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{{Other uses|Popper (disambiguation)}} {{Other uses|Popper (disambiguation)}}
] ]
'''Poppers''' is a ] given broadly to the ] called ], that are ] for ] purposes, typically for the "high" or "rush" that the drug can create. Poppers have also been historically used for ] among the youth, including in the ].<ref name="poppers-gay-culture">{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/poppers-how-gay-culture-bottled-a-formula-that-has-broken-down-boundaries-a6828466.html|title=How gay culture bottled a formula that has broken down boundaries|date=2016-01-22|newspaper=The Independent|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-01-23}}</ref><blockquote>If you trace the bottle of amyl (a type of alkyl nitrite) through late 20th-century history, you trace the legacies of gay culture on popular culture in the 20th century. <ref name="poppers-gay-culture" /></blockquote> Poppers were part of club culture from the mid-1970s ] scene to the 1980s, and the 1990s ] scene made their use popular again.<ref name="Drugscope">{{cite web|url=http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch/ds_results.asp?file=%5Cwip%5C11%5C1%5C1%5Cnitrites.html |title=Nitrites |accessdate=2007-04-24 |work=Drugscope |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405132026/http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch/ds_results.asp?file=%5Cwip%5C11%5C1%5C1%5Cnitrites.html |archivedate=2007-04-05 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> '''Poppers''' is a ] given broadly to the ] called ], that are ] for ] purposes, typically for the "high" or "rush" that the drug can create. Poppers have also been historically used for ] among the youth, including in the ].<ref name="poppers-gay-culture">{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/poppers-how-gay-culture-bottled-a-formula-that-has-broken-down-boundaries-a6828466.html |title=How gay culture bottled a formula that has broken down boundaries |date=2016-01-22 |newspaper=The Independent |language=en-GB |access-date=2017-01-23 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><blockquote>If you trace the bottle of amyl (a type of alkyl nitrite) through late 20th&nbsp;century history, you trace the legacies of gay culture on popular culture in the 20th&nbsp;century.<ref name="poppers-gay-culture" /></blockquote> Poppers were part of club culture from the mid-1970s ] scene to the 1980s, and the 1990s ] scene made their use popular again.<ref name="Drugscope">{{cite web |url=http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch/ds_results.asp?file=%5Cwip%5C11%5C1%5C1%5Cnitrites.html |title=Nitrites |accessdate=2007-04-24 |work=Drugscope |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070405132026/http://www.drugscope.org.uk/druginfo/drugsearch/ds_results.asp?file=%5Cwip%5C11%5C1%5C1%5Cnitrites.html |archivedate=2007-04-05 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


Poppers use has a relaxation effect on involuntary smooth muscles, such as those in the throat and anus.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhao|first=Peizhen|last2=Tang|first2=Songyuan|last3=Wang|first3=Cheng|last4=Zhang|first4=Ye|last5=Best|first5=John|last6=Tangthanasup|first6=Thitikarn May|last7=Huang|first7=Shujie|last8=Yang|first8=Bin|last9=Wei|first9=Chongyi|date=2017-01-20|title=Recreational Drug Use among Chinese MSM and Transgender Individuals: Results from a National Online Cross-Sectional Study|url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0170024|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=12|issue=1|pages=e0170024|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1270024Z|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0170024|issn=1932-6203|pmc=5249205|pmid=28107391}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schmidt|first=Axel J.|last2=Bourne|first2=Adam|last3=Weatherburn|first3=Peter|last4=Reid|first4=David|last5=Marcus|first5=Ulrich|last6=Hickson|first6=Ford|year=2016|title=Illicit drug use among gay and bisexual men in 44 cities: Findings from the European MSM Internet Survey (EMIS)|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.09.007|journal=International Journal of Drug Policy|volume=38|pages=4–12|doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.09.007|pmid=27788450}}</ref> Most widely sold products include the original ] (isoamyl nitrite, isopentyl nitrite), but also variants such as ], ] (2-propyl nitrite, increasingly, after ] ban of the isobutyl form). In some countries, to evade anti-drug laws, poppers are labelled or packaged as room deodorizers, leather polish or tape head cleaner. Poppers use has a relaxation effect on involuntary smooth muscles, such as those in the throat and anus.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Peizhen |last2=Tang |first2=Songyuan |last3=Wang |first3=Cheng |last4=Zhang |first4=Ye |last5=Best |first5=John |last6=Tangthanasup |first6=Thitikarn May |last7=Huang |first7=Shujie |last8=Yang |first8=Bin |last9=Wei |first9=Chongyi |date=2017-01-20 |title=Recreational drug use among Chinese MSM and transgender individuals: Results from a national online cross-sectional study |url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0170024 |journal=PLoS One |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=e0170024 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1270024Z |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0170024 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5249205 |pmid=28107391 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=Axel J. |last2=Bourne |first2=Adam |last3=Weatherburn |first3=Peter |last4=Reid |first4=David |last5=Marcus |first5=Ulrich |last6=Hickson |first6=Ford |year=2016 |title=Illicit drug use among gay and bisexual men in 44&nbsp;cities: Findings from the European MSM internet survey (EMIS) |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.09.007 |journal=International Journal of Drug Policy |volume=38 |pages=4–12 |doi=10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.09.007 |pmid=27788450}}</ref> Most widely sold products include the original ] (isoamyl nitrite, isopentyl nitrite), but also variants such as ], ] (2-propyl nitrite, increasingly, after ] ban of the isobutyl form). In some countries, to evade anti-drug laws, poppers are labelled or packaged as room deodorizers, leather polish, or tape head cleaner.


==History== ==History==
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The French chemist ] synthesized ] in 1844.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} ], a Scottish physician born in the year of amyl nitrite's first synthesis, famously pioneered its use to treat ].{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Brunton was inspired by earlier work with the same agent, performed by ] and ].{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Brunton reasoned that the angina sufferer's pain and discomfort could be reduced by administering amyl nitrite—to dilate the coronary arteries of patients, thus improving blood flow to the heart muscle.{{Citation needed|date= April 2014}} The French chemist ] synthesized ] in 1844.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} ], a Scottish physician born in the year of amyl nitrite's first synthesis, famously pioneered its use to treat ].{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Brunton was inspired by earlier work with the same agent, performed by ] and ].{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} Brunton reasoned that the angina sufferer's pain and discomfort could be reduced by administering amyl nitrite—to dilate the coronary arteries of patients, thus improving blood flow to the heart muscle.{{Citation needed|date= April 2014}}


Although amyl nitrite is known to have been used recreationally as early as the 1960s, the poppers "craze" began around 1975.<ref name=Craze>{{cite journal|last1=Israelstam|first1=Stephen|last2=Lambert|first2=Sylvia|last3=Oki|first3=Gustave|title=Poppers, A New Recreational Drug Craze|journal=Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal|date=26 April 2017|volume=23|issue=7|pages=493–495|doi=10.1177/070674377802300711|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/070674377802300711|accessdate=25 November 2017|language=en}}</ref> It was sold in fragile glass ampoules which are crushed or "popped" in the fingers and then inhaled: hence the colloquialism ''poppers''.<ref name=Craze/> The term extended to the drug Although amyl nitrite is known to have been used recreationally as early as the 1960s, the poppers "craze" began around 1975.<ref name=Craze>{{cite journal |last1=Israelstam |first1=Stephen |last2=Lambert |first2=Sylvia |last3=Oki |first3=Gustave |title=Poppers, a new recreational drug craze |journal=Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal |date=26 April 2017 |volume=23 |issue=7 |pages=493–495 |doi=10.1177/070674377802300711 |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/070674377802300711 |accessdate=25 November 2017 |language=en}}</ref> It was sold in fragile glass ampoules which are crushed or "popped" in the fingers and then inhaled: Hence the colloquialism ''poppers''.<ref name=Craze/> The term extended to the drug in any form as well as the commercial variant of the drug, ], which is packaged under a variety of trade names in small bottles.<ref name=Craze/>
in any form as well as the commercial variant of the drug, ], which is packaged under a variety of trade names in small bottles.<ref name=Craze/>


In the late 1970s '']''<ref name=Time>{{cite news |title=Rushing to a New High |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916269,00.html |work=Time |date=1978-07-17 |accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref> and the '']''<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://virusmythpoppersmyth.org/wall-street-journal/|title=wall street journal - A new way to glow and giggle, and get a headache. "Poppers, legally sniffable, becoming a big business; The FDA isn't interested|last=Sansweet|first=Stephen J.|date=October 10, 1977|work=Wall Street Journal October 10, 1977 Stephen J. Sansweet|access-date=October 10, 2016|via=http://virusmythpoppersmyth.org/}}</ref> reported that popper use among homosexual men began as a way to enhance sexual pleasure, but "quickly spread to avant-garde heterosexuals". A series of interviews conducted in the late 1970s revealed a wide spectrum of users.<ref name=Time/> In the late 1970s '']''<ref name=Time>{{cite news |title=Rushing to a new high |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,916269,00.html |work=Time |date=1978-07-17 |accessdate=2007-04-29 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and the '']''<ref>{{cite news |url=http://virusmythpoppersmyth.org/wall-street-journal/ |title=wall street journal - A new way to glow and giggle, and get a headache. "Poppers, legally sniffable, becoming a big business; The FDA isn't interested |last=Sansweet |first=Stephen J. |date=October 10, 1977 |work=Wall Street Journal October 10, 1977 Stephen J. Sansweet|access-date=October 10, 2016 |via=http://virusmythpoppersmyth.org/ |df=dmy-all}}</ref> reported that popper use among homosexual men began as a way to enhance sexual pleasure, but "quickly spread to avant-garde heterosexuals". A series of interviews conducted in the late 1970s revealed a wide spectrum of users.<ref name=Time/>


==Pharmacology and physiology== ==Pharmacology and physiology==
{{expand section|a succinct, secondary sourced-statement of the physiologic impact of inhalation of alkyl nitrite-containing poppers | small = no|date=June 2016}} {{expand section|a succinct, secondary sourced-statement of the physiologic impact of inhalation of alkyl nitrite-containing poppers | small = no|date=June 2016}}
Inhaling nitrites relaxes ]s throughout the body, including the ] muscles of the ] and the ].<ref name="Medsafe">{{cite web | title=Amyl Nitrite | work=Medsafe | publisher=New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority | date=May 18, 2000 | url=http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/Profs/datasheet/a/Amylnitrateinh.htm | accessdate=March 15, 2007 |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20061111105814/http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/Profs/datasheet/a/Amylnitrateinh.htm | archivedate =November 11, 2006}}</ref> Smooth muscle surrounds the body's blood vessels and when relaxed causes these vessels to dilate resulting in an immediate increase in ] and blood flow throughout the body, producing a sensation of heat and excitement that usually lasts for a couple of minutes.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.drugs.com/ppa/amyl-nitrite.html|title=Amyl Nitrite (Professional Patient Advice) - Drugs.com|author=|date=|work=drugs.com|accessdate=June 29, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://adf.org.au/drug-facts/adf-drug-facts-amyl-nitrite/|title=ADF - Drug Facts - Amyl Nitrite|work=ADF - Alcohol & Drug Foundation|access-date=2018-10-25|language=en-US}}</ref> When these vessels dilate, a further result is an immediate decrease in ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/508179/Poppersadvice.pdf|title=ACMD review of alkyl nitrites ("poppers")|last=Iversen|first=Les|date=March 16, 2016|website=gov.uk|publisher=www.gov.uk|access-date=October 10, 2016}}</ref> Inhaling nitrites relaxes ]s throughout the body, including the ] muscles of the ] and the ].<ref name="Medsafe">{{cite web |title=Amyl Nitrite |work=Medsafe |publisher=New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority |date=May 18, 2000 |url=http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/Profs/datasheet/a/Amylnitrateinh.htm |accessdate=March 15, 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061111105814/http://www.medsafe.govt.nz/Profs/datasheet/a/Amylnitrateinh.htm |archivedate=November 11, 2006 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Smooth muscle surrounds the body's blood vessels and when relaxed causes these vessels to dilate resulting in an immediate increase in ] and blood flow throughout the body, producing a sensation of heat and excitement that usually lasts for a couple of minutes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.drugs.com/ppa/amyl-nitrite.html |title=Amyl Nitrite (Professional Patient Advice) - Drugs.com |work=drugs.com |accessdate=June 29, 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://adf.org.au/drug-facts/adf-drug-facts-amyl-nitrite/ |title=ADF - Drug Facts - Amyl Nitrite |work=ADF - Alcohol & Drug Foundation |access-date=2018-10-25 |language=en-US |df=dmy-all}}</ref> When these vessels dilate, a further result is an immediate decrease in ].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/508179/Poppersadvice.pdf |title=ACMD review of alkyl nitrites ("poppers") |last=Iversen |first=Les |date=March 16, 2016 |website=gov.uk |publisher=www.gov.uk |access-date=October 10, 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


==Chemistry== ==Chemistry==
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{{Update|section|inaccurate=yes|date=June 2016}} {{Update|section|inaccurate=yes|date=June 2016}}
] ]
Through the 1970s, use by minors has been described as minimal, due to the ban on sales to minors by major manufacturers (for public relations reasons), and because some jurisdictions regulate sales to minors by statute.<ref>Nickerson, Mark, John Parker, Thomas Lowry, and Edward Swenson. Isobutyl Nitrite and Related Compounds; chapter on "Sociology and Behavioral Effects" . 1st ed. San Francisco: Pharmex, Ltd, 1979.{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{update after|2016|6|29}} A 1987 study commissioned by the United States Senate and conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services found that less than three per cent of the overall population had ever used poppers.<ref name = "Kennedy-1988">Kennedy, Edward, US Senate, Chair Committee on Labor and Human Resources. "Report of the Committee on Labor and Human Resources."Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Amendments of 1988. Section 4015. 1988.</ref>{{update after|2016|6|29}} Through the 1970s, use by minors has been described as minimal, due to the ban on sales to minors by major manufacturers (for public relations reasons), and because some jurisdictions regulate sales to minors by statute.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Nickerson, Mark |author2=Parker, John |author3=Lowry, Thomas |author4=Swenson, Edward |year=1979 |title=Isobutyl Nitrite and Related Compounds |chapter=Sociology and Behavioral Effects |edition=1st |location=San Francisco, CA |publisher=Pharmex, Ltd.}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{update after|2016|6|29}} A 1987 study commissioned by the United States Senate and conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services found that less than three per cent of the overall population had ever used poppers.<ref name = "Kennedy-1988">{{cite book |author=Kennedy, Edward (committee chair) |year=1988 |publisher=US Senate |department=Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources |series=Report of the Committee on Labor and Human Resources |title=Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Amendments of 1988 |at=Section 4015}}</ref>{{update after|2016|6|29}}


===Interactions=== ===Interactions===
Alkyl nitrites ] with other ], such as ] (Viagra), ] (Levitra), and ] (Cialis), to cause a serious ], which can cause fainting, stroke, and low blood pressure leading to potential heart attack.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Romanelli | first1 = F. | last2 = Smith | first2 = KM. | title = Recreational use of sildenafil by HIV-positive and -negative homosexual/bisexual males. | journal = Ann Pharmacother | volume = 38 | issue = 6 | pages = 1024–30 |date=Jun 2004 | doi = 10.1345/aph.1D571 | pmid = 15113986 }}</ref>{{update after|2016|6|29}} Alkyl nitrites ] with other ], such as ] (Viagra), ] (Levitra), and ] (Cialis), to cause a serious ], which can cause fainting, stroke, and low blood pressure leading to potential heart attack.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Romanelli |first1=F. |last2=Smith |first2=K.M. |title=Recreational use of sildenafil by HIV-positive and -negative homosexual/bisexual males |journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1030 |date=Jun 2004 |doi=10.1345/aph.1D571 |pmid=15113986}}</ref>{{update after|2016|6|29}}


===Side effects=== ===Side effects===
Common side effects of popper abuse includes ], ], ], ] and ]<ref>{{cite book | author=Wood, Ronald W. | title=The Acute Toxicity of Nitrite Inhalants | publisher=National Institute on Drug Abuse | year=1989 | url=http://hdl.handle.net/1802/1150 | format=PDF | accessdate=2007-03-15 | pages=28–29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.assuredpharmacy.co.uk/blog/health-awareness/poppers-and-your-health/|title=Poppers And Your Health -|date=2018-09-13|access-date=2018-10-17|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>Romanelli, F. ''et al''., (2004) 'Poppers: Epidemiology and Clinical Management of Inhaled Nitrite Abuse', ''Pharmacotherapy'', 24(1), pp. 69-78</ref> Common side effects of popper abuse includes ], ], ], ] and ]<ref>{{cite book |author=Wood, Ronald W. |title=The acute toxicity of nitrite inhalants |publisher=National Institute on Drug Abuse |year=1989 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/1802/1150 |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-03-15 |pages=28–29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.assuredpharmacy.co.uk/blog/health-awareness/poppers-and-your-health/ |title=Poppers and your health |date=2018-09-13 |access-date=2018-10-17 |language=en-US |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Romanelli, F. |display-authors=etal |year=2004 |title=Poppers: Epidemiology and clinical management of inhaled nitrite abuse |journal=Pharmacotherapy |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=69-78}}</ref>


===Toxicity=== ===Toxicity===
The '']'' reports insignificant hazard associated with inhalation of alkyl nitrites,<ref name="Merck">{{cite encyclopedia | url=http://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/special-subjects/recreational-drugs-and-intoxicants/volatile-nitrites | title=Volatile Nitrites | accessdate=2017-09-16 |date=January 2016 | encyclopedia=] | publisher=]| editor=Porter, Robert S.|display-editors=etal |first1=Gerald F.|last1=O’Malley|first2=Rika|last2=O’Malley}}</ref> and British governmental guidance on the relative harmfulness of alkyl nitrites places them among the less harmful of recreational drugs.<ref name="Nutt-2007">{{Cite journal | last1 = Nutt | first1 = D. | last2 = King | first2 = LA. | last3 = Saulsbury | first3 = W. | last4 = Blakemore | first4 = C. | title = Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse | journal = Lancet | volume = 369 | issue = 9566 | pages = 1047–53 |date=March 2007 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4 | pmid = 17382831}}</ref> The '']'' reports insignificant hazard associated with inhalation of alkyl nitrites,<ref name="Merck">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.msdmanuals.com/en-gb/professional/special-subjects/recreational-drugs-and-intoxicants/volatile-nitrites |title=Volatile Nitrites |accessdate=2017-09-16 |date=January 2016 |encyclopedia=] | publisher=] |editor=Porter, Robert S. |display-editors=etal |first1=Gerald F. |last1=O’Malley |first2=Rika |last2=O’Malley |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and British governmental guidance on the relative harmfulness of alkyl nitrites places them among the less harmful of recreational drugs.<ref name="Nutt-2007">{{Cite journal |last1=Nutt |first1=D. |last2=King |first2=L.A. |last3=Saulsbury |first3=W. |last4=Blakemore |first4=C. |title=Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse |journal=Lancet |volume=369 |issue=9566 |pages=1047–1053 |date=March 2007 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4 |pmid=17382831}}</ref>


Swallowing poppers (rather than inhaling the vapour) may cause ], unconsciousness, coma, and complications leading to death. ] can occur if poppers have been swallowed.<ref name="Medsafe"/><ref name="Dixon-1981">{{Cite journal | last1 = Dixon | first1 = DS. | last2 = Reisch | first2 = RF. | last3 = Santinga | first3 = PH. | title = Fatal methemoglobinemia resulting from ingestion of isobutyl nitrite, a "room odorizer" widely used for recreational purposes. | journal = J Forensic Sci | volume = 26 | issue = 3 | pages = 587–93 |date=July 1981 | pmid = 7252472}}</ref><ref name="Pruijm-2002">{{Cite journal | last1 = Pruijm | first1 = MT. | last2 = de Meijer | first2 = PH. | title = | journal = Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd | volume = 146 | issue = 49 | pages = 2370–3 |date=December 2002 | pmid = 12510403 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Stalnikowicz | first1 = R. | last2 = Amitai | first2 = Y. | last3 = Bentur | first3 = Y. | title = Aphrodisiac drug-induced hemolysis | journal = J Toxicol Clin Toxicol | volume = 42 | issue = 3 | pages = 313–6 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15362601 | doi=10.1081/clt-120037435}}</ref><ref>Emergency Medicine: Principles and Practice. Harper & Collins, 2nd edition. 2008. pp. 42–51.{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} Accidental aspiration of amyl or butyl nitrites may cause ].<ref name="Hagan-">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hagan | first1 = IG. | last2 = Burney | first2 = K. | title = Radiology of recreational drug abuse | url = http://radiographics.rsna.org/content/27/4/919.long | journal = Radiographics | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 919–40 |date=July–August 2007 | doi = 10.1148/rg.274065103 | pmid = 17620459}}</ref> Swallowing poppers (rather than inhaling the vapour) may cause ], unconsciousness, coma, and complications leading to death. ] can occur if poppers have been swallowed.<ref name="Medsafe"/><ref name="Dixon-1981">{{Cite journal |last1=Dixon |first1=D.S. |last2=Reisch |first2=R.F. |last3=Santinga |first3=P.H. |title=Fatal methemoglobinemia resulting from ingestion of isobutyl nitrite, a "room odorizer" widely used for recreational purposes |journal=J Forensic Sci |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=587–593 |date=July 1981 |pmid=7252472}}</ref><ref name="Pruijm-2002">{{Cite journal |last1=Pruijm |first1=M.T. |last2=de Meijer |first2=P.H. |title= |journal=Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd |volume=146 |issue=49 |pages=2370–2373 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12510403}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Stalnikowicz |first1=R. |last2=Amitai |first2=Y. |last3=Bentur |first3=Y. |title=Aphrodisiac drug-induced hemolysis |journal=J Toxicol Clin Toxicol |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=313–316 |year=2004 |pmid=15362601 |doi=10.1081/clt-120037435}}</ref><ref>Emergency Medicine: Principles and Practice. Harper & Collins, 2nd edition. 2008. pp. 42–51.{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} Accidental aspiration of amyl or butyl nitrites may cause ].<ref name="Hagan-">{{Cite journal |last1=Hagan |first1=I.G. |last2=Burney |first2=K. |title=Radiology of recreational drug abuse |url=http://radiographics.rsna.org/content/27/4/919.long |journal=Radiographics |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=919–940 |date=July–August 2007 |doi=10.1148/rg.274065103 |pmid=17620459}}</ref>


Isopropyl nitrite poppers may be a cause of ] (eye damage), as reported in France and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Davies, A. J. |author2=Kelly, S. P. |author3=Bhatt, P. R. |url=http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v26/n6/full/eye201237a.html |title='Poppers maculopathy'—an emerging ophthalmic reaction to recreational substance abuse |work=Eye |volume=26 |issue=888 | pages=1479–86 | doi=10.1038/eye.2012.37 | date=2012-03-09 |accessdate=2016-01-11 |type=correspondence |pmc=3376285 }}</ref> Some studies have concluded that there may be increased risk for at least temporary retinal damage with habitual popper use in certain users; in a letter to the '']'',{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} an ophthalmologist described four cases in which recreational users of poppers suffered temporary changes in vision.<ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} Foveal (center-of-gaze) damage has also been described, in six habitual users of poppers.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal|title= Foveal damage in habitual poppers users|date=2015-09-28 |pmid=21320953 |doi=10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.6 |volume=129 |pages=703–8 | last1 = Audo | first1 = I | last2 = El Sanharawi | first2 = M | last3 = Vignal-Clermont | first3 = C | last4 = Villa | first4 = A | last5 = Morin | first5 = A | last6 = Conrath | first6 = J | last7 = Fompeydie | first7 = D | last8 = Sahel | first8 = JA | last9 = Gocho-Nakashima | first9 = K | last10 = Goureau | first10 = O | last11 = Paques | first11 = M | journal=Arch Ophthalmol}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} In 2014, ] and ] reported having noticed an increase in vision loss in chronic popper users in the United Kingdom, associated with the substitution of isopropyl nitrite.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2014/07/08/us-proppers-eyesight-idINKBN0FD1ZD20140708|title=More evidence 'poppers' may damage eyesight|author=Krystnell Storr|publisher=Reuters Health|date=2014-07-08}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal Isopropyl nitrite poppers may be a cause of ] (eye damage), as reported in France and the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Davies, A. J. |author2=Kelly, S. P. |author3=Bhatt, P. R. |url=http://www.nature.com/eye/journal/v26/n6/full/eye201237a.html |title='Poppers maculopathy' — an emerging ophthalmic reaction to recreational substance abuse |journal=Eye |volume=26 |issue=888 |pages=1479–1486 |doi=10.1038/eye.2012.37 |date=2012-03-09 |accessdate=2016-01-11 |type=correspondence |pmc=3376285 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Some studies have concluded that there may be increased risk for at least temporary retinal damage with habitual popper use in certain users; in a letter to the '']'',{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} an ophthalmologist described four cases in which recreational users of poppers suffered temporary changes in vision.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/19/health/research/19vision.html?ref=science |newspaper=] |department=Vision |title=A quick high for sex may damage vision}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} Foveal (center-of-gaze) damage has also been described, in six habitual users of poppers.<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{cite journal |title=Foveal damage in habitual poppers users |date=2015-09-28 |pmid=21320953 |doi=10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.6 |volume=129 |pages=703–708 |last1=Audo |first1=I |last2=El Sanharawi |first2=M |last3=Vignal-Clermont |first3=C |last4=Villa |first4=A |last5=Morin |first5=A |last6=Conrath |first6=J |last7=Fompeydie |first7=D |last8=Sahel |first8= J A |last9=Gocho-Nakashima |first9=K |last10=Goureau |first10=O |last11=Paques |first11=M |journal=Arch Ophthalmol |df=dmy-all}}{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=June 2016}} In 2014, ] and ] reported having noticed an increase in vision loss in chronic popper users in the United Kingdom, associated with the substitution of isopropyl nitrite.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://in.reuters.com/article/2014/07/08/us-proppers-eyesight-idINKBN0FD1ZD20140708 |title=More evidence 'poppers' may damage eyesight |author=Storr, Krystnell |publisher=Reuters Health |date=2014-07-08 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=24954683 |year=2014 |title=Poppers maculopathy |journal=Lancet |last1=Gruener |first1=A. M. |last2=Jeffries |first2=M. A. |last3=El Housseini |first3=Z |last4=Whitefield |first4=L |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60887-4 |volume=384 |page=1606}}</ref>
| pmid = 24954683
| year = 2014
| author1 = Gruener
| first1 = A. M.
| title = Poppers maculopathy
| journal = Lancet
| last2 = Jeffries
| first2 = M. A.
| last3 = El Housseini
| first3 = Z
| last4 = Whitefield
| first4 = L
| doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60887-4
| volume=384
| page=1606
}}</ref>


===Controversial link with HIV/AIDS=== ===Controversial link with HIV/AIDS===
Early in the ] crisis, widespread use of poppers among AIDS patients led to the later disproved hypothesis that poppers contributed to the development of ], a rare form of cancer, which occurs in AIDS patients.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Duesberg | first1 = P | display-authors = | last2 = | year = 2003 | title = The chemical bases of the various AIDS epidemics: recreational drugs, anti-viral chemotherapy and malnutrition | url = | journal = J Biosci | volume = 28 | issue = 4| pages = 383–412}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schechter | first1 = MT | display-authors = | last2 = | doi = 10.1016/0140-6736(93)90421-c | title = HIV-1 and the aetiology of AIDS | url = | journal = Lancet | volume = 341 | pages = 658–659| year = 1993}}</ref> Modest, short-term reductions in immune function were observed in animal studies,<ref name=Romanelli>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1592/phco.24.1.69.34801 | volume=24 | title=Poppers: Epidemiology and Clinical Management of Inhaled Nitrite Abuse | journal=Pharmacotherapy | pages=69–78}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid = 11366993 | issue=317 | title=Poppers: large cancer increase and immune suppression in animal tests | journal=AIDS Treat News | pages=1–2 | last1 = James | first1 = JS}}</ref> but direct support for a role of nitrites in development of AIDS-associated diseases has not found broad agreement.<ref>NAM , "Poppers", http://www.aidsmap.com/Poppers/page/1322957/. Retrieved October 29, 2014.</ref>{{better source|date=June 2016}} A study examining men who have sex with men, and who also take recreational drugs, suggested poppers, when used in a pattern of recreational drug taking could be associated with increase in sexual risk-taking.<ref>{{cite journal | first1 = Jeffrey H. |last1=Herbst |first2=Jerris L. |last2=Raiford |first3=Monique G. |last3=Carry |first4=Aisha L. |last4=Wilkes |first5=Renata D. |last5=Ellington |first6=David K. |last6=Whittier | date = 2016 | title = Adaptation and National Dissemination of a Brief, Evidence-Based, HIV Prevention Intervention for High-Risk Men Who Have Sex with Men | journal = Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports (Supplements) | issue = 1, February 12 | volume = 65 | pages = 42–50 | location = Atlanta, GA | publisher = ], US ] | url = https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6501a7.htm | accessdate =June 29, 2016 | quote = National survey data suggest that many MSM consume alcohol and other drugs that can impair judgment and increase risky behavior&nbsp;... Among MSM populations, methamphetamine, amyl nitrate (poppers), cocaine, and heavy alcohol use (i.e., binge drinking) are the substances most consistently associated with risky sexual behavior&nbsp;... and increased HIV risk&nbsp;...}}</ref> Early in the ] crisis, widespread use of poppers among AIDS patients led to the later disproved hypothesis that poppers contributed to the development of ], a rare form of cancer, which occurs in AIDS patients.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duesberg |first1=P |year=2003 |title=The chemical bases of the various AIDS epidemics: Recreational drugs, anti-viral chemotherapy, and malnutrition |journal=J Biosci |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=383–412}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schechter |first1=M T |doi=10.1016/0140-6736(93)90421-c |title=HIV-1 and the aetiology of AIDS |journal=Lancet |volume=341 |pages=658–659 |year=1993}}</ref> Modest, short-term reductions in immune function were observed in animal studies,<ref name=Romanelli>{{cite journal |doi=10.1592/phco.24.1.69.34801 |volume=24 |title=Poppers: Epidemiology and Clinical Management of Inhaled Nitrite Abuse |journal=Pharmacotherapy |pages=69–78}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11366993 |issue=317 |title=Poppers: large cancer increase and immune suppression in animal tests |journal=AIDS Treat News |pages=1–2 |last1=James |first1=J S}}</ref> but direct support for a role of nitrites in development of AIDS-associated diseases has not found broad agreement.<ref>NAM , "Poppers", http://www.aidsmap.com/Poppers/page/1322957/. Retrieved October 29, 2014.</ref>{{better source|date=June 2016}} A study examining men who have sex with men, and who also take recreational drugs, suggested poppers, when used in a pattern of recreational drug taking could be associated with increase in sexual risk-taking.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Jeffrey H. |last1=Herbst |first2=Jerris L. |last2=Raiford |first3=Monique G. |last3=Carry |first4=Aisha L. |last4=Wilkes |first5=Renata D. |last5=Ellington |first6=David K. |last6=Whittier |date=February 12, 2016 |title=Adaptation and National Dissemination of a Brief, Evidence-Based, HIV Prevention Intervention for High-Risk Men Who Have Sex with Men |journal=Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports (Supplements) |issue=1 |volume=65 |pages=42–50 |location=Atlanta, GA |publisher=], US ] |url=https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/65/su/su6501a7.htm |accessdate=June 29, 2016 |quote = National survey data suggest that many MSM consume alcohol and other drugs that can impair judgment and increase risky behavior ... Among MSM populations, methamphetamine, amyl nitrate (poppers), cocaine, and heavy alcohol use (i.e., binge drinking) are the substances most consistently associated with risky sexual behavior ... and increased HIV risk&nbsp;... |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


==Legal status== ==Legal status==
Line 119: Line 102:


===European Union=== ===European Union===
Since 2007, reformulated poppers containing ] are sold in Europe; isobutyl nitrite is prohibited.<ref name="eur-lex.europa.eu">{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2006%3A033%3A0028%3A0081%3Aen%3APDF|title=DIRECTIVE 2005/90/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL|publisher=Official Journal of the Europe |date=January 18, 2006}}</ref> Since 2007, reformulated poppers containing ] are sold in Europe; isobutyl nitrite is prohibited.<ref name="eur-lex.europa.eu">{{cite web |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ%3AL%3A2006%3A033%3A0028%3A0081%3Aen%3APDF |title=Directive 2005/90/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council |publisher=Official Journal of the European Union |date=January 18, 2006 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


====France==== ====France====
In France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?dateTexte=20090901&cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000166136 |title=Decree 90–274 of 26 March 1990 |language=fr |publisher=Legifrance.gouv.fr |date=May 15, 2009 |accessdate=July 26, 2012}}</ref> In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?dateTexte=20090901&cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000341445 |title=Decree 2007-1636 of 20 November 2007 |language=fr |publisher=Legifrance.gouv.fr |accessdate=July 26, 2012}}</ref> After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the ] on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?oldAction=rechJuriAdmin&idTexte=CETATEXT000020868995 |title=Conseil d'État, 10ème et 9ème sous-sections réunies, 15/05/2009, 312449, Publié au recueil Lebon |language=fr|website=Legifrance.gouv.fr |date=May 15, 2009 |accessdate=January 11, 2016}}</ref> In France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?dateTexte=20090901&cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000166136 |title=Decree 90–274 of 26 March 1990 |language=fr |publisher=Legifrance.gouv.fr |date=May 15, 2009 |accessdate=July 26, 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?dateTexte=20090901&cidTexte=JORFTEXT000000341445 |title=Decree 2007-1636 of 20 November 2007 |language=fr |publisher=Legifrance.gouv.fr |accessdate=July 26, 2012 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the ] on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichJuriAdmin.do?oldAction=rechJuriAdmin&idTexte=CETATEXT000020868995 |title=Conseil d'État, 10ème et 9ème sous-sections réunies, 15/05/2009, 312449, Publié au recueil Lebon |language=fr |website=Legifrance.gouv.fr |date=May 15, 2009 |accessdate=January 11, 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


====Germany, Austria, Switzerland==== ====Germany, Austria, Switzerland====


The possession in the German speaking countries is not subject to any regulations regarding anesthetic drugs and is therefore legal; however, the purchase, sale or trade of amyl nitrite without permission violates the drug laws of the corresponding countries. Occasionally, poppers were seized from sex shops, when sold there illegally.<ref> news.de</ref><ref> In: ''].'' 8. Dezember 2005.</ref> The possession in the German speaking countries is not subject to any regulations regarding anesthetic drugs and is therefore legal; however, the purchase, sale or trade of amyl nitrite without permission violates the drug laws of the corresponding countries. Occasionally, poppers were seized from sex shops, when sold there illegally.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.news.de/reisen-und-leben/855244035/zur-ekstase-geschnueffelt/1/ |title=Sexdroge Poppers: Zur Ekstase geschnüffelt |website=news.de |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article182967/Poppers-sichergestellt.html |title=„Poppers“ sichergestellt. Polizei entdeckt 400 Flaschen des Schnüffelstoffs in Sex-Shop |newspaper=] |language=de |date=2005-12-08 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>


====United Kingdom==== ====United Kingdom====
In the United Kingdom, poppers are sold in ]s, ]s, ]s, drug paraphernalia ], over the Internet, and in markets. It is illegal under ] to sell them advertised for human consumption. The ] noted in 2011 that poppers, rather than being psychoactive substance or 'legal high', "appear to fall within the scope of ]".<ref name=acmd>{{cite web|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/119139/acmdnps2011.pdf|title=Consideration of the Novel Psychoactive Substances (‘Legal Highs’)|publisher=Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs|pages=52–54}}</ref> The ], scheduled to be enacted April 1, 2016, was initially claimed to impose a blanket ban on the production, import and distribution of all poppers.<ref></ref> On January 20, 2016 a motion to exempt poppers (alkyl nitrites) from this legislation was defeated.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201516/cmhansrd/cm160120/debtext/160120-0003.htm#16012033005245 |title=House of Commons Hansard Debates for 20 January 2016 (pt 0003) |author= |date= |work=parliament.uk |accessdate=June 29, 2016}}</ref> This was opposed by Conservative MP ]. Howlett's fellow Conservative MP ] declared that he has used and currently uses poppers. Manufacturers expressed concern over loss of business and potential unemployment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sutcliffe |first1=Robert |title=UK's biggest poppers manufacturer vows to fight legal high ban on product he's made for 35 years|url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/uks-biggest-poppers-manufacturer-vows-7373648 |publisher=Mirror}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Tayag |first1=Yasmin|title=The UK is at war with synthetic drugs and brain boosters are in the crossfire |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/11351-england-s-psychoactive-substances-act-puts-nootropic-poppers-on-notice}}</ref> In March 2016, the ] stated that, because alkyl nitrites do not directly stimulate or depress the ], poppers do not fall within the scope of the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/poppers-are-so-harmless-they-dont-even-fall-under-the-governments-legal-highs-ban-acmd-says-a6934096.html |title=The Government thought it had banned Poppers but actually accidentally didn't |website=The Independent |language=en-GB |accessdate=March 16, 2016}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, poppers are sold in ]s, ]s, ]s, drug paraphernalia ], over the Internet, and in markets. It is illegal under ] to sell them advertised for human consumption. The ] noted in 2011 that poppers, rather than being psychoactive substance or 'legal high', "appear to fall within the scope of ]".<ref name=acmd>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/119139/acmdnps2011.pdf |title=Consideration of the Novel Psychoactive Substances (‘Legal Highs’) |publisher=Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs |pages=52–54}}</ref> The ], scheduled to be enacted April 1, 2016, was initially claimed to impose a blanket ban on the production, import and distribution of all poppers.<ref></ref> On January 20, 2016 a motion to exempt poppers (alkyl nitrites) from this legislation was defeated.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201516/cmhansrd/cm160120/debtext/160120-0003.htm#16012033005245 |title=House of Commons Hansard Debates for 20 January 2016 (pt 0003) |work=parliament.uk |accessdate=June 29, 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> This was opposed by Conservative MP ]. Howlett's fellow Conservative MP ] declared that he has used and currently uses poppers. Manufacturers expressed concern over loss of business and potential unemployment.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sutcliffe |first1=Robert |title=UK's biggest poppers manufacturer vows to fight legal high ban on product he's made for 35 years |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/uks-biggest-poppers-manufacturer-vows-7373648 |publisher=Mirror}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Tayag |first1=Yasmin|title=The UK is at war with synthetic drugs and brain boosters are in the crossfire |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/11351-england-s-psychoactive-substances-act-puts-nootropic-poppers-on-notice}}</ref> In March 2016, the ] stated that, because alkyl nitrites do not directly stimulate or depress the ], poppers do not fall within the scope of the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/poppers-are-so-harmless-they-dont-even-fall-under-the-governments-legal-highs-ban-acmd-says-a6934096.html |title=The Government thought it had banned Poppers but actually accidentally didn't |website=The Independent |language=en-GB |accessdate=March 16, 2016}}</ref>


===United States=== ===United States===

Revision as of 20:56, 30 November 2018

For other uses, see Popper (disambiguation).
A selection of poppers

Poppers is a slang term given broadly to the chemical class called alkyl nitrites, that are inhaled for recreational drug purposes, typically for the "high" or "rush" that the drug can create. Poppers have also been historically used for sexual encounters among the youth, including in the gay community.

If you trace the bottle of amyl (a type of alkyl nitrite) through late 20th century history, you trace the legacies of gay culture on popular culture in the 20th century.

Poppers were part of club culture from the mid-1970s disco scene to the 1980s, and the 1990s rave scene made their use popular again.

Poppers use has a relaxation effect on involuntary smooth muscles, such as those in the throat and anus. Most widely sold products include the original amyl nitrite (isoamyl nitrite, isopentyl nitrite), but also variants such as isobutyl nitrite, isopropyl nitrite (2-propyl nitrite, increasingly, after EU ban of the isobutyl form). In some countries, to evade anti-drug laws, poppers are labelled or packaged as room deodorizers, leather polish, or tape head cleaner.

History

This section needs expansion with: a sourced paragraph on the transition from its use in medicine to its use as a recreational drug. You can help by adding to it. (June 2016)

The French chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard synthesized amyl nitrite in 1844. Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, a Scottish physician born in the year of amyl nitrite's first synthesis, famously pioneered its use to treat angina pectoris. Brunton was inspired by earlier work with the same agent, performed by Arthur Gamgee and Benjamin Ward Richardson. Brunton reasoned that the angina sufferer's pain and discomfort could be reduced by administering amyl nitrite—to dilate the coronary arteries of patients, thus improving blood flow to the heart muscle.

Although amyl nitrite is known to have been used recreationally as early as the 1960s, the poppers "craze" began around 1975. It was sold in fragile glass ampoules which are crushed or "popped" in the fingers and then inhaled: Hence the colloquialism poppers. The term extended to the drug in any form as well as the commercial variant of the drug, butyl nitrite, which is packaged under a variety of trade names in small bottles.

In the late 1970s Time and the Wall Street Journal reported that popper use among homosexual men began as a way to enhance sexual pleasure, but "quickly spread to avant-garde heterosexuals". A series of interviews conducted in the late 1970s revealed a wide spectrum of users.

Pharmacology and physiology

This section needs expansion with: a succinct, secondary sourced-statement of the physiologic impact of inhalation of alkyl nitrite-containing poppers. You can help by adding to it. (June 2016)

Inhaling nitrites relaxes smooth muscles throughout the body, including the sphincter muscles of the anus and the vagina. Smooth muscle surrounds the body's blood vessels and when relaxed causes these vessels to dilate resulting in an immediate increase in heart rate and blood flow throughout the body, producing a sensation of heat and excitement that usually lasts for a couple of minutes. When these vessels dilate, a further result is an immediate decrease in blood pressure.

Chemistry

Composition

Poppers contain a class of chemicals called alkyl nitrites.

To the extent that poppers products contain alkyl nitrites, the following applies.

Alkyl nitrite properties

Main article: Alkyl nitrites

The following table summarizes alkyl nitrite chemical and physical properties, including chemical structure:

Alkyl nitrite CAS Formula Molecular weight (g·mol) Physical state Boiling point (°C)
Amyl nitrite (isoamyl nitrite, isopentyl nitrite) 110-46-3 (CH3)2CH(CH2)2ONO 117.15 Transparent liquid 97–99
Pentyl nitrite (n-pentyl nitrite) 463-04-7 CH3(CH2)4ONO 117.15 Yellow liquid 104
Butyl nitrite (n-butyl nitrite) 544-16-1 CH3(CH2)3ONO 103.12 Oily liquid 78.2
Isobutyl nitrite (2-methylpropyl nitrite) 542-56-3 (CH3)2CHCH2ONO 103.12 Colourless liquid 67
Isopropyl nitrite (2-propyl nitrite) 541-42-4 (CH3)2CHONO 89.09 Clear pale yellow oil 39

Use

Administration

Poppers are inhaled.

This is typically done through the nasal or oral cavities, and any conditions which adversely affect the use of the respiratory system should be taken into account before administration commences.

Popularity

This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (June 2016)
A selection of poppers

Through the 1970s, use by minors has been described as minimal, due to the ban on sales to minors by major manufacturers (for public relations reasons), and because some jurisdictions regulate sales to minors by statute. A 1987 study commissioned by the United States Senate and conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services found that less than three per cent of the overall population had ever used poppers.

Interactions

Alkyl nitrites interact with other vasodilators, such as sildenafil (Viagra), vardenafil (Levitra), and tadalafil (Cialis), to cause a serious decrease in blood pressure, which can cause fainting, stroke, and low blood pressure leading to potential heart attack.

Side effects

Common side effects of popper abuse includes tachycardia, headaches, migraines, dizziness and fainting

Toxicity

The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy reports insignificant hazard associated with inhalation of alkyl nitrites, and British governmental guidance on the relative harmfulness of alkyl nitrites places them among the less harmful of recreational drugs.

Swallowing poppers (rather than inhaling the vapour) may cause cyanosis, unconsciousness, coma, and complications leading to death. Methemoglobinemia can occur if poppers have been swallowed. Accidental aspiration of amyl or butyl nitrites may cause lipoid pneumonia.

Isopropyl nitrite poppers may be a cause of maculopathy (eye damage), as reported in France and the United Kingdom. Some studies have concluded that there may be increased risk for at least temporary retinal damage with habitual popper use in certain users; in a letter to the New England Journal of Medicine, an ophthalmologist described four cases in which recreational users of poppers suffered temporary changes in vision. Foveal (center-of-gaze) damage has also been described, in six habitual users of poppers. In 2014, optometrists and ophthalmologists reported having noticed an increase in vision loss in chronic popper users in the United Kingdom, associated with the substitution of isopropyl nitrite.

Controversial link with HIV/AIDS

Early in the AIDS crisis, widespread use of poppers among AIDS patients led to the later disproved hypothesis that poppers contributed to the development of Kaposi's sarcoma, a rare form of cancer, which occurs in AIDS patients. Modest, short-term reductions in immune function were observed in animal studies, but direct support for a role of nitrites in development of AIDS-associated diseases has not found broad agreement. A study examining men who have sex with men, and who also take recreational drugs, suggested poppers, when used in a pattern of recreational drug taking could be associated with increase in sexual risk-taking.

Legal status

Australia

It is illegal to sell poppers as inhalants in Australia, although some, including amyl nitrite, are often sold in sex shops misleadingly labeled as DVD or leather cleaner.

European Union

Since 2007, reformulated poppers containing isopropyl nitrite are sold in Europe; isobutyl nitrite is prohibited.

France

In France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers. In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs. After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the Council of State on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.

Germany, Austria, Switzerland

The possession in the German speaking countries is not subject to any regulations regarding anesthetic drugs and is therefore legal; however, the purchase, sale or trade of amyl nitrite without permission violates the drug laws of the corresponding countries. Occasionally, poppers were seized from sex shops, when sold there illegally.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, poppers are sold in nightclubs, bars, sex shops, drug paraphernalia head shops, over the Internet, and in markets. It is illegal under Medicines Act 1968 to sell them advertised for human consumption. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs noted in 2011 that poppers, rather than being psychoactive substance or 'legal high', "appear to fall within the scope of The Intoxicating Substances (Supply) Act 1985". The Psychoactive Substances Act 2016, scheduled to be enacted April 1, 2016, was initially claimed to impose a blanket ban on the production, import and distribution of all poppers. On January 20, 2016 a motion to exempt poppers (alkyl nitrites) from this legislation was defeated. This was opposed by Conservative MP Ben Howlett. Howlett's fellow Conservative MP Crispin Blunt declared that he has used and currently uses poppers. Manufacturers expressed concern over loss of business and potential unemployment. In March 2016, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs stated that, because alkyl nitrites do not directly stimulate or depress the central nervous system, poppers do not fall within the scope of the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016.

United States

In the US, amyl nitrite was originally marketed as a prescription drug in 1937 and remained so until 1960, when the Food and Drug Administration removed the prescription requirement due to its food safety record. This requirement was reinstated in 1969, after observation of an increase in recreational use.

Other alkyl nitrites were outlawed in the US by Congress through the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988. The law includes an exception for commercial purpose, defined as any use other than for the production of consumer products containing volatile alkyl nitrites meant for inhaling or otherwise introducing volatile alkyl nitrites into the human body for euphoric or physical effects. The law came into effect in 1990.

Substances containing alkyl nitrites other than amyl nitrite are available at many retailers—typically sex shops and stores that sell recreational-drug paraphernalia—and may be purchased legally.

See also

References

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Drugs which induce euphoria
See also: Recreational drug use

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