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Revision as of 23:36, 30 September 2019 editZefr (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers69,483 edits →Mechanism: ok, reworded and WP:OR removed (which you could have done, KaiKemmann) - still, low-quality content and source← Previous edit Revision as of 23:52, 30 September 2019 edit undoKaiKemmann (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users2,397 edits Religious fasting is obviously often a form of intermittent fasting and therefore relevant to the topic. If there are redundancies to other articles, remove those instead of deleting the whole passage ..Next edit →
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The US ] recommends against intermittent fasting because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety.<ref name="NIA2018">{{cite web |title=Calorie restriction and fasting diets: What do we know? |url=https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/calorie-restriction-and-fasting-diets-what-do-we-know |publisher=National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health |date=2018-08-14 |accessdate=29 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref> The US ] recommends against intermittent fasting because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety.<ref name="NIA2018">{{cite web |title=Calorie restriction and fasting diets: What do we know? |url=https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/calorie-restriction-and-fasting-diets-what-do-we-know |publisher=National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health |date=2018-08-14 |accessdate=29 September 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

Intermittent fasting exists in ], including ] in ], ] (]), ] (]), ], ] (]), and ] fasting.


== Types == == Types ==
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==Research == ==Research ==


Overall, the science around intermittent fasting is preliminary and uncertain because of a lack of good quality human trials.<ref name=NIA2018/> The US ] recognizes that IF has shown weight loss efficacy in several studies on obese or overweight individuals, but recommends against intermittent fasting because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety.<ref name=NIA2018/> Overall, the science around intermittent fasting is preliminary and uncertain because of a lack of good quality human trials.<ref name=NIA2018/> The US ] recognizes that IF has shown weight loss efficacy in several studies on obese or overweight individuals, but recommends against intermittent fasting because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety.<ref name=NIA2018/>


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===Mechanism of weight loss=== ===Mechanism of weight loss===
A 2019 review of weight-change diets, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding, found that people were unable to sustain fasting due to an "energetic error" in determining and adhering to the reduction of energy intake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levitsky |first1=DA |last2=Sewall |first2=A |last3=Zhong |first3=Y |last4=Barre |first4=L |last5=Shoen |first5=S |last6=Agaronnik |first6=N |last7=LeClair |first7=JL |last8=Zhuo |first8=W |last9=Pacanowski |first9=C |title=Quantifying the imprecision of energy intake of humans to compensate for imposed energetic errors: A challenge to the physiological control of human food intake. |journal=Appetite |date=1 February 2019 |volume=133 |pages=337-343 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2018.11.017 |pmid=30476522}}</ref> A 2019 review of weight-change diets, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding, found that people were unable to sustain fasting due to an "energetic error" in determining and adhering to the reduction of energy intake.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levitsky |first1=DA |last2=Sewall |first2=A |last3=Zhong |first3=Y |last4=Barre |first4=L |last5=Shoen |first5=S |last6=Agaronnik |first6=N |last7=LeClair |first7=JL |last8=Zhuo |first8=W |last9=Pacanowski |first9=C |title=Quantifying the imprecision of energy intake of humans to compensate for imposed energetic errors: A challenge to the physiological control of human food intake. |journal=Appetite |date=1 February 2019 |volume=133 |pages=337-343 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2018.11.017 |pmid=30476522}}</ref>

== Religious fasting ==
Forms of intermittent fasting exist in religious practices in various groups across the world.<ref name=Persynaki2017>{{cite journal |last1=Persynaki |first1=A |last2=Karras |first2=S |last3=Pichard |first3=C |title=Unraveling the metabolic health benefits of fasting related to religious beliefs: A narrative review. |journal=Nutrition |date=1 March 2017 |volume=35 |pages=14–20 |doi=10.1016/j.nut.2016.10.005 |pmid=28241983}}</ref> Religious fasting regimens include, but are not limited to, ] in ], ] (]), ] (]), ], ] (]), and ] fasting.<ref name=Persynaki2017 /> Certain religious fasting practices, only require abstinence from certain foods, while others, like the Jewish fast on Yom Kippur, last for a short period of time and would cause negligible effects on the body.<ref name=Persynaki2017/>

In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of ] Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3aC0DAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Buddha's Diet: The Ancient Art of Losing Weight Without Losing Your Mind|last=Cottrell|first=Tara|last2=Zigmond|first2=Dan|date=2016-09-06|publisher=Running Press|isbn=9780762460465|location=|pages=26–27|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iepJAgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Encyclopedia of Monasticism|last=Johnston|first=William M.|date=2013-12-04|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136787164|location=|pages=467|language=en}}</ref> This fasting is also undertaken by laypeople who undertake the ], optional rules laypeople can take to get an impression of what it is like to live as a monastic.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=-Hx2tAEACAAJ&dq=bibliogroup:%22Monks+and+Magic:+Revisiting+a+Classic+Study+of+Religious+Ceremonies+in+Thailand%22|title=Monks and Magic: Revisiting a Classic Study of Religious Ceremonies in Thailand|last=Terwiel|first=B. J.|date=2012|publisher=NIAS Press|isbn=9788776940652|location=|pages=191|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=BRWyqi2K4WUC|title=The Ethics of Buddhism|last=Tachibana|first=Shundo|date=1992|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9780700702305|location=|pages=65–67|language=en}}</ref> Taiwanese physician Ming-Jun Hung and his co-authors have analyzed early and medieval Chinese Buddhist Texts and argue that the main purposes of the half-day fast is to lessen desire, improve fitness and strength, and decrease sleepiness.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=陳高揚 =Chen|first=Gau-yang|last2=郭正典 =Kuo|first2=Cheng-deng|last3=洪敏榮 =Hung|first3=Ming-jung|date=2002-07-15|title=佛教的「過午不食」=No-food-after-midday precept(Vikala Bhojana Veramani)in Buddhism|url=http://buddhism.lib.ntu.edu.tw/DLMBS/en/search/search_detail.jsp?seq=170382|journal=佛學與科學=Buddhism and Science|volume=3|issue=2|pages=51–64}}</ref>
Islam engages in a fasting practice reflective of intermittent fasting in terms of both food consumption and diet consistency.<ref name="Persynaki2017" /> The duration of the Ramadan fast is between 29 and 30 days, depending on the year, and consists of not eating or drinking from sunrise until sunset.<ref name="Persynaki2017" /> During the holiday, Muslims eat twice per day: once in the morning before dawn and once in the evening after dusk.<ref name="Persynaki2017" /> A ] on the health of Muslims during Ramadan shows significant weight loss during the fasting period of up to {{convert|1.51|kg|lbs}}, but this weight was regained within about two weeks of Ramadan ending.<ref name="Sadeghirad2014">{{cite journal |last1=Sadeghirad |first1=B |last2=Motaghipisheh |first2=S |last3=Kolahdooz |first3=F |last4=Zahedi |first4=MJ |last5=Haghdoost |first5=AA |title=Islamic fasting and weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis. |journal=Public Health Nutrition |date=1 February 2014 |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=396–406 |doi=10.1017/S1368980012005046 |pmid=23182306}}</ref> The analysis concluded that "Ramadan provides an opportunity to lose weight, but structured and consistent lifestyle modifications are necessary to achieve lasting weight loss."<ref name="Sadeghirad2014" /> A scoping review found a high similarity between islamic fasting and time-restricted feeding.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ismail |first1=S |last2=Manaf |first2=RA |last3=Mahmud |first3=A |title=Comparison of time-restricted feeding and Islamic fasting: a scoping review. |journal=Eastern Mediterranean health journal - La revue de sante de la Mediterranee orientale - al-Majallah al-sihhiyah li-sharq al-mutawassit |date=4 June 2019 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=239-245 |doi=10.26719/emhj.19.011 |pmid=31210344}}</ref> Negative effects of Ramadan fasting include increased risk of ] in diabetics as well as inadequate levels of certain nutrients.<ref name="Persynaki2017" />


== See also == == See also ==

Revision as of 23:52, 30 September 2019

Intermittent fasting (IF) is an umbrella term for various eating patterns designed to improve health that cycle between a period of fasting (or reduced calorie intake) and non-fasting over a defined period. Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, whole-day fasting, and time-restricted feeding. IF is sometimes considered a type of food faddism.

The science around intermittent fasting is preliminary and uncertain. Intermittent fasting is under research to determine if it can produce weight loss and improve general health, whether in the short term or long term. There is limited evidence that intermittent fasting achieves similar weight loss results to conventional calorie restriction in the short term for overweight or obese individuals, and has a specific regulating effect on insulin that is not observed in a calorie reduction diet.

The US National Institute on Aging recommends against intermittent fasting because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety.

Intermittent fasting exists in religious practices, including Vrata in Hinduism, Ramadan fasting (Islam), Yom Kippur fasting (Judaism), Orthodox Christian fasting, Fast Sunday (LDS Church), and Buddhist fasting.

Types

Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, whole-day fasting, and time-restricted feeding.

  • Alternate-day fasting (ADF) is the strictest form of IF. This involves 24-hours complete fasting followed by a 24-hour non-fasting period.
    • An adjusted form of ADF is alternate-day modified fasting (ADMF) which allows the consumption of approximately 25% of daily calorie needs on fasting days instead of full fasting.
  • Whole-day fasting involves regular one or two fasting days per week. A 5:2 diet requires five non-fasting days and 2 fasting days in a week. During the fasting days, it allows approximately 500 to 600 calories or about 25% of regular daily caloric intake.
  • Time-restricted feeding involves eating only during a certain number of hours each day. An example can be 16:8 diets which advocate 16 fasting hours cycled by 8 non-fasting hours.

Intermittent fasting has a different duration (less than 48 hours) than long term, periodic fasting (more than 48 hours).

Fasting trends

As of 2019 intermittent fasting is a popular fad diet, attracting celebrity endorsement and strong interest from the lay public.

UK

Intermittent fasting (specifically the 5:2 diet) became popular in the UK in 2012 after the BBC2 television Horizon documentary Eat, Fast and Live Longer. Via sales of best-selling books, it became widely practiced.

North America

In the United States, intermittent fasting has become a trend among Silicon Valley companies. According to NHS Choices as of 2012, people considering the 5:2 diet should first consult a physician, as fasting can sometimes be unsafe. A news item in the Canadian Medical Association Journal expressed concern that promotional material for the diet showed people eating high-calorie food, such as hamburgers and chips, and that this could encourage binge eating since the implication was that "if you fast two days a week, you can devour as much junk as your gullet can swallow during the remaining five days".

Commercialization

As of 2019, interest in intermittent fasting led some companies to commercialize diet coaching, dietary supplements, and full meal packages. These companies have been criticized for offering products or services that are expensive and not backed by science.

Research

Overall, the science around intermittent fasting is preliminary and uncertain because of a lack of good quality human trials. The US National Institute on Aging recognizes that IF has shown weight loss efficacy in several studies on obese or overweight individuals, but recommends against intermittent fasting because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety.

Weight loss and health biomarkers

There is limited evidence that intermittent fasting achives weight loss comparable to a calorie restricted diet. Alternate day fasting does not appear to affect lean body mass, similarly to a calorie restricted diet, but contrary to a very-low-calorie diet. Intermittent fasting does not seem to affect bone health.

Alternate day fasting improves cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers similarly to calorie restriction diet for overweight or obese individuals. Intermittent fasting further improves fasting insulin concentrations and reduces IGF-1 levels, the latter further reducing caloric intake, whereas these effects on insulin were observed with calorie restriction diet only when the caloric reduction was at least 50% compared to the usual daily caloric intake.

The reviewed clinical trials were run mostly on overweight or obese middle-aged women from the US and the UK, limiting interpretation of the results. Intermittent fasting has not yet been studied in children, the elderly, or underweight people, and could be harmful in these populations. The long-term sustainability of the intermittent fasting effects is unknown, as of 2018. The clinical relevance for long term general health is uncertain, and it remains unclear whether the beneficial effects are due solely to weight loss or to an additional "flip switch" mechanism specific to intermittent fasting. Intermittent fasting and calorie restriction diets, although under active research, are not recommended for non-obese or non-overweight individuals by the US National Institute on Aging until more clinical trials are conducted.

Other effects

Nocturnal eating has been linked to impaired sleep quality. There is no evidence that fasting can prevent or treat cancer. Athletic performance does not benefit from intermittent fasting.

Adverse effects

Reviews of preliminary clinical studies and randomized clinical trials found that short-term intermittent fasting may produce minor adverse effects, such as continuous feelings of weakness and hunger, headaches, fainting, or dehydration. However, the data remain sparse, as most studies did not systematically collect data about adverse effects.

Long-term, periodic fasting may cause eating disorders or malnutrition, with increased susceptibility to infectious diseases.

Tolerance

Tolerance of a diet is a determinant of its potential effectiveness and maintenance of benefits obtained, such as weight loss or biomarker improvement. A 2019 review found that drop-out rates varied widely from 2% to 38% for intermittent fasting, and from 0% to 50% for a calorie restriction diet.

Mechanism of weight loss

A 2019 review of weight-change diets, including alternate day fasting and time-restricted feeding, found that people were unable to sustain fasting due to an "energetic error" in determining and adhering to the reduction of energy intake.

Religious fasting

Forms of intermittent fasting exist in religious practices in various groups across the world. Religious fasting regimens include, but are not limited to, Vrata in Hinduism, Ramadan fasting (Islam), Yom Kippur fasting (Judaism), Orthodox Christian fasting, Fast Sunday (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and Buddhist fasting. Certain religious fasting practices, only require abstinence from certain foods, while others, like the Jewish fast on Yom Kippur, last for a short period of time and would cause negligible effects on the body.

In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of Theravada Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day. This fasting is also undertaken by laypeople who undertake the eight precepts, optional rules laypeople can take to get an impression of what it is like to live as a monastic. Taiwanese physician Ming-Jun Hung and his co-authors have analyzed early and medieval Chinese Buddhist Texts and argue that the main purposes of the half-day fast is to lessen desire, improve fitness and strength, and decrease sleepiness.

Islam engages in a fasting practice reflective of intermittent fasting in terms of both food consumption and diet consistency. The duration of the Ramadan fast is between 29 and 30 days, depending on the year, and consists of not eating or drinking from sunrise until sunset. During the holiday, Muslims eat twice per day: once in the morning before dawn and once in the evening after dusk. A meta-analysis on the health of Muslims during Ramadan shows significant weight loss during the fasting period of up to 1.51 kilograms (3.3 lb), but this weight was regained within about two weeks of Ramadan ending. The analysis concluded that "Ramadan provides an opportunity to lose weight, but structured and consistent lifestyle modifications are necessary to achieve lasting weight loss." A scoping review found a high similarity between islamic fasting and time-restricted feeding. Negative effects of Ramadan fasting include increased risk of hypoglycemia in diabetics as well as inadequate levels of certain nutrients.

See also

References

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  2. ^ Arbolario K (26 August 2019). "Intermittent Fasting: Exposing The Dangers Of This Fad Diet". Medical Daily. Intermittent fasting is all the rage these days when it comes to the weight loss and fitness community. Given the large number of people including celebrities who swear by it, it's not surprising why this diet is getting a lot of attention.
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  40. 陳高揚 =Chen, Gau-yang; 郭正典 =Kuo, Cheng-deng; 洪敏榮 =Hung, Ming-jung (2002-07-15). "佛教的「過午不食」=No-food-after-midday precept(Vikala Bhojana Veramani)in Buddhism". 佛學與科學=Buddhism and Science. 3 (2): 51–64.
  41. ^ Sadeghirad, B; Motaghipisheh, S; Kolahdooz, F; Zahedi, MJ; Haghdoost, AA (1 February 2014). "Islamic fasting and weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Public Health Nutrition. 17 (2): 396–406. doi:10.1017/S1368980012005046. PMID 23182306.
  42. Ismail, S; Manaf, RA; Mahmud, A (4 June 2019). "Comparison of time-restricted feeding and Islamic fasting: a scoping review". Eastern Mediterranean health journal - La revue de sante de la Mediterranee orientale - al-Majallah al-sihhiyah li-sharq al-mutawassit. 25 (4): 239–245. doi:10.26719/emhj.19.011. PMID 31210344.

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