ref name="Handy, Father 1941, p. 99">Handy, Father (1941), p. 99.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| The publication of his "]" sheet music in 1912 introduced the 12-bar blues to the world (although Gunther Schuller argues that it is not really a blues, but "more like a cakewalk"<ref>Schuller (1968: 66, 145n.).</ref>). This composition, as well as his later "]" and others, included the habanera rhythm,<ref name=autogenerated2>W. C. Handy, ''Father of the Blues: An Autobiography'', edited by ]: foreword by Abbe Niles. Macmillan Company, New York; (1941), pp. 99, 100 (no ISBN in this first printing).</ref> and would become ]s. Handy's music career began in the pre-jazz era and contributed to the codification of jazz through the publication of some of the first jazz sheet music. | |||
| ====Within the context of Western harmony==== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| The blues form which is ubiquitous in jazz is characterized by specific chord progressions, of which the ] progression is the most common. Basic blues progressionions are based on the I, IV and V chords (often called the "one", "four" and "five" chords). An important part of the sound are the microtonal ]s which, for expressive purposes, are sung or played flattened (thus "between" the notes on a piano), or gradually "bent" (minor third to major third) in relation to the ] of the ]. The blue notes opened up an entirely new approach to Western harmony, ultimately leading to a high level of harmonic complexity in jazz.{{Citation needed|date=May 2017}} | |||
| ===New Orleans=== | |||
| {{Main|Dixieland}} | |||
| ] around 1905]] | |||
| The ] had a profound effect on the creation of early jazz. The reason why jazz is mainly associated with New Orleans is due to the slaves being able to practice elements of their culture such as voodoo, and they were also allowed drums.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.neworleansonline.com/neworleans/music/musichistory/jazzbirthplace.html|title=Birthplace of Jazz|website=www.neworleansonline.com|access-date=2017-12-14}}</ref> Many early jazz performers played in venues throughout the city, such as the brothels and bars of the red-light district around ], known as "]".<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=47, 50}}</ref> In addition to dance bands, there were numerous marching bands who played at lavish funerals (later called ]s), which were arranged by the African-American and European-American communities. The instruments used in ]s and dance bands became the basic instruments of jazz: brass, reeds tuned in the European 12-tone scale, and drums. Small bands which mixed self-taught and well-educated African-American musicians, many of whom came from the funeral procession tradition of New Orleans, played a seminal role in the development and dissemination of early jazz. These bands travelled throughout Black communities in the Deep South and, from around 1914 onwards, ] and African-American musicians played in ] shows which took jazz to western and northern US cities.<ref name=creoleorch>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/creole.html|title=Original Creole Orchestra|accessdate=October 23, 2007|publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref> | |||
| ], in Los Angeles, California, c. 1917 or 1918]] | |||
| In New Orleans, a white marching band leader named ] integrated blacks and whites in his marching band. Laine was known as "the father of white jazz" because of the many top players who passed through his bands (including George Brunies, Sharkey Bonano and the future members of the ]). Laine was a good talent scout. During the early 1900s, jazz was mostly done in the African-American and ] communities, due to segregation laws. The red light district of ] was crucial in bringing jazz music to a wider audience via tourists who came to the port city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nps.gov/jazz/learn/historyculture/jazz-map.htm|title=Jazz Neighborhoods - New Orleans Jazz National Historical Park (U.S. National Park Service)|publisher=}}</ref> Many jazz musicians from the African-American communities were hired to perform live music in brothels and bars, including many early jazz pioneers such as ] and ], in addition to those from New Orleans other communities such as ] and ]. ] also got his start in Storyville<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.storyvillelife.com/eksempel-side/|title=The characters -|publisher=}}</ref> and would later find success in Chicago (along with others from New Orleans) after the United States government shut down Storyville in 1917.<ref name="web.archive.org">{{cite web|url=http://web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_of_storyville.htm |title=The Legend of Storyville |date=6 May 2014 |publisher= |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140506062223/http://web.wm.edu/americanstudies/370/2001/sp3/legend_of_storyville.htm |archivedate=May 6, 2014 }}</ref> | |||
| ====Syncopation==== | |||
| The cornetist Buddy Bolden led a band who are often mentioned as one of the prime originators of the style later to be called "jazz". He played in New Orleans around 1895–1906, before developing a mental illness; there are no recordings of him playing. Bolden's band is credited with creating the ''big four'', the first syncopated bass drum pattern to deviate from the standard on-the-beat march.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/jazz/classroom/rhythmicinnovations.htm |title=Marsalis, Wynton (2000: DVD n.1). ''Jazz''. PBS |website=Pbs.org |accessdate=2013-10-02}}</ref> As the example below shows, the second half of the big four pattern is the habanera rhythm. | |||
| ", ''PBS.org''. The Misplaced Pages example shown in ] compared to the source.</ref> {{audio|Big four Buddy Bolden.mid|Play}}]] | |||
| ] | |||
| Afro-Creole pianist ] began his career in Storyville. From 1904, he toured with vaudeville shows around southern cities, also playing in Chicago and New York City. In 1905, he composed his "]", which on its publication in 1915 became the first jazz arrangement in print, introducing more musicians to the New Orleans style.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=38, 56}}</ref> | |||
| Morton considered the tresillo/habanera (which he called the ]) to be an essential ingredient of jazz.<ref>Roberts, John Storm 1979. ''The Latin Tinge: The impact of Latin American music on the United States''. Oxford.</ref> In his own words: <blockquote>Now in one of my earliest tunes, "New Orleans Blues," you can notice the Spanish tinge. In fact, if you can't manage to put tinges of Spanish in your tunes, you will never be able to get the right seasoning, I call it, for jazz.<ref name="ReferenceB"/></blockquote> | |||
| ] | |||
| Morton was a crucial innovator in the evolution from the early jazz form known as ragtime to ], and could perform pieces in either style; in 1938, Morton made a series of recordings for the ], in which he demonstrated the difference between the two styles. Morton's solos, however, were still close to ragtime, and were not merely improvisations over chord changes as in later jazz, but his use of the blues was of equal importance. | |||
| ====Swing in the early 20th century==== | |||
| ] | |||
| Morton loosened ragtime's rigid rhythmic feeling, decreasing its embellishments and employing a ] feeling.<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 61). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th edn.</ref> Swing is the most important and enduring African-based rhythmic technique used in jazz. An oft quoted definition of swing by Louis Armstrong is: "if you don't feel it, you'll never know it."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=6}}</ref> ''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music'' states that swing is: "An intangible rhythmic momentum in jazz ... Swing defies analysis; claims to its presence may inspire arguments." The dictionary does nonetheless provide the useful description of triple subdivisions of the beat contrasted with duple subdivisions:<ref>''The New Harvard Dictionary of Music'' (1986: 818).</ref> swing superimposes six subdivisions of the beat over a basic pulse structure or four subdivisions. This aspect of swing is far more prevalent in African-American music than in Afro-Caribbean music. One aspect of swing, which is heard in more rhythmically complex Diaspora musics, places strokes in-between the triple and duple-pulse "grids".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Greenwood|first1=David Peñalosa; Peter|last2=collaborator|last3=editor|title=The Clave Matrix: Afro-Cuban rhythm: its principles and African origins|date=2009|publisher=Bembe Books|location=Redway, CA|isbn=978-1-886502-80-2|page=229}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| New Orleans brass bands are a lasting influence, contributing horn players to the world of professional jazz with the distinct sound of the city whilst helping black children escape poverty. The leader of New Orleans' ], D'Jalma Ganier, taught Louis Armstrong to play trumpet; Armstrong would then popularize the New Orleans style of trumpet playing, and then expand it. Like Jelly Roll Morton, Armstrong is also credited with the abandonment of ragtime's stiffness in favor of swung notes. Armstrong, perhaps more than any other musician, codified the rhythmic technique of swing in jazz and broadened the jazz solo vocabulary.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gridley|first1=Mark C.|title=Jazz Styles: history & analysis|date=2000|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|isbn=978-0130212276|pages=72–73|edition=7th|url=http://www.biblio.com/9780130212276}}</ref> | |||
| The ] made the music's first recordings early in 1917, and their "]" became the earliest released jazz record.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schoenherr |first=Steven |title=Recording Technology History |website=history.sandiego.edu |url=http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html |accessdate=December 24, 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100312213800/http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/notes.html |archivedate=March 12, 2010 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Thomas|first=Bob|title=The Origins of Big Band Music|website=redhotjazz.com|year=1994|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/bigband.html|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Alexander|first=Scott|title=The First Jazz Records|website=redhotjazz.com|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/jazz1917.html|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Jazz Milestones|website=apassion4jazz.net|url=http://www.apassion4jazz.net/milestones.html|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Original Dixieland Jazz Band Biography|website=pbs.org|url=https://www.pbs.org/jazz/biography/artist_id_original_dixieland_jazz_band.htm|accessdate=December 24, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Martin|first=Henry|last2=Waters|first2=Keith|title=Jazz: The First 100 Years|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|year=2005|page=55|url=https://books.google.com/?id=kuz4EHH05I4C&pg=PT84&lpg=PT84&dq=first+jazz+recording|isbn=978-0-534-62804-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gracyk.com/jasband.shtml|title=Tim Gracyk's Phonographs, Singers, and Old Records – Jass in 1916–1917 and Tin Pan Alley|accessdate=October 27, 2007}}</ref> That year, numerous other bands made recordings featuring "jazz" in the title or band name, but most were ragtime or novelty records rather than jazz. In February 1918 during World War I, James Reese Europe's ] band took ragtime to Europe,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=Emmett J. |authorlink=Emmett Jay Scott |year=1919 |title=Scott's Official History of the American Negro in the World War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ |chapter=Chapter XXI: Negro Music That Stirred France |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=obUHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA300#v=twopage&q&f=false |location= |publisher= |access-date=19 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|p=44}}</ref> then on their return recorded Dixieland standards including "]".<ref name=hellfighters/> | |||
| ===Other regions=== | |||
| In the northeastern United States, a "hot" style of playing ragtime had developed, notably ]'s symphonic ] orchestra in New York City, which played a benefit concert at Carnegie Hall in 1912.<ref name=hellfighters>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/hellfighters.html|title=Jim Europe's 369th Infantry "Hellfighters" Band|accessdate=October 24, 2007|author=Floyd Levin|year=1911|publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|p=78}}</ref> The Baltimore rag style of ] influenced ]'s development of ] playing, in which the right hand plays the melody, while the left hand provides the rhythm and bassline.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=41–42}}</ref> | |||
| In Ohio and elsewhere in the midwest the major influence was ragtime, until about 1919. Around 1912, when the four-string banjo and saxophone came in, musicians began to improvise the melody line, but the harmony and rhythm remained unchanged. A contemporary account states that blues could only be heard in jazz in the gut-bucket cabarets, which were generally looked down upon by the Black middle-class.<ref>Palmer (1968: 67).</ref> | |||
| == The Jazz Age == | |||
| {{Main|Jazz Age}} | |||
| {{listen | |||
| |filename=OriginalDixielandJassBand-JazzMeBlues.ogg | |||
| |image= | |||
| |title=Jazz Me Blues | |||
| |description= The ] performing "Jazz Me Blues", an example of a jazz piece from 1921 | |||
| |format=] | |||
| }} | |||
| ] From 1920 to 1933, ] banned the sale of alcoholic drinks, resulting in illicit speakeasies which became lively venues of the "Jazz Age", hosting popular music including current dance songs, novelty songs, and show tunes. Jazz began to get a reputation as being immoral, and many members of the older generations saw it as threatening the old cultural values and promoting the new decadent values of the Roaring 20s. ] of Princeton University wrote, "... it is not music at all. It's merely an irritation of the nerves of hearing, a sensual teasing of the strings of physical passion."<ref name=ward/> The media too began to denigrate jazz. ''The New York Times'' used stories and headlines to pick at jazz: Siberian villagers were said by the paper to have used jazz to scare off bears when, in fact, they had used pots and pans; another story claimed that the fatal heart attack of a celebrated conductor was caused by jazz.<ref name="ward">{{cite book|last1=Ward|first1=Geoffrey C.|last2=Burns| first2=Ken|title=Jazz: A History of America's Music|date=October 8, 2002|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|location=New York| isbn=978-0679765394|edition=1st}}</ref> | |||
| In 1919, ]'s Original Creole Jazz Band of musicians from New Orleans began playing in San Francisco and Los Angeles, where in 1922 they became the first black jazz band of New Orleans origin to make recordings.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|p=54}}</ref><ref name=ory>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/ory.html|title=Kid Ory|accessdate=October 29, 2007| publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref> That year also saw the first recording by ], the most famous of the 1920s blues singers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/bessie.html|title=Bessie Smith|accessdate=October 29, 2007| publisher=The Red Hot Archive}}</ref> Chicago meanwhile was developing the new "]", where ] joined ]. Bix Beiderbecke formed The Wolverines in 1924. | |||
| Despite its Southern black origins, there was a larger market for jazzy dance music played by white orchestras. In 1918, ] and his orchestra became a hit in San Francisco, California, signing with ] in 1920 and becoming the top bandleader of the 1920s, giving "hot jazz" a white component, hiring white musicians including ], ], ], ], and ]. In 1924, Whiteman commissioned ]'s '']'', which was premiered by his orchestra and jazz began to be recognized as a notable musical form. ], reviewing the concert in ''The New York Times'': "This composition shows extraordinary talent, as it shows a young composer with aims that go far beyond those of his ilk, struggling with a form of which he is far from being master.... In spite of all this, he has expressed himself in a significant and, on the whole, highly original form.... His first theme ... is no mere dance-tune ... it is an idea, or several ideas, correlated and combined in varying and contrasting rhythms that immediately intrigue the listener."<ref>Downes, Olin (1924). "A Concert of Jazz". The New York Times. February 13, 1924. p. 16.</ref> | |||
| After Whiteman's band successfully toured Europe, huge hot jazz orchestras in theater pits caught on with other whites, including ], ], and ]. According to Mario Dunkel, Whiteman's success was based on a "rhetoric of domestication" according to which he had elevated and rendered valuable (read "white") a previously inchoate (read "black") kind of music.<ref>Mario Dunkel, "W. C. Handy, Abbe Niles, and (Auto)biographical Positioning in the Whiteman Era," ''Popular Music and Society'' 38.2 (2015): 122-139.</ref> Whiteman's success caused blacks to follow suit, including ] (who opened in The Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago in 1928), ] (who opened at the ] in Harlem in 1927), ], ], ], and ], with Henderson and Redman developing the "talking to one another" formula for "hot" Swing music.<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=82–83, 100–103}}</ref> | |||
| ] began his career in New Orleans and became one of jazz's most recognizable performers.]] | |||
| In 1924, Louis Armstrong joined the Fletcher Henderson dance band for a year, as featured soloist. The original New Orleans style was polyphonic, with theme variation and simultaneous collective improvisation. Armstrong was a master of his hometown style, but by the time he joined Henderson's band, he was already a trailblazer in a new phase of jazz, with its emphasis on arrangements and soloists. Armstrong's solos went well beyond the theme-improvisation concept and extemporized on chords, rather than melodies. According to Schuller, by comparison, the solos by Armstrong's bandmates (including a young ]), sounded "stiff, stodgy," with "jerky rhythms and a grey undistinguished tone quality."<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=91}}</ref> The following example shows a short excerpt of the straight melody of "Mandy, Make Up Your Mind" by ] and Arthur Johnston (top), compared with Armstrong's solo improvisations (below) (recorded 1924).<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Schuller|1968|p=93}}</ref> (The example approximates Armstrong's solo, as it doesn't convey his use of swing.) | |||
| ] | |||
| Armstrong's solos were a significant factor in making jazz a true 20th-century language. After leaving Henderson's group, Armstrong formed his virtuosic ] band, where he popularized ].<ref>{{harvnb|Cooke|1999|pp=56–59, 78–79, 66–70}}</ref> | |||
| Jelly Roll Morton recorded with the ] in an early mixed-race collaboration, then in 1926 formed his ]. | |||
| Also in the 1920s ], jazz played with homemade instruments such as washboard, jugs, musical saw, kazoos, etc. began to be recorded in Chicago, later merging with country music. | |||
| ===Swing in the 1920s and 1930s=== | |||
| {{Main|Swing music|1930s in jazz}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The 1930s belonged to popular ] big bands, in which some virtuoso soloists became as famous as the band leaders. Key figures in developing the "big" jazz band included bandleaders and arrangers ], ], ] and ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Although it was a collective sound, swing also offered individual musicians a chance to "solo" and improvise melodic, thematic solos which could at times be very complex "important" music. | |||
| Swing was also dance music. It was broadcast on the radio "live" nightly across America for many years, especially by Earl Hines and his ] Orchestra broadcasting coast-to-coast from Chicago<ref>See lengthy interviews with Hines in ''Earl "Fatha" Hines'': – see External Links below.</ref> (well placed for "live" US time-zones). | |||
| Over time, social strictures regarding racial segregation began to relax in America: white bandleaders began to recruit black musicians and black bandleaders white ones. In the mid-1930s, Benny Goodman hired pianist ], vibraphonist ] and guitarist ] to join small groups. In the 1930s, Kansas City Jazz as exemplified by tenor saxophonist ] marked the transition from big bands to the bebop influence of the 1940s. An early 1940s style known as "jumping the blues" or ] used small combos, uptempo music and blues chord progressions, drawing on ] from the 1930s. | |||
| ==="American music"—the influence of Ellington=== | |||
| ] | |||
| While swing was reaching the height of its popularity, ] spent the late 1920s and 1930s developing an innovative musical idiom for his orchestra. Abandoning the conventions of swing, he experimented with orchestral sounds, harmony, and ] with complex compositions that still translated well for popular audiences; some of his tunes became ], and his own popularity spanned from the United States to Europe.<ref>{{cite book|last=van de Leur|first=Walter|chapter=12 "Seldom seen, but always heard": Billy Strayhorn and Duke Ellington|title=The Cambridge Companion to Duke Ellington|editor-last=Green|editor-first=Edward|publisher=]|isbn=1316194132|year=2015}}</ref> | |||
| Ellington called his music "American Music" rather than jazz, and liked to describe those who impressed him as "beyond category."<ref name="Tucker-1">{{Harvnb|Tucker|1995|p=6}} writes "He tried to avoid the word 'jazz' preferring 'Negro' or 'American' music. He claimed there were only two types of music, 'good' and 'bad' ... And he embraced a phrase coined by his colleague Billy Strayhorn – 'beyond category' – as a liberating principle."</ref> These included many of the musicians who were members of his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the most popular jazz orchestras in the history of jazz. He often composed specifically for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" for ], "Concerto for Cootie" for ] (which later became "]" with ]'s lyrics), and "The Mooche" for ] and ]. He also recorded songs written by his bandsmen, such as ]'s "]" and "]", which brought the "Spanish Tinge" to big-band jazz. Several members of the orchestra remained with him for several decades. The band reached a creative peak in the early 1940s, when Ellington and a small hand-picked group of his composers and arrangers wrote for an orchestra of distinctive voices who displayed tremendous creativity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theoryjazz.com/artists/ellington.html |title=Jazz Musicians – Duke Ellington |publisher=Theory Jazz |accessdate=July 14, 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150903233432/http://theoryjazz.com/artists/ellington.html |archivedate=September 3, 2015 |df= }}</ref> | |||
| ===Beginnings of European jazz=== | |||
| As only a limited number of American jazz records were released in Europe, European jazz traces many of its roots to American artists such as James Reese Europe, Paul Whiteman, and ], who visited Europe during and after World War I. It was their live performances which inspired European audiences' interest in jazz, as well as the interest in all things American (and therefore exotic) which accompanied the economic and political woes of Europe during this time.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wynn |editor-first1=Neil A. |title=Cross the Water Blues: African American music in Europe| date=2007| publisher=University Press of Mississippi|location=Jackson, Missippi|isbn=9781604735468|page=67|edition=1}}</ref> The beginnings of a distinct European style of jazz began to emerge in this interwar period. | |||
| British jazz began with a ]. In 1926, ] and His Cambridge Undergraduates began broadcasting on the BBC. Thereafter jazz became an important element in many leading dance orchestras and jazz instrumentalists quickly became numerous.<ref>Godbolt, Jim (2010) ''A History of Jazz in Britain 1919-50'', London: Northway Publications. {{ISBN|9780955788819}}</ref> | |||
| This distinct style entered full swing in France with the ], which began in 1934. Much of this French jazz was a combination of African-American jazz and the symphonic styles in which French musicians were well-trained; in this, it is easy to see the inspiration taken from Paul Whiteman since his style was also a fusion of the two.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jackson| first=Jeffrey|title=Making Jazz French: The Reception of Jazz Music in Paris, 1927-1934|journal=French Historical Studies| year=2002|volume=25|issue=1|pages=149–170|doi=10.1215/00161071-25-1-149}}</ref> Belgian guitar virtuoso ] popularized ], a mix of 1930s American swing, French dance hall "]" and Eastern European folk with a languid, seductive feel; the main instruments are steel stringed guitar, violin, and double bass, and solos pass from one player to another as the guitar and bass play the role of the rhythm section. Some music researchers hold that it was Philadelphia's ] and ] who pioneered the guitar-violin partnership typical of the genre,<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.redhotjazz.com/edlango.html|title=Ed Lang and his Orchestra|accessdate=March 28, 2008|website=redhotjazz.com }}</ref> which was brought to France after they had been heard live or on ] in the late 1920s.<ref>{{cite book| first=Bill|last=Crow|title=Jazz Anecdotes|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1990}}</ref> | |||
| == Post-war jazz == | |||
| {{see also|1940s in jazz|1950s in jazz|1960s in jazz|1970s in jazz}} | |||
| The outbreak of ] marked a turning point for jazz. The swing-era jazz of the previous decade had challenged other popular music as being representative of the nation's culture, with big bands reaching the height of the style's success by the early 1940s; swing acts and big bands traveled with U.S. military overseas to Europe, where it also became popular.<ref name="Burchett"/> Stateside, however, the war presented difficulties for the big-band format: conscription shortened the number of musicians available; the military's need for ] (commonly used for pressing ]) limited record production; a shortage of rubber (also due to the war effort) discouraged bands from touring via road travel; and a demand by the musicians' union for a commercial recording ban limited music distribution between 1942 and 1944.<ref name="grove">{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Mark|last2=Jackson|first2=Travis|year=2015|title=Jazz: Grove Music Essentials|publisher=]|isbn=0190268719|chapter=7. Traditional and Modern Jazz in the 1940s}}</ref> | |||
| Many of the big bands who were deprived of experienced musicians because of the war effort began to enlist young players who were below the age for conscription, as was the case with saxophonist ]'s entry in a band as a teenager.<ref name="Trynka"/> This coincided with a nationwide resurgence in the Dixieland style of pre-swing jazz; performers such as clarinetist ], cornetist ], and trombonist ] were hailed by conservative jazz critics as more authentic than the big bands.<ref name="grove"/> Elsewhere, with the limitations on recording, small groups of young musicians developed a more uptempo, improvisational style of jazz,<ref name="Burchett"/> collaborating and experimenting with new ideas for melodic development, rhythmic language, and ], during informal, late-night jam sessions hosted in small clubs and apartments. Key figures in this development were largely based in New York and included pianists ] and ], drummers ] and ], saxophonist ], and trumpeter ].<ref name="grove"/> This musical development became known as ].<ref name="Burchett"/> | |||
| Bebop and subsequent post-war jazz developments featured ], played in more complex ] and at faster tempos than previous jazz.<ref name="Trynka">{{cite book|pages=45, 48–49|last=Trynka|first=Paul|authorlink=Paul Trynka|title=The Sax & Brass Book|publisher=]|year=2003|isbn=0879307374}}</ref> According to ], bebop was "the post-war musical development which tried to ensure that jazz would no longer be the spontaneous sound of joy ... Students of race relations in America are generally agreed that the exponents of post-war jazz were determined, with good reason, to present themselves as challenging artists rather than tame entertainers."<ref>{{cite book|last=James|first=Clive|authorlink=Clive James|page=163|title=Cultural Amnesia: Necessary Memories from History and the Arts|publisher=]|year=2007|isbn=0393061167}}</ref> The end of the war marked "a revival of the spirit of experimentation and musical pluralism under which it had been conceived", along with "the beginning of a decline in the popularity of jazz music in America", according to American academic Michael H. Burchett.<ref name="Burchett">{{cite book|last=Burchett|first=Michael H.|year=2015|editor-last=Ciment|editor-first=James|title=Postwar America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1317462351|chapter=Jazz|page=730}}</ref> | |||
| With the rise of bebop and the end of the swing era after the war, jazz lost its cachet as ]. Vocalists of the famous big bands moved on to being marketed and performing as solo pop singers; these included ], ], ], and ].<ref name="Trynka"/> Older musicians who still performed their pre-war jazz, such as Armstrong and Ellington, were gradually viewed in the mainstream as passé. Other younger performers, such as singer ] and saxophonist ], who were discouraged by bebop's increasing complexity pursued more lucrative endeavors in rhythm and blues, ], and eventually ].<ref name="Burchett"/> Some, including Gillespie, composed intricate yet danceable songs for bebop musicians in an effort to make them more accessible, but bebop largely remained on the fringes of American audiences' purview. "The new direction of postwar jazz drew a wealth of critical acclaim, but it steadily declined in popularity as it developed a reputation as an academic genre that was largely inaccessible to mainstream audiences", Burchett said. "The quest to make jazz more relevant to popular audiences, while retaining its artistic integrity, is a constant and prevalent theme in the history of postwar jazz."<ref name="Burchett"/> During its swing period, jazz had been an uncomplicated musical scene; according to ], this changed in the post-war years: | |||
| {{quote|"Suddenly jazz was no longer straightforward. There was bebop and its variants, there was the last gasp of swing, there were strange new brews like the ] of ], and there was a completely new phenomenon called revivalism -- the rediscovery of jazz from the past, either on old records or performed live by ageing players brought out of retirement. From now on it was no good saying that you liked jazz, you had to specify what kind of jazz. And that it the way it has been ever since, only more so. Today, the word 'jazz' is virtually meaningless without further definition."<ref name="Trynka"/>}} | |||
| ===Bebop=== | |||
| {{Main|Bebop}} | |||
| {{See also|List of bebop musicians}} | |||
| ] at Minton's Playhouse, 1947, New York City]] | |||
| ] In the early 1940s, bebop-style performers began to shift jazz from danceable popular music toward a more challenging "musician's music." The most influential bebop musicians included saxophonist ], pianists ] and ], trumpeters ] and ], and drummer ]. Divorcing itself from dance music, bebop established itself more as an art form, thus lessening its potential popular and commercial appeal. | |||
| Composer ] wrote: | |||
| <blockquote> ... In 1943 I heard the great Earl Hines band which had Bird in it and all those other great musicians. They were playing all the flatted fifth chords and all the modern harmonies and substitutions and Dizzy Gillespie runs in the trumpet section work. Two years later I read that that was 'bop' and the beginning of modern jazz ... but the band never made recordings.<ref>] November 14, 1972. Dance, p. 290.</ref> </blockquote> | |||
| Dizzy Gillespie wrote: | |||
| <blockquote> ... People talk about the Hines band being 'the incubator of bop' and the leading exponents of that music ended up in the Hines band. But people also have the erroneous impression that the music was new. It was not. The music evolved from what went before. It was the same basic music. The difference was in how you got from here to here to here ... naturally each age has got its own shit.<ref>Dance p. 260.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ====Rhythm==== | |||
| Since bebop was meant to be listened to, not danced to, it could use faster tempos. Drumming shifted to a more elusive and explosive style, in which the ] was used to keep time while the snare and bass drum were used for accents. This led to a highly syncopated music with a linear rhythmic complexity.<ref name="Floyd, Samuel A. 1995">Floyd, Samuel A., Jr. (1995). ''The Power of Black Music: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> | |||
| ====Harmony==== | |||
| ] | |||
| Bebop musicians employed several harmonic devices which were not previously typical in jazz, engaging in a more abstracted form of chord-based improvisation. Bebop scales are traditional scales with an added chromatic passing note;<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=171}}</ref> bebop also uses "passing" chords, ]s, and ]s. New forms of ] and ] were introduced into jazz, and the dissonant ] (or "flatted fifth") interval became the "most important interval of bebop"<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book'', 1981, p. 15.</ref> Chord progressions for bebop tunes were often taken directly from popular swing-era songs and reused with a new and more complex melody and/or reharmonized with more complex chord progressions to form new compositions, a practice which was already well-established in earlier jazz, but came to be central to the bebop style. Bebop made use of several relatively common chord progressions, such as blues (at base, I-IV-V, but often infused with ii-V motion) and 'rhythm changes' (I-VI-ii-V) - the chords to the 1930s pop standard "]." Late bop also moved towards extended forms that represented a departure from pop and show tunes. | |||
| The harmonic development in bebop is often traced back to a transcendent moment experienced by Charlie Parker while performing "Cherokee" at Clark Monroe's Uptown House, New York, in early 1942: | |||
| <blockquote> I'd been getting bored with the stereotyped changes that were being used, ... and I kept thinking there's bound to be something else. I could hear it sometimes. I couldn't play it.... I was working over 'Cherokee,' and, as I did, I found that by using the higher intervals of a chord as a melody line and backing them with appropriately related changes, I could play the thing I'd been hearing. It came alive—Parker.<ref>Charlie Parker quoted by Gerhard Kubik (2005). "Bebop: A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices" (critical essay), ''Black Music Research Journal'' 22 March. Digital.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ] postulates that the harmonic development in bebop sprang from the blues and other ], rather than 20th-century Western art music as some have suggested: | |||
| <blockquote> Auditory inclinations were the African legacy in life, reconfirmed by the experience of the blues tonal system, a sound world at odds with the Western diatonic chord categories. Bebop musicians eliminated Western-style functional harmony in their music while retaining the strong central tonality of the blues as a basis for drawing upon various African matrices.<ref>Gerhard Kubik (2005). "Bebop: A Case in Point. The African Matrix in Jazz Harmonic Practices" (critical essay), ''Black Music Research Journal'' March 22, Digital.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Samuel Floyd states that blues were both the bedrock and propelling force of bebop, bringing about three main developments: | |||
| * A new harmonic conception, using extended chord structures that led to unprecedented harmonic and melodic variety. | |||
| * A developed and even more highly syncopated, linear rhythmic complexity and a melodic angularity in which the blue note of the fifth degree was established as an important melodic-harmonic device. | |||
| * The reestablishment of the blues as the music's primary organizing and functional principle.<ref name="Floyd, Samuel A. 1995"/> | |||
| As Kubik explained: | |||
| <blockquote>While for an outside observer, the harmonic innovations in bebop would appear to be inspired by experiences in Western "serious" music, from ] to ], such a scheme cannot be sustained by the evidence from a cognitive approach. Claude Debussy did have some influence on jazz, for example, on Bix Beiderbecke's piano playing. And it is also true that Duke Ellington adopted and reinterpreted some harmonic devices in European contemporary music. West Coast jazz would run into such debts as would several forms of cool jazz, but bebop has hardly any such debts in the sense of direct borrowings. On the contrary, ideologically, bebop was a strong statement of rejection of any kind of eclecticism, propelled by a desire to activate something deeply buried in self. Bebop then revived tonal-harmonic ideas transmitted through the blues and reconstructed and expanded others in a basically non-Western harmonic approach. The ultimate significance of all this is that the experiments in jazz during the 1940s brought back to ] several structural principles and techniques rooted in African traditions<ref>Kubik (2005).</ref></blockquote> | |||
| These divergences from the jazz mainstream of the time initially met with a divided, sometimes hostile, response among fans and fellow musicians, especially established swing players, who bristled at the new harmonic sounds. To hostile critics, bebop seemed to be filled with "racing, nervous phrases".<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book''. 1981, p. 16.</ref> But despite the initial friction, by the 1950s, bebop had become an accepted part of the jazz vocabulary. | |||
| ===Afro-Cuban jazz (cu-bop)=== | |||
| {{Main|Afro-Cuban jazz}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ====Machito and Mario Bauza==== | |||
| The general consensus among musicians and musicologists is that the first original jazz piece to be overtly based in clave was "Tanga" (1943), composed by Cuban-born ] and recorded by ] and his Afro-Cubans in New York City. "Tanga" began as a spontaneous ] (Cuban jam session), with jazz solos superimposed on top.<ref>In 1992 Bauza recorded "Tanga" in the expanded form of an Afro-Cuban suite, consisting of five movements. ''Mario Bauza and his Afro-Cuban Orchestra''. Messidor CD (1992).</ref> | |||
| This was the birth of ]. The use of clave brought the African ''timeline'', or '']'', into jazz. Music organized around key patterns convey a two-celled (binary) structure, which is a complex level of African ].<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|p=56}}</ref> Within the context of jazz, however, harmony is the primary referent, not rhythm. The harmonic progression can begin on either side of clave, and the harmonic "one" is always understood to be "one". If the progression begins on the "three-side" of clave, it is said to be in ''3-2 clave''. If the progression begins on the "two-side", its in ''2-3 clave''.<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|pp=131–136}}</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| ] mentions several innovations of Machito's Afro-Cubans, citing them as the first band: to wed big band jazz arranging techniques within an original composition, with jazz oriented soloists utilizing an authentic Afro-Cuban based rhythm section in a successful manner; to explore modal harmony (a concept explored much later by ] and ]) from a jazz arranging perspective; and to overtly explore the concept of clave counterpoint from an arranging standpoint (the ability to weave seamlessly from one side of the clave to the other without breaking its rhythmic integrity within the structure of a musical arrangement). They were also the first band in the United States to use the term "Afro-Cuban" as the band's moniker, thus identifying itself and acknowledging the West African roots of the musical form they were playing. It forced New York City's Latino and African-American communities to deal with their common West African musical roots in a direct way, whether they wanted to acknowledge it publicly or not.{{citation needed|date=January 2008}} | |||
| ====Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo==== | |||
| ] | |||
| ] introduced bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie to Cuban conga drummer and composer ]. Gillespie and Pozo's brief collaboration produced some of the most enduring Afro-Cuban jazz standards. "]" (1947) is the first jazz standard to be rhythmically based on clave. According to Gillespie, Pozo composed the layered, contrapuntal ]s (Afro-Cuban ]s) of the A section and the introduction, while Gillespie wrote the bridge. Gillespie recounted: "If I'd let it go like wanted it, it would have been strictly Afro-Cuban all the way. There wouldn't have been a bridge. I thought I was writing an eight-bar bridge, but...I had to keep going and ended up writing a sixteen-bar bridge."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fraser|first1=Dizzy Gillespie, with Al|title=To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie|date=March 1, 1985|publisher=Da Capo Press| location=New York, N.Y.|isbn=978-0306802362|page=77|title-link=To Be or Not to Bop: Memoirs of Dizzy Gillespie}}</ref> The bridge gave "Manteca" a typical jazz harmonic structure, setting the piece apart from Bauza's modal "Tanga" of a few years earlier. | |||
| Gillespie's collaboration with Pozo brought specific African-based rhythms into bebop. While pushing the boundaries of harmonic improvisation, ''cu-bop'' also drew from African rhythm. Jazz arrangements with a Latin A section and a swung B section, with all choruses swung during solos, became common practice with many Latin tunes of the jazz standard repertoire. This approach can be heard on pre-1980 recordings of "Manteca", "]", "Tin Tin Deo", and "]". | |||
| ====African cross-rhythm==== | |||
| ] | |||
| Cuban percussionist ] first recorded his composition "]" in 1959.<ref>"Afro Blue", ''Afro Roots'' (Mongo Santamaria) Prestige CD 24018-2 (1959).</ref> | |||
| "Afro Blue" was the first jazz standard built upon a typical African three-against-two (3:2) ], or ].<ref>{{harvnb|Peñalosa|2010|p=26}}</ref> The song begins with the bass repeatedly playing 6 cross-beats per each measure of 12/8, or 6 cross-beats per 4 main beats—6:4 (two cells of 3:2). The following example shows the original ostinato "Afro Blue" bass line; the slashed noteheads indicate the main beats (not bass notes), where you would normally tap your foot to keep time. | |||
| ] | |||
| When ] covered "Afro Blue" in 1963, he inverted the metric hierarchy, interpreting the tune as a 3/4 jazz waltz with duple cross-beats superimposed (2:3). Originally a B{{music|flat}} ] blues, Coltrane expanded the harmonic structure of "Afro Blue." | |||
| Perhaps the most respected ] combo of the late 1950s was vibraphonist ]'s band. Tjader had ], ], and ] on his early recording dates. | |||
| ===Dixieland revival=== | |||
| In the late 1940s, there was a revival of ], harking back to the contrapuntal New Orleans style. This was driven in large part by record company reissues of jazz classics by the Oliver, Morton, and Armstrong bands of the 1930s. There were two types of musicians involved in the revival: the first group was made up of those who had begun their careers playing in the traditional style and were returning to it (or continuing what they had been playing all along), such as ]'s Bobcats, ], ], and ].<ref name="Collier, 1978">Collier, 1978.</ref> Most of these players were originally Midwesterners, although there were a small number of New Orleans musicians involved. The second group of revivalists consisted of younger musicians, such as those in the ] band, ], and ] and his ] Jazz Band. By the late 1940s, Louis Armstrong's Allstars band became a leading ensemble. Through the 1950s and 1960s, Dixieland was one of the most commercially popular jazz styles in the US, Europe, and Japan, although critics paid little attention to it.<ref name="Collier, 1978"/> | |||
| ===Cool jazz and West Coast jazz=== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| {{main|Cool jazz}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In 1944, jazz impresario ] organized the first ] concert in Los Angeles, which helped make a star of ] and ]. In 1946, he founded ], discovering Canadian jazz pianist ] in 1949, and merging Clef Records with his new label ] in 1956, which advanced the career of ] et al. | |||
| By the end of the 1940s, the nervous energy and tension of bebop was replaced with a tendency toward calm and smoothness with the sounds of ], which favored long, linear melodic lines. It emerged in New York City and dominated jazz in the first half of the 1950s. The starting point was a collection of 1949 and 1950 singles by a ] led by ], released as the '']'' (1957). Later cool jazz recordings by musicians such as ], ], ], ], ], the ], and ] usually had a lighter sound that avoided the aggressive tempos and harmonic abstraction of bebop. | |||
| Cool jazz later became strongly identified with the ] scene, as typified by singers Chet Baker, ], and ], but it also had a particular resonance in Europe, especially Scandinavia, where figures such as baritone saxophonist ] and pianist ] emerged. The theoretical underpinnings of cool jazz were laid out by the Chicago pianist ], and its influence stretches into such later developments as ], ], and even free jazz. | |||
| {{listen | |||
| |image = none | |||
| |filename = DukeEllington_TakeTheATrain.ogg | |||
| |title = "Take The 'A' Train" | |||
| |description = This 1941 sample of Duke Ellington's signature tune is an example of the swing style. | |||
| |format = ] | |||
| |image4 = none | |||
| |filename4 = CharlieParker_YardbirdSuite.ogg | |||
| |title4 = "Yardbird Suite" | |||
| |description4 = Excerpt from a saxophone solo by Charlie Parker. The fast, complex rhythms and substitute chords of bebop were important to the formation of jazz. | |||
| |format4 = ] | |||
| |image5 = none | |||
| |filename5 = JohnColtrane_MrPC.ogg | |||
| |title5 = "Mr. P.C." | |||
| |description5 = This hard blues by John Coltrane is an example of hard bop, a post-bebop style which is informed by gospel music, blues, and work songs. | |||
| |format5 = ] | |||
| |image6 = none | |||
| |filename6 = MahavishnuOrchestra Birds of Fire.ogg | |||
| |title6 = "Birds of Fire" | |||
| |description6 = This 1973 piece by the ] merges jazz improvisation and rock instrumentation into jazz fusion | |||
| |format6 = ] | |||
| |image7 = none | |||
| |filename7 = CourtneyPine_TheJazzstep.ogg | |||
| |title7 = "The Jazzstep" | |||
| |description7 = This 2000 track by ] shows how electronica and hip hop influences can be incorporated into modern jazz. | |||
| |format7 = ] | |||
| }} | |||
| ===Hard bop=== | |||
| {{Main|Hard bop}} | |||
| Hard bop is an extension of bebop (or "bop") music which incorporates influences from rhythm and blues, gospel music and blues, especially in the saxophone and piano playing. Hard bop was developed in the mid-1950s, coalescing in 1953 and 1954; it developed partly in response to the vogue for cool jazz in the early 1950s and paralleled the rise of rhythm and blues. Miles Davis' 1954 performance of "Walkin'" at the first ] announced the style to the jazz world.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Natambu|first1=Kofi|title=Miles Davis: A New Revolution in Sound|journal=Black Renaissance/Renaissance Noire|date=2014|volume=2|page=39}}</ref> The quintet Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers, fronted by ] and featuring pianist ] and trumpeter ], were leaders in the hard bop movement along with Davis. | |||
| ===Modal jazz=== | |||
| {{Main|Modal jazz}} | |||
| Modal jazz is a development which began in the later 1950s which takes the ], or musical scale, as the basis of musical structure and improvisation. Previously, a solo was meant to fit into a given ], but with modal jazz, the soloist creates a melody using one (or a small number of) modes. The emphasis is thus shifted from harmony to melody:<ref>{{harvnb|Litweiler|1984|pp=110–111}}</ref> "Historically, this caused a seismic shift among jazz musicians, away from thinking vertically (the chord), and towards a more horizontal approach (the scale),"<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=30}}</ref> explained pianist ]. | |||
| The modal theory stems from a work by ]. Miles Davis introduced the concept to the greater jazz world with '']'' (1959), an exploration of the possibilities of modal jazz which would become the best selling jazz album of all time. In contrast to Davis' earlier work with hard bop and its complex chord progression and improvisation, ''Kind of Blue'' was composed as a series of modal sketches in which the musicians were given scales that defined the parameters of their improvisation and style.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yudkin|first1=Jeremy|title=The Naming of Names: "Flamenco Sketches" or "All Blues"? Identifying the Last Two Tracks on Miles Davis's Classic Album Kind of Blue|journal=Musical Quarterly|date=2012|volume=95|issue=1|pages=15–35}}</ref> | |||
| "I didn't write out the music for ''Kind of Blue'', but brought in sketches for what everybody was supposed to play because I wanted a lot of spontaneity,"<ref>Davis, Miles (1989: 234). ''The Autobiography''. New York: Touchstone.</ref> recalled Davis. The track "So What" has only two chords: ] and E{{music|b}}-7.<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=29}}</ref> | |||
| Other innovators in this style include ],<ref>{{harvnb|Litweiler|1984|pp=120–123}}</ref> and two of the musicians who had also played on ''Kind of Blue'': John Coltrane and Bill Evans. | |||
| By the 1950s, Afro-Cuban jazz had been using modes for at least a decade, as much of it borrowed from Cuban popular dance forms which are structured around multiple ostinatos with only a few chords. A case in point is ]'s "Tanga" (1943), the first Afro-Cuban jazz piece. Machito's Afro-Cubans recorded modal tunes in the 1940s, featuring jazz soloists such as ], ], Charlie Parker, and ]. However, there is no evidence that Davis or other mainstream jazz musicians were influenced by the use of modes in Afro-Cuban jazz, or other branches of ].{{clarify|those soloists played, but were not influenced? Or the other way round?|date=October 2013}} | |||
| ===Free jazz=== | |||
| {{Main|Free jazz}} | |||
| ] | |||
| Free jazz, and the related form of ], broke through into an open space of "free tonality" in which meter, beat, and formal symmetry all disappeared, and a range of ] from India, Africa, and Arabia were melded into an intense, even religiously ecstatic or orgiastic style of playing.<ref>Joachim Berendt. ''The Jazz Book''. 1981. Page 21.</ref> While loosely inspired by bebop, free jazz tunes gave players much more latitude; the loose harmony and tempo was deemed controversial when this approach was first developed. The bassist ] is also frequently associated with the avant-garde in jazz, although his compositions draw from myriad styles and genres. | |||
| The first major stirrings came in the 1950s with the early work of ] (whose 1960 album '']'' coined the term) and ]. In the 1960s, exponents included ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ]. In developing his late style, Coltrane was especially influenced by the dissonance of Ayler's trio with bassist ] and drummer ], a rhythm section honed with ] as leader. In November 1961, Coltrane played a gig at the Village Vanguard, which resulted in the classic ''Chasin' the 'Trane'', which ''Down Beat'' magazine panned as "anti-jazz". On his 1961 tour of France, he was booed, but persevered, signing with the new ] in 1960 and turning it into "the house that Trane built", while championing many younger free jazz musicians, notably ], who often played with trumpeter ], who organized the 4-day "October Revolution in Jazz" in Manhattan in 1964, the first free jazz festival. | |||
| A series of recordings with the Classic Quartet in the first half of 1965 show Coltrane's playing becoming increasingly abstract, with greater incorporation of devices like ], utilization of overtones, and playing in the ] register, as well as a mutated return to Coltrane's ]. In the studio, he all but abandoned his soprano to concentrate on the tenor saxophone. In addition, the quartet responded to the leader by playing with increasing freedom. The group's evolution can be traced through the recordings '']'', '']'' and '']'' (both June 1965), '']'' (July 1965), '']'' (August 1965), and '']'' (September 1965). | |||
| In June 1965, Coltrane and 10 other musicians recorded '']'', a 40-minute-long piece without breaks that included adventurous solos by young avante-garde musicians as well as Coltrane, and was controversial primarily for the collective improvisation sections that separated the solos. ] later called it "the torch that lit the free jazz thing.". After recording with the quartet over the next few months, Coltrane invited Pharoah Sanders to join the band in September 1965. While Coltrane used over-blowing frequently as an emotional exclamation-point, Sanders would opt to overblow his entire solo, resulting in a constant screaming and screeching in the altissimo range of the instrument. | |||
| ====Free jazz in Europe==== | |||
| ], a key figure in European free jazz]] | |||
| Free jazz quickly found a foothold in Europe, in part because musicians such as Ayler, Taylor, ] and ] spent extended periods there, and European musicians ], ] et al. traveled to the U.S. to experience American approaches firsthand. A distinctive European contemporary jazz (sometimes incorporating elements of free jazz but not limited to it) flourished because of the emergence of highly distinctive European or European-based musicians such as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ], who were anxious to develop new approaches reflecting their national and regional musical cultures and contexts. Since the 1960s, various creative centers of jazz have developed in Europe, such as the creative jazz scene in Amsterdam. Following the work of veteran drummer ] and pianist ], musicians started to explore free music by collectively improvising until a certain form (melody, rhythm, or even famous song) is found by the band. Jazz critic ] documented the free jazz scene in Amsterdam and some of its main exponents such as the ICP (Instant Composers Pool) orchestra in his book ''New Dutch Swing''. Since the 1990s ] has been prominent in defending free jazz from criticism by traditionalists. British scholar Stuart Nicholson<ref>Stuart Nicholson, ''Is Jazz Dead? Or Has it Moved to a New Address'' (NY: Routledge, 2005).</ref> has been prominent in arguing that European contemporary jazz's identity is now substantially independent of American jazz and follows a different trajectory. | |||
| ===Latin jazz=== | |||
| {{Main|Latin jazz}} | |||
| Latin jazz is the term used to describe jazz which employs Latin American rhythms and is generally understood to have a more specific meaning than simply jazz from Latin America. A more precise term might be Afro-Latin jazz, as the jazz subgenre typically employs rhythms that either have a direct analog in Africa or exhibit an African rhythmic influence beyond what is ordinarily heard in other jazz. The two main categories of Latin jazz are ] and Brazilian jazz. | |||
| In the 1960s and 1970s, many jazz musicians had only a basic understanding of Cuban and Brazilian music, and jazz compositions which used Cuban or Brazilian elements were often referred to as "Latin tunes", with no distinction between a Cuban ] and a Brazilian ]. Even as late as 2000, in Mark Gridley's ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', a bossa nova bass line is referred to as a "Latin bass figure."<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 444). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th ed.</ref> It was not uncommon during the 1960s and 1970s to hear a conga playing a Cuban ] while the drumset and bass played a Brazilian bossa nova pattern. Many jazz standards such as "Manteca", "On Green Dolphin Street" and "Song for My Father" have a "Latin" A section and a swung B section. Typically, the band would only play an even-eighth "Latin" feel in the A section of the head and swing throughout all of the solos. Latin jazz specialists like ] tended to be the exception. For example, on a 1959 live Tjader recording of "A Night in Tunisia", pianist ] soloed through the entire form over an authentic ].<ref>Tjader, Cal (1959). ''Monterey Concerts''. Prestige CD. ASIN: B000000ZCY.</ref> | |||
| ====Afro-Cuban jazz==== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| {{Main|Afro-Cuban jazz}} | |||
| Afro-Cuban jazz often uses Afro-Cuban instruments such as ]s, ], ], and ], combined with piano, double bass, etc. Afro-Cuban jazz began with Machito's Afro-Cubans in the early 1940s, but took off and entered the mainstream in the late 1940s when bebop musicians such as ] and ] began experimenting with Cuban rhythms. ] and ] further refined the genre in the late 1950s. | |||
| Although a great deal of Cuban-based Latin jazz is modal, Latin jazz is not always modal: it can be as harmonically expansive as post-bop jazz. For example, ] recorded an arrangement of "Giant Steps" done to an Afro-Cuban ]. A Latin jazz piece may momentarily contract harmonically, as in the case of a percussion solo over a one or two-chord piano guajeo. | |||
| =====Guajeos===== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| ] is the name for the typical Afro-Cuban ostinato melodies which are commonly used motifs in Latin jazz compositions. They originated in the genre known as ]. Guajeos provide a rhythmic and melodic framework that may be varied within certain parameters, whilst still maintaining a repetitive - and thus "danceable" - structure. Most guajeos are rhythmically based on ]. | |||
| Guajeos are one of the most important elements of the vocabulary of Afro-Cuban ] (jazz-inspired instrumental jams), providing a means of tension and resolution and a sense of forward momentum, within a relatively simple harmonic structure. The use of multiple, contrapuntal guajeos in Latin jazz facilitates simultaneous collective improvisation based on theme variation. In a way, this polyphonic texture is reminiscent of the original New Orleans style of jazz. | |||
| =====Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance===== | |||
| For most of its history, Afro-Cuban jazz had been a matter of superimposing jazz phrasing over Cuban rhythms. But by the end of the 1970s, a new generation of New York City musicians had emerged who were fluent in both ] dance music and jazz, leading to a new level of integration of jazz and Cuban rhythms. This era of creativity and vitality is best represented by the Gonzalez brothers Jerry (congas and trumpet) and Andy (bass).<ref>Andy Gonzalez interviewed by Larry Birnbaum. Ed. Boggs, Vernon W. (1992: 297–298). ''Salsiology; Afro-Cuban Music and the Evolution of Salsa in New York City''. New York: Greenwood Press. {{ISBN|0-313-28468-7}}</ref> During 1974–1976, they were members of one of ]'s most experimental salsa groups: salsa was the medium, but Palmieri was stretching the form in new ways. He incorporated parallel fourths, with McCoy Tyner-type vamps. The innovations of Palmieri, the Gonzalez brothers and others led to an Afro-Cuban jazz renaissance in New York City. | |||
| This occurred in parallel with developments in Cuba<ref>Acosta, Leonardo (2003). ''Cubano Be, Cubano Bop: One Hundred Years of Jazz in Cuba'', p. 59. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. {{ISBN|1-58834-147-X}}</ref> The first Cuban band of this new wave was ]. Their "Chékere-son" (1976) introduced a style of "Cubanized" bebop-flavored horn lines that departed from the more angular guajeo-based lines which were typical of Cuban popular music and Latin jazz up until that time. It was based on Charlie Parker's composition "Billie's Bounce", jumbled together in a way that fused clave and bebop horn lines.<ref>Moore, Kevin (2007) "History and Discography of Irakere". </ref> In spite of the ambivalence of some band members towards Irakere's Afro-Cuban folkloric / jazz fusion, their experiments forever changed Cuban jazz: their innovations are still heard in the high level of harmonic and rhythmic complexity in Cuban jazz and in the jazzy and complex contemporary form of popular dance music known as ]. | |||
| ====Afro-Brazilian jazz==== | |||
| ]]] | |||
| Brazilian jazz such as ] is derived from ], with influences from jazz and other 20th-century classical and popular music styles. Bossa is generally moderately paced, with melodies sung in Portuguese or English, whilst the related term jazz-samba describes an adaptation of street samba into jazz. | |||
| The bossa nova style was pioneered by Brazilians ] and ] and was made popular by ]'s recording of "]" on the '']'' LP. Gilberto's initial releases, and the 1959 film '']'', achieved significant popularity in ]; this spread to North America via visiting American jazz musicians. The resulting recordings by ] and Stan Getz cemented bossa nova's popularity and led to a worldwide boom, with 1963's '']'', numerous recordings by famous jazz performers such as ] and ], and the eventual entrenchment of the bossa nova style as a lasting influence in world music. | |||
| Brazilian percussionists such as ] and ] also influenced jazz internationally by introducing Afro-Brazilian folkloric instruments and rhythms into a wide variety of jazz styles, thus attracting a greater audience to them.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yanow|first=Scott|url={{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p36965/biography|pure_url=yes}}|title=Airto Moreira|publisher=AllMusic|date=August 5, 1941|accessdate=2011-10-22}}</ref><ref></ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Palmer|first=Robert|url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F01E6DF123BF93BA15755C0A964948260|title=Jazz Festival - Jazz Festival - A Study Of Folk-Jazz Fusion - Review|publisher=''New York Times''|date=1982-06-28|accessdate=2012-07-07}}</ref> | |||
| ===Post-bop=== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| {{Main|Post-bop}} | |||
| ] with ] on bass and ] on drums, July 13, 1978]] | |||
| Post-bop jazz is a form of small-combo jazz derived from earlier bop styles. The genre's origins lie in seminal work by John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Bill Evans, Charles Mingus, ], and ]. Generally, the term post-bop is taken to mean jazz from the mid-sixties onwards that assimilates influences from ], ], the ] and free jazz, without necessarily being immediately identifiable as any of the above. | |||
| Much post-bop was recorded for ]. Key albums include '']'' by Shorter; '']'' by ]; '']'' by Hancock; '']'' by Davis; and '']'' by ] (an artist who is not typically associated with the post-bop genre). Most post-bop artists worked in other genres as well, with a particularly strong overlap with the earlier ]. | |||
| ===Soul jazz=== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| {{Main|Soul jazz}} | |||
| Soul jazz was a development of ] which incorporated strong influences from ], ] and ] to create music for small groups, often the ] of ], drummer and tenor saxophonist. Unlike ], soul jazz generally emphasized repetitive ] and melodic hooks, and ]s were often less complex than in other jazz styles. It often had a steadier "funk" style groove, which was different from the swing rhythms typical of much hard bop. | |||
| ] had a large influence on the soul jazz style, with songs that used funky and often ]-based piano ]. Important soul jazz organists included ], ] and ], and influential tenor ] players included ] and ]. | |||
| ===African-inspired=== | |||
| ] | |||
| ====Themes==== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| There was a resurgence of interest in jazz and other forms of African-American cultural expression during the ] and ] period of the 1960s and 1970s. African themes became popular, and many new jazz compositions were given African-related titles: "Black Nile" (]), "Blue Nile" (]), "Obirin African" (]), "Zambia" (]), "Appointment in Ghana" (]), "Marabi" (]), "Yoruba" (]), and many more. Pianist ]'s music incorporated African elements, such as in the large-scale suite "Uhuru Africa" (with the participation of poet ]) and "Highlife: Music From the New African Nations." Both Weston and saxophonist ] covered the Nigerian ]'s piece "Niger Mambo", which features Afro-Caribbean and jazz elements within a West African ] style. Some musicians, including ], ], and ], began using African instruments such as ], bells, beaded ] and other instruments which were not traditional to jazz. | |||
| ====Rhythm==== | |||
| During this period, there was an increased use of the typical African 12/8 ] structure in jazz. ]'s "Succotash" on '']'' (1963) is an open-ended modal 12/8 improvised jam, in which Hancock's pattern of attack-points, rather than the pattern of pitches, is the primary focus of his improvisations, accompanied by ] on bass, percussionist Osvaldo Martinez playing a traditional Afro-Cuban chekeré part and ] playing an ] bell pattern on a snare drum with brushes. | |||
| The first ] composed by a non-Latino to use an overt African 12/8 cross-rhythm was ]'s "]" (1967).<ref>"Footprints" ''Miles Smiles'' (Miles Davis). Columbia CD (1967).</ref> On the version recorded on ''Miles Smiles'' by ], the bass switches to a 4/4 ] figure at 2:20. "Footprints" is not, however, a ] tune: African rhythmic structures are accessed directly by ] (bass) and ] (drums) via the rhythmic sensibilities of ]. Throughout the piece, the four beats, whether sounded or not, are maintained as the temporal referent. In the example below, the main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads, which do not indicate bass notes. | |||
| ] two main ] for "Footprints" by ] (1967). The main beats are indicated by slashed noteheads.]] | |||
| ====Pentatonic scales==== | |||
| The use of ]s was another trend associated with Africa. The use of pentatonic scales in Africa probably goes back thousands of years.<ref>An ancient west central Sudanic stratum of ''pentatonic'' song composition, often associated with simple work rhythms in a regular meter, but with notable off-beat accents ... reaches back perhaps thousands of years to early West African sorgum agriculturalists—Kubik, Gerhard (1999: 95). ''Africa and the Blues''. Jackson, MI: University Press of Mississippi.</ref> | |||
| ] perfected the use of the pentatonic scale in his solos,<ref>Gridley, Mark C. (2000: 270). ''Jazz Styles: History and Analysis'', 7th ed.</ref> and also used parallel fifths and fourths, which are common harmonies in West Africa.<ref>Map showing distribution of harmony in Africa. Jones, A.M. (1959). ''Studies in African Music.'' Oxford Press.</ref> | |||
| The minor pentatonic scale is often used in blues improvisation, and like a blues scale, a minor pentatonic scale can be played over all of the chords in a blues. The following pentatonic lick was played over blues changes by ] on ]'s "African Queen" (1965).<ref>{{harvnb|Levine|1995|p=235}}</ref> | |||
| Jazz pianist, theorist, and educator ] refers to the scale generated by beginning on the fifth step of a pentatonic scale as the ''V pentatonic scale''.<ref>Levine, Mark (1989: 127). ''The Jazz Piano Book''. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music. ASIN: B004532DEE</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Levine points out that the V pentatonic scale works for all three chords of the standard II-V-I jazz progression.<ref>Levine (1989: 127).</ref> This is a very common progression, used in pieces such as Miles Davis' "Tune Up." The following example shows the V pentatonic scale over a II-V-I progression.<ref>After Mark Levine (1989: 127). ''The Jazz Piano Book''.</ref> | |||
| ] | |||
| Accordingly, John Coltrane's "]" (1960), with its 26 chords per 16 bars, can be played using only three pentatonic scales. Coltrane studied ]'s ''Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns'', which contains material that is virtually identical to portions of "Giant Steps".<ref>Bair, Jeff (2003: 5). ''Cyclic Patterns in John Coltrane's Melodic Vocabulary as Influenced by Nicolas Slonimsky's Thesaurus of Scales and Melodic Patterns: An Analysis of Selected Improvisations''. PhD Thesis. University of North Texas. Web. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc4348/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf</ref> The harmonic complexity of "Giant Steps" is on the level of the most advanced 20th-century art music. Superimposing the pentatonic scale over "Giant Steps" is not merely a matter of harmonic simplification, but also a sort of "Africanizing" of the piece, which provides an alternate approach for soloing. Mark Levine observes that when mixed in with more conventional "playing the changes", pentatonic scales provide "structure and a feeling of increased space."<ref>Levine, Mark (1995: 205). ''The Jazz Theory Book''. Sher Music. {{ISBN|1-883217-04-0}}</ref> | |||
| ===Jazz fusion=== | |||
| {{Main|Jazz fusion}} | |||
| ] in 1989]] | |||
| In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the hybrid form of jazz-rock ] was developed by combining jazz improvisation with rock rhythms, electric instruments and the highly amplified stage sound of rock musicians such as ] and ]. Jazz fusion often uses mixed meters, odd time signatures, syncopation, complex chords, and harmonies. | |||
| According to ]: | |||
| <blockquote>...until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate. as rock became more creative and its musicianship improved, and as some in the jazz world became bored with ] and did not want to play strictly ], the two different idioms began to trade ideas and occasionally combine forces."<ref>{{cite web|url={{Allmusic|class=explore|id=style/d299|pure_url=yes}}|title=Explore: Fusion|publisher=AllMusic|accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ====Miles Davis' new directions==== | |||
| In 1969, Davis fully embraced the electric instrument approach to jazz with '']'', which can be considered his first fusion album. Composed of two side-long suites edited heavily by producer ], this quiet, static album would be equally influential to the development of ]. | |||
| As Davis recalls: | |||
| <blockquote>The music I was really listening to in 1968 was ], the great guitar player ], and a new group who had just come out with a hit record, "]", ]... I wanted to make it more like rock. When we recorded ''In a Silent Way'' I just threw out all the chord sheets and told everyone to play off of that."<ref>Davis, Miles, with Quincy Troupe (1989: 298) ''The Autobiography''. New York: Simon and Schuster.</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Two contributors to ''In a Silent Way'' also joined organist ] to create one of the early acclaimed fusion albums: ] by ]. | |||
| ====Psychedelic-jazz==== | |||
| =====''Bitches Brew''===== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| Davis' '']'' (1970) album was his most successful of this era. Although inspired by rock and funk, Davis' fusion creations were original and brought about a new type of avant-garde, electronic, psychedelic-jazz, as far from pop music as any other Davis work. | |||
| =====Herbie Hancock===== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| Pianist Herbie Hancock (a Davis alumnus) released four albums in the short-lived (1970–1973) psychedelic-jazz subgenre: '']'' (1972), '']'' (1973), and '']'' (1973). The rhythmic background was a mix of rock, funk, and African-type textures. | |||
| Musicians who had previously worked with Davis formed the four most influential fusion groups: ] and ] emerged in 1971 and were soon followed by ] and ]. | |||
| =====Weather Report===== | |||
| ]'s self-titled electronic and psychedelic '']'' debut album caused a sensation in the jazz world on its arrival in 1971, thanks to the pedigree of the group's members (including percussionist ]), and their unorthodox approach to music. The album featured a softer sound than would be the case in later years (predominantly using acoustic bass with Shorter exclusively playing ], and with no ]s involved), but is still considered a classic of early fusion. It built on the avant-garde experiments which ] and Shorter had pioneered with Miles Davis on '']'', including an avoidance of head-and-chorus composition in favour of continuous rhythm and movement – but took the music further. To emphasise the group's rejection of standard methodology, the album opened with the inscrutable avant-garde atmospheric piece "Milky Way", which featured by Shorter's extremely muted saxophone inducing vibrations in Zawinul's piano strings while the latter pedalled the instrument. '']'' described the album as "music beyond category", and awarded it Album of the Year in the magazine's polls that year. | |||
| ]'s subsequent releases were creative funk-jazz works.<ref>Dan, Morgenstern (1971). ''Down Beat'' May 13.</ref> | |||
| ====Jazz-rock==== | |||
| Although some jazz purists protested against the blend of jazz and rock, many jazz innovators crossed over from the contemporary hard bop scene into fusion. As well as the electric instruments of rock (such as electric guitar, electric bass, electric piano and synthesizer keyboards), fusion also used the powerful amplification, ], ]s and other effects that were used by 1970s-era rock bands. Notable performers of jazz fusion included Miles Davis, ], keyboardists ], ], and Herbie Hancock, vibraphonist ], drummer ], violinist ], guitarists ], ], ], and ], saxophonist Wayne Shorter and bassists ] and ]. Jazz fusion was also popular in Japan, where the band ] released over thirty fusion albums. | |||
| According to jazz writer Stuart Nicholson, "just as free jazz appeared on the verge of creating a whole new musical language in the 1960s ... jazz-rock briefly suggested the promise of doing the same" with albums such as Williams' '']'' (1970) and Davis' '']'' (1975), which Nicholson said "suggested the potential of evolving into something that might eventually define itself as a wholly independent genre quite apart from the sound and conventions of anything that had gone before." This development was stifled by commercialism, Nicholson said, as the genre "mutated into a peculiar species of jazz-inflected pop music that eventually took up residence on FM radio" at the end of the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book|page=614|last1=Harrison|first1=Max|last2=Thacker|first2=Eric|last3=Nicholson|first3=Stuart|title=The Essential Jazz Records: Modernism to Postmodernism|year=2000|publisher=]|isbn=978-0720118223}}</ref> | |||
| ===Jazz-funk=== | |||
| {{Main|Jazz-funk}} | |||
| By the mid-1970s, the sound known as jazz-funk had developed, characterized by a strong ] (]), electrified sounds<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html |title=Free Jazz-Funk Music: Album, Track and Artist Charts |accessdate=2010-11-28 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080920131709/http://www.rhapsody.com/jazz/jazzfunk/more.html |archivedate=2008-09-20 |df= }}, ''Rhapsody Online — Rhapsody.com'' (October 20, 2010).</ref> and, often, the presence of electronic ]. Jazz-funk also draws influences from traditional African music, Afro-Cuban rhythms and Jamaican ], notably Kingston bandleader ]. Another feature is the shift of emphasis from improvisation to composition: arrangements, melody and overall writing became important. The integration of ], ], and ] music into jazz resulted in the creation of a genre whose spectrum is wide and ranges from strong ] to soul, funk or disco with jazz arrangements, jazz ]s and jazz solos, and sometimes soul vocals.<ref name=allmusic>{{cite web|url=http://allmusic.com/explore/style/d202 |title=Explore: Jazz-Funk |accessdate=2010-10-19 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019041451/http://allmusic.com/explore/style/d202 |archivedate=2010-10-19 |df= }}</ref> | |||
| Early examples are Herbie Hancock's ] band and Miles Davis' '']'' album, which, in 1972, began Davis' foray into jazz-funk and was, he claimed, an attempt at reconnecting with the young black audience which had largely forsaken jazz for ] and funk. While there is a discernible rock and funk influence in the ]s of the instruments employed, other tonal and rhythmic textures, such as the Indian tambora and tablas and Cuban congas and bongos, create a multi-layered soundscape. The album was a culmination of sorts of the '']'' approach that Davis and producer ] had begun to explore in the late 1960s. | |||
| ===Other trends=== | |||
| {{unreferenced section|date=September 2018}} | |||
| Jazz continued to expand and change, influenced by other types of music such as ], ] and rock and pop. Jazz musicians began to improvise on unusual instruments, such as the jazz ] (]), the electrically amplified and wah-wah pedaled jazz violin (]) and the bagpipes (]). In 1966 jazz trumpeter ] and Indian sitar player ] founded the Hindustani Jazz Sextet. In 1971, guitarist ]'s ] began playing a mix of rock and jazz infused with ] influences. In the 1970s the ] record label began in Germany with artists including ], ], the ], ], ], ], ], ], and ], establishing a new ] aesthetic which featured mainly acoustic instruments, occasionally incorporating elements of world music and folk. | |||
| ===Traditionalism in the 1980s=== | |||
| {{main|1980s in jazz}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The 1980s saw something of a reaction against the fusion and free jazz that had dominated the 1970s. Trumpeter ] emerged early in the decade, and strove to create music within what he believed was the tradition, rejecting both fusion and free jazz and creating extensions of the small and large forms initially pioneered by artists such as ] and ], as well as the hard bop of the 1950s. It is debatable whether Marsalis' critical and commercial success was a cause or a symptom of the reaction against Fusion and Free Jazz and the resurgence of interest in the kind of jazz pioneered in the 1960s (particularly ] and ]); nonetheless there were many other manifestations of a resurgence of traditionalism, even if fusion and free jazz were by no means abandoned and continued to develop and evolve. | |||
| For example, several musicians who had been prominent in the ] genre during the 1970s began to record acoustic jazz once more, including ] and ]. Other musicians who had experimented with electronic instruments in the previous decade had abandoned them by the 1980s; for example, ], ], and ]. Even the 1980s music of ], although certainly still fusion, adopted a far more accessible and recognisably jazz-oriented approach than his abstract work of the mid-1970s, such as a return to a theme-and-solos approach. | |||
| The emergence of young jazz talent beginning to perform in older, established musicians' groups further impacted the resurgence of traditionalism in the jazz community. In the 1970s, the groups of ] and ] retained their conservative jazz approaches in the midst of fusion and jazz-rock, and in addition to difficulty booking their acts, struggled to find younger generations of personnel to authentically play traditional styles such as ] and ]. In the late 1970s, however, a resurgence of younger jazz players in Blakey's band began to occur. This movement included musicians such as ] and ], ] and ]. | |||
| In the 1980s, in addition to ] and ], the emergence of pianists in the Jazz Messengers such as ], ], and later, ], bassists such as ], ] (and later, ] and Essiet Essiet) horn players such as ], ] and later ] and ] emerged as talented jazz musicians, all of whom made significant contributions in later 1990s and 2000s jazz music.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} | |||
| The young Jazz Messengers' contemporaries, including ], ], ] and ] were also influenced by ]'s emphasis toward jazz tradition. These younger rising stars rejected avant-garde approaches and instead championed the acoustic jazz sound of ], ] and early recordings of the first ] quintet. This group of "Young Lions" sought to reaffirm jazz as a high art tradition comparable to the discipline of classical music.<ref name="Guilliatt, Richard">{{cite web|last1=Guilliatt|first1=Richard|title=Jazz: The Young Lions' Roar|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1992-09-13/entertainment/ca-1495_1_lincoln-center-jazz-orchestra|website=Los Angeles Times|accessdate=14 January 2018|date=13 September 1992}}</ref> | |||
| In addition, ]'s rotation of young musicians in her group foreshadowed many of New York's preeminent traditional jazz players later in their careers. Among these musicians were Jazz Messenger alumni ], ] and ], as well as ], ], ], ], ], ], Greg Hutchinson and ], ] and ].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} | |||
| ]'s ] ensemble featured a rotation of young jazz musicians such as ], ], ], ], ], ], and ].<ref name="Out">{{cite web|last1=Yanow|first1=Scott|title=Out of the Blue|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/out-of-the-blue-mn0000419825/biography|website=AllMusic|accessdate=14 January 2018}}</ref> | |||
| A similar reaction{{Vague|date=January 2018}} took place against free jazz. According to ]: | |||
| <blockquote>the very leaders of the avant garde started to signal a retreat from the core principles of Free Jazz. ] began recording standards over familiar chord changes. ] played duets in concert with ], and let her set out structured harmonies and familiar jazz vocabulary under his blistering keyboard attack. And the next generation of progressive players would be even more accommodating, moving inside and outside the changes without thinking twice. Musicians such as ] or ] may have felt the call of free-form jazz, but they never forgot all the other ways one could play African-American music for fun and profit.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jazz.com/jazz-blog/2008/2/27/where-did-our-revolution-go-part-three |title=Where Did Our Revolution Go? (Part Three) – Jazz.com | Jazz Music – Jazz Artists – Jazz News |website=Jazz.com |accessdate=2013-10-02 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517181105/http://www.jazz.com/jazz-blog/2008/2/27/where-did-our-revolution-go-part-three |archivedate=2013-05-17 |df= }}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| Pianist ]—whose bands of the 1970s had played only original compositions with prominent free jazz elements—established his so-called 'Standards Trio' in 1983, which, although also occasionally exploring collective improvisation, has primarily performed and recorded jazz standards. Chick Corea similarly began exploring jazz standards in the 1980s, having neglected them for the 1970s. | |||
| In 1987, the ] and ] passed a bill proposed by Democratic Representative ] to define jazz as a unique form of American music, stating: | |||
| <blockquote>... that jazz is hereby designated as a rare and valuable national American treasure to which we should devote our attention, support and resources to make certain it is preserved, understood and promulgated.</blockquote> | |||
| It passed in the House of Representatives on September 23, 1987, and in the Senate on November 4, 1987.<ref name=HR57>HR-57 Center {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918100538/http://www.hr57.org/hconres57.html |date=2008-09-18 }}</ref> | |||
| ===Smooth jazz=== | |||
| {{Main|Smooth jazz}} | |||
| ] | |||
| In the early 1980s, a commercial form of jazz fusion called "pop fusion" or "smooth jazz" became successful, garnering significant radio airplay in "]" time slots at radio stations in urban markets across the U.S. This helped to establish or bolster the careers of vocalists including ], ], ], and ], as well as saxophonists including ], ], ], ], and ]. In general, smooth jazz is downtempo (the most widely played tracks are of 90–105 ]), and has a lead melody-playing instrument (saxophone, especially soprano and tenor, and ] electric guitar are popular). | |||
| In his '']'' article "The Problem With Jazz Criticism",<ref>{{cite web|title=Opinion: The Problem With Jazz Criticism|author=Stanley Crouch|url=http://www.newsweek.com/id/58477|website=Newsweek|date=June 5, 2003|accessdate=April 9, 2010}}</ref> ] considers Miles Davis' playing of fusion to be a turning point that led to smooth jazz. Critic Aaron J. West has countered the often negative perceptions of smooth jazz, stating: | |||
| <blockquote>I challenge the prevalent marginalization and malignment of smooth jazz in the standard jazz narrative. Furthermore, I question the assumption that smooth jazz is an unfortunate and unwelcomed evolutionary outcome of the jazz-fusion era. Instead, I argue that smooth jazz is a long-lived musical style that merits multi-disciplinary analyses of its origins, critical dialogues, performance practice, and reception.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc9722/|title=Caught Between Jazz and Pop: The Contested Origins, Criticism, Performance Practice, and Reception of Smooth Jazz|website=Digital.library.unt.edu|date=October 23, 2010|accessdate=November 7, 2010}}</ref></blockquote> | |||
| ===Acid jazz, nu jazz and jazz rap=== | |||
| ] developed in the UK in the 1980s and 1990s, influenced by ] and ]. Acid jazz often contains various types of electronic composition (sometimes including ] or a live DJ cutting and ]), but it is just as likely to be played live by musicians, who often showcase jazz interpretation as part of their performance. Richard S. Ginell of AllMusic considers ] "one of the prophets of acid jazz."<ref name="Ginell">{{cite web |last1=Ginell |first1=Richard S. |title=Roy Ayers |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/roy-ayers-mn0000345168/biography |website=AllMusic |accessdate=21 July 2018}}</ref> | |||
| ] is influenced by jazz harmony and melodies, and there are usually no improvisational aspects. It can be very experimental in nature and can vary widely in sound and concept. It ranges from the combination of live instrumentation with the beats of jazz ] (as exemplified by ], ], and ]) to more band-based improvised jazz with electronic elements (for example, ], ] and the Norwegian "future jazz" style pioneered by ], ], and ]). | |||
| ] developed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and incorporates jazz influences into ]. In 1988, ] released the debut single "Words I Manifest", which sampled ]'s 1962 "Night in Tunisia", and ] released "Talkin' All That Jazz", which sampled ]. Gang Starr's debut LP '']'' (1989) and their 1990 track "Jazz Thing" sampled ] and ]. The groups which made up the ] tended toward jazzy releases: these include the ]' debut '']'' (1988), and ]'s '']'' (1990) and '']'' (1991). Rap duo ] incorporated jazz influences on their 1992 debut '']''. Rapper ]'s ] series began in 1993 using jazz musicians during the studio recordings. | |||
| Alhough jazz rap had achieved little mainstream success, Miles Davis' final album '']'' (released posthumously in 1992) was based on hip hop beats and collaborations with producer ]. Davis' ex-bandmate ] also absorbed hip-hop influences in the mid-1990s, releasing the album '']'' in 1994. | |||
| ===Punk jazz and jazzcore=== | |||
| ] performing in 2006]] | |||
| The relaxation of orthodoxy which was concurrent with ] in London and New York City led to a new appreciation of jazz. In London, ] began to mix free jazz and dub reggae into their brand of punk rock.<ref>Dave Lang, ''Perfect Sound Forever'', February 1999. {{cite web|url=http://www.furious.com/Perfect/popgroup.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2016-01-23 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19990420123739/http://www.furious.com/perfect/popgroup.html |archivedate=1999-04-20 |df= }} Access date: November 15, 2008.</ref> In New York, ] took direct inspiration from both free jazz and punk. Examples of this style include ]'s ''Queen of Siam'',<ref name=bangs>Bangs, Lester. "Free Jazz / Punk Rock". ''Musician Magazine'', 1979. Access date: July 20, 2008.</ref> Gray, the work of ] (who mixed ] with free jazz and ])<ref name=bangs/> and the ]<ref name=bangs/> (the first group to call themselves "]"). | |||
| ] took note of the emphasis on speed and dissonance that was becoming prevalent in punk rock, and incorporated this into free jazz with the release of the '']'' album in 1986, a collection of ] tunes done in the contemporary ] style.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html |title="House Of Zorn", Goblin Archives, at |website=Sonic.net |accessdate=November 7, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019024244/http://sonic.net/~goblin/8zorn.html |archivedate=October 19, 2010 |df= }}</ref> In the same year, ], ], ], and ] recorded the first album under the name ], a similarly aggressive blend of thrash and free jazz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1 |title=Progressive Ears Album Reviews |website=Progressiveears.com |date=October 19, 2007 |accessdate=November 7, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607145159/http://www.progressiveears.com/asp/reviews.asp?albumID=4193&bhcp=1 |archivedate=June 7, 2011 |df= }}</ref> These developments are the origins of ''jazzcore'', the fusion of free jazz with ]. | |||
| ===M-Base=== | |||
| {{Main| M-Base}} | |||
| ] | |||
| The ] movement started in the 1980s, when a loose collective of young African-American musicians in New York which included ], ], and ] developed a complex but grooving<ref>"... circular and highly complex polymetric patterns which preserve their danceable character of popular Funk-rhythms despite their internal complexity and asymmetries ..." (Musicologist and musician Ekkehard Jost, Sozialgeschichte des Jazz, 2003, p. 377)</ref> sound. | |||
| In the 1990s, most M-Base participants turned to more conventional music, but Coleman, the most active participant, continued developing his music in accordance with the M-Base concept.<ref name="allaboutjazz.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/musician.php?id=5820|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805045312/http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/musician.php?id=5820|dead-url=no|archive-date=2010-08-05|title=All About Jazz|first=All About|last=Jazz|publisher=}}</ref> | |||
| Coleman's audience decreased, but his music and concepts influenced many musicians, according to pianist Vijay Iver and critic Ben Ratlifff of ''The New York Times''.<ref name="Blumenfeld">{{cite web|last1=Blumenfeld|first1=Larry|title=A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703302604575294532527380178|website=Wall Street Journal|accessdate=14 January 2018|date=11 June 2010|quote=It's hard to overstate influence. He's affected more than one generation, as much as anyone since John Coltrane...It's not just that you can connect the dots by playing seven or 11 beats. What sits behind his influence is this global perspective on music and life. He has a point of view of what he does and why he does it.}}</ref><ref name="Undead">{{cite web|last1=Ratliff|first1=Ben|title=Undead Jazzfest Roams the West Village|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/15/arts/music/15undead.html?_r=1|website=The New York Times|accessdate=14 January 2018|date=14 June 2010|quote=His recombinant ideas about rhythm and form and his eagerness to mentor musicians and build a new vernacular have had a profound effect on American jazz.}}</ref> | |||
| M-Base changed from a movement of a loose collective of young musicians to a kind of informal Coleman "school",<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael J. West|url=http://jazztimes.com/articles/26044-steve-coleman-vital-information|title=Jazz Articles: Steve Coleman: Vital Information|website=Jazztimes.com|date=June 2, 2010|accessdate=June 5, 2011}}</ref> with a much advanced but already originally implied concept.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.m-base.com/mbase_explanation.html|title=What Is M-Base?|website=M-base.com|accessdate=June 5, 2011}}</ref> ]'s music and ] concept gained recognition as "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman.<ref>In 2014 drummer Billy Hart said that "Coleman has quietly influenced the whole jazz musical world," and is the "next logical step" after Charlie Parker, John Coltrane, and Ornette Coleman. (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, ''Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz'', October 09, 2014, web portal ''Philly.com'', Philadelphia Media Network) Already in 2010 pianist Vijay Iyer (who was chosen as "Jazz Musician of the Year 2010" by the Jazz Journalists Association) said: "To me, Steve is as important as Coltrane. He has contributed an equal amount to the history of the music. He deserves to be placed in the pantheon of pioneering artists." (Source: Larry Blumenfeld, ''A Saxophonist's Reverberant Sound'', June 11, 2010, ''The Wall Street Journal'') In September 2014, Coleman was awarded a MacArthur Fellowship (a.k.a. "Genius Grant") for "redefining the vocabulary and vernaculars of contemporary music." (Source: Kristin E. Holmes, ''Genius grant saxman Steve Coleman redefining jazz'', October 09, 2014, web portal ''Philly.com'', Philadelphia Media Network)</ref> | |||
| ===1990s–present=== | |||
| Since the 1990s, jazz has been characterized by a pluralism in which no one style dominates, but rather a wide range of styles and genres are popular. Individual performers often play in a variety of styles, sometimes in the same performance. Pianist ] and ] have explored contemporary rock music within the context of the traditional jazz acoustic piano trio, recording instrumental jazz versions of songs by rock musicians. The Bad Plus have also incorporated elements of free jazz into their music. A firm avant-garde or free jazz stance has been maintained by some players, such as saxophonists ] and ], while others, such as ], have incorporated free jazz elements into a more traditional framework. | |||
| ] began his career playing stride piano and the dixieland jazz of his home, New Orleans, beginning with his first recording when he was ten years old.<ref name="Bush">{{cite web|last1=Bush|first1=John|title=Harry Connick, Jr|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/harry-connick-jr-mn0000949259/biography|website=AllMusic|accessdate=14 January 2018}}</ref> Some of his earliest lessons were at the home of pianist ].<ref name="home">{{Cite episode| title =Branford Marsalis and Harry Connick Jr.| series =Finding Your Roots| first =Henry| last =Louis Gates Jr. (host)| network =PBS| date =July 17, 2010| season =1| number =1|type=DVD}}</ref> Connick had success on the pop charts after recording the soundtrack to the movie '']'', which sold over two million copies.<ref name="Bush" /> Crossover success has also been achieved by ], ], ], ], and ]. | |||
| A number of players who usually perform in largely ] settings have emerged since the 1990s, including pianists ] and ], guitarist ], vibraphonist ], trumpeters ] and ], saxophonists ] and ], clarinetist ] and bassist ]. | |||
| Although ] reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s, the use of electronic instruments and rock-derived musical elements in jazz continued in the 1990s and 2000s. Musicians using this approach include ], ], ] and the Swedish group ] | |||
| In 2001, ]'s documentary '']'' was premiered on ], featuring ] and other experts reviewing the entire history of American jazz to that time. It received some criticism, however, for its failure to reflect the many distinctive non-American traditions and styles in jazz that had developed, and its limited representation of US developments in the last quarter of the 20th century. | |||
| The mid-2010s have seen an increasing influence of R&B, hip-hop, and pop music on jazz. In 2015, ] released his third studio album, '']''. The album heavily featured prominent contemporary jazz artists such as ]<ref name="booklet">{{cite AV media notes |title=To Pimp a Butterfly |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/to-pimp-a-butterfly-mw0002835159/credits |publisher=]}}</ref> and redefined jazz rap with a larger focus on improvisation and live soloing rather than simply sampling. In that same year, saxophonist ] released his nearly three-hour long debut, '']''. Its hip-hop inspired beats and R&B vocal interludes was not only acclaimed by critics for being innovative in keeping jazz relevant,<ref>{{cite web|author=Russell Warfield|url=http://drownedinsound.com/releases/18781/reviews/4148955|title=The Epic|website=drownedinsound.com|date=May 5, 2015|accessdate=October 12, 2017}}</ref> but also sparked a small resurgence in jazz on the internet. | |||
| Another internet-aided trend of 2010's jazz is that of extreme ], inspired by both virtuosic players known for their speed and rhythm such as ], as well as players known for their ambitious voicings and chords such as Bill Evans. Supergroup ] has adopted this trend and has allowed for players like ]<ref>{{cite web|author=David Hochman|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhochman/2018/05/15/grammy-winning-keyboardist-cory-henry-on-inspiration-and-funky-improvisation/#72e76b0738ce|title=Grammy-Winning Keyboardist Cory Henry On Inspiration And Funky Improvisation|date=May 15, 2018|accessdate=May 16, 2018}}</ref> to shape the grooves and harmonies of modern jazz soloing. ] phenomenon ] also gained recognition for his ability to play an incredibly large number of instruments and his ability to use ], advanced polyrhythms, and blend a spectrum of genres in his largely homemade production process.<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Bailey|url=http://www.afr.com/lifestyle/arts-and-entertainment/music/jacob-collier-review-youtuber-gets-gen-y-into-jazz-20180501-h0zhx1|title=Jacob Collier review: Youtuber gets Gen Y into jazz|date=May 1, 2018|accessdate=May 16, 2018}}</ref> | |||
| ==See also== | |||
| {{Portal|African American|Jazz|Music}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| {{Clear}} | |||
| ==Notes== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
| ==References== | |||
| {{refbegin|30em}} | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Litweiler|first=John|title=The Freedom Principle: Jazz After 1958|publisher=Da Capo|year=1984|isbn=978-0-306-80377-2|ref=harv}} | |||
| * Joachim Ernst Berendt, Günther Huesmann (Bearb.): ''Das Jazzbuch''. 7. Auflage. S. Fischer Verlag, Frankfurt am Main, 2005, {{ISBN|3-10-003802-9}} | |||
| * Burns, Ken, and Geoffrey C. Ward. 2000. ''Jazz—A History of America's Music''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Also: The Jazz Film Project, Inc. | |||
| * {{cite book|last1=Levine|first1=Mark|title=The Jazz theory book|year=1995|publisher=Sher Music|location=Petaluma, Calif.|isbn=978-1-883217-04-4|url=https://books.google.com/?id=iyNQpJ4oaMcC&lpg=PT6&dq=isbn%201-883217-04-0&pg=PT6#v=onepage&q=isbn%201-883217-04-0&f=false|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|last=Cooke|first=Mervyn|year=1999|title=Jazz|publication-place=London|publisher=Thames and Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-20318-7|ref=harv}}. | |||
| * Carr, Ian. ''Music Outside: Contemporary Jazz in Britain.'' 2nd edition. London: Northway. {{ISBN|978-0-9550908-6-8}} | |||
| * Collier, James Lincoln. ''The Making of Jazz: A Comprehensive History'' (Dell Publishing Co., 1978) | |||
| * Dance, Stanley (1983). ''The World of Earl Hines''. Da Capo Press. {{ISBN|0-306-80182-5}}. Includes a 120-page interview with Hines plus many photos. | |||
| * ]. {{cite AV media|author=Miles Davis|title=Boplicity|publisher=Delta Music plc.|date=2005|id= UPC 4-006408-264637}} | |||
| * Downbeat (2009). ''The Great Jazz Interviews'': Frank Alkyer & Ed Enright (eds). Hal Leonard Books. {{ISBN|978-1-4234-6384-9}} | |||
| * Elsdon, Peter. 2003. "''The Cambridge Companion to Jazz'', Edited by Mervyn Cooke and David Horn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Review." ''Frankfürter Zeitschrift für Musikwissenschaft'' 6:159–75. | |||
| * Giddins, Gary. 1998. ''Visions of Jazz: The First Century''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-507675-3}} | |||
| * Gridley, Mark C. 2004. ''Concise Guide to Jazz'', fourth edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. {{ISBN|0-13-182657-3}} | |||
| * Nairn, Charlie. 1975. ''Earl 'Fatha' HInes'': 1 hour 'solo' documentary made in "Blues Alley" Jazz Club, Washington DC, for ATV, England, 1975: produced/directed by Charlie Nairn: original 16mm film plus out-takes of additional tunes from that film archived in British Film Institute Library at bfi.org.uk and http://www.itvstudios.com: DVD copies with Jean Gray Hargrove Music Library , University of California, Berkeley: also University of Chicago, Hogan Jazz Archive Tulane University New Orleans and Louis Armstrong House Museum Libraries. | |||
| * {{cite book|last=Peñalosa|first=David|year=2010|title=The Clave Matrix; Afro-Cuban Rhythm: Its Principles and African Origins|location=Redway, CA|publisher=Bembe Inc.|isbn=978-1-886502-80-2|ref=harv}} | |||
| * {{Cite book|last=Schuller|first=Gunther|author-link1=Gunther Schuller|year=1968|title=Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development|location=New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|ref=harv}} New printing 1986. | |||
| * Schuller, Gunther. 1991. ''The Swing Era: The Development of Jazz, 1930–1945''. Oxford University Press. | |||
| {{refend}} | |||
| ==External links== | |||
| {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|lcheading=jazz}} | |||
| {{sisterlinks|c=Category:Jazz|n=Category:Jazz|d=Q8341|s=Category:Jazz|b=Music Theory/Jazz|voy=Jazz}} | |||
| * | |||
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| * website | |||
| * | |||
| * available for downloading at ] | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * | |||
| * (], September 25, 2018) | |||
| {{jazz|state=expanded}} | |||
| {{Louisianarootsmusic}} | |||
| {{Americanrootsmusic}} | |||
| {{Authority control}} | |||
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