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	There were many local forms of worship, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of the ], or Mother Earth. Because the sun was very important in ], there is a common misbelief that the foremost god was the ] or sun god.		There were many local forms of worship, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of the ], or Mother Earth. Because the sun was very important in ], there is a common misbelief that the foremost god was the ] or sun god.

	== Origin stories ==~~rwefrfsdfds~~		== Origin stories ==
	fd{{see also\|Inca mythology}}		{{see also\|Inca mythology}}
	], "the ] of the Incas," This was the ~~lastdfd~~ stronghold of the Inca, and now an ].]]The Inca had three origin myths. In one, Ticei ~~4ns~~ and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way,~~sdf~~ [[~~Sinchi554~~		], "the ] of the Incas," This was the last stronghold of the Inca, and now an ].]]The Inca had three origin myths. In one, Ticei Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in ] sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, ] was born to ] and ], and Sinchi Roca led them to the valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as ].
	]fd

			In another origin myth, the sun god ] ordered Manco Capac and ] to emerge from the depths of ] and found the city of Cuzco. They traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established ], or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco.
	] was born to ] and ], and Sinchi Rocads aled them to
	== Headline text ==sfd
	fd
	== Headline text ==fd76s
	fd
	tdhae valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and becadsfmasfe known as ].
	sadfsdfdfdfdfIfn another origin myth, the sun god ] ordered fCuzcofe the Incas fdfseems to idfsndicate thfdatsa the Inca wsde a sdfrelatifely unimportant tdsribe s
	asfdsfasde is supported fsdaby physfsdical evidence.
	fsdfasd

			In the last origin myth, an Inca sun god told his wife that he was lonely. She proposed that he create a civilization to worship him and keep him company. He saw this as a wise plan and carried it out. The Inca were born from Lake Cuzco and populated the Andes and worshipped their sun god.
	Between 1200 and 1535 AD, the Inca population lived in the part of South America extending from the Equator to the Pacific coast of Chile. The beginning of the Inca rule started with the conquest of the Moche Culture in Peru. The Inca were warriors with a strong and powerful army. Because of the fierceness of their army and their hierarchical organization, they became the largest Native American society. The height of their reign in the 15th century came to a brutal end in 1535 when the Spanish conquistadors took over their territory.

			The myths are transmitted via oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. There probably did exist a Manco Capac who became the leader of his tribe. The archeological evidence seems to indicate that the Inca were a relatively unimportant tribe until the time of Sinchi Roca, also called Cinchi Roca, who is the first figure in Inca mythology whose existence is supported by physical evidence.
	Their cities and fortresses were mostly built on highlands and on the steep slopes of the Andes Mountains. The architecture of the Inca cities still amazes and puzzles most scientists. Stone steps lead up to the top of the cities, which consist of stone houses and religious buildings. The blocks of stones weigh several tons and they are fit together so tightly that not even a razor blade can fit through them. The central city was mainly used for government purposes, while the citizens occupied surrounding areas. Their homes were made from the same stone material and had grass rooftops.

			== Legacy of the Incas ==
	The Inca society was arranged by a strict hierarchical structure. There were many different levels with the Sapa, high priest or ruler, and the army commander at the top. Family members were councilors to the Sapa and even women had authority in the Inca hierarchy. The temple priests, architects and regional army commanders were next. The two lowest classes consisted of artisans, army captains, farmers, and herders. Farmers provided most of the subsistence for the rest of the population. They had to pay tax in the form of gold, which were distributed to the higher classes.

			The major languages of the empire, ] and ], were employed by the ] to evangelize in the ] region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread ]s.
	The comprehension of how irrigation can benefit agriculture is evident by the expansion into the highland areas. They developed drainage systems and canals to expand their crop resources. Potatoes, tomatoes, cotton, peanuts and coca were among the many crops grown by the Inca. Llama were used for meat and transportation. There was more than enough resources available for everyone. Increased subsistence levels led to a growth in the Inca population.

			The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the 1780 rebellion led by ] against the Spanish, as well as the contemporary ] movements, ] (MRTA) and ] in Peru and ] in ].
	Since population was increasing and the organization of the Inca became stronger, the need for protection became necessary. They built enormous fortresses on top of steep mountains that enabled them to see their enemies and defend themselves. One of the most famous Inca fortresses is Sacasahuman (pictured above), located in Cuzco, the Inca Empire capital. Even though the Inca never had access to the wheel, they built a sophisticated road system to connect the villages. The roads were paved with flat stones and barriers to protect the messengers, or chasqui, from falling down the cliff.

			In modern times a ] has been associated with the Tawantinsuyu and is displayed as a symbol of the Peru's Inca heritage.
	The highest point in an Inca village was reserved for religious purposes. This point was the closest to the sun, which represented their major god, Inti, the Sun God. The six major gods of the Inca represent the moon, sun, earth, thunder/lightning and the sea. Pachamama is the earth god, who is the mother of all humans. The Inca had shamans who believed in animal spirits living on earth. Heaven was depicted by the condor, the underworld by the anaconda, and the brother who resided on earth was the puma. The Sun Temple, located in Machu Picchu, Peru, was a religious calendar that marked the winter and summer solstices.

	The Inca were not only fierce conquerors but they also had a violent punishment system. If someone stole, murdered, or had sex with a Sapa wife or a Sun Virgin, they were thrown off a cliff, hands cut off or eyes cut out, or hung up to starve to death. Prisons were of no use because punishment usually consisted of death.

	Recent excavations of the Inca sites has revealed mummified bodies of the Inca royalty. They have been preserved by ice in the peaks of the Andes mountains.

	The Incas had an army which consisted of 40,000 people. The Spanish army in the Americas, which was commanded by Francisco Pizarro, had only 180 people. How could an Army of only 180 defeat an army of 40,000 men? There are three main reasons for this.

	1) Much of the Incan army died as a result of smallpox, which was carried to them via the Spanish Conquistadors.

	2) The Spanish Conquistadors were able to convince other tribes, already under Incan rule, to side with them and over throw the Incan Empire.

	3) The weapons used by Incan warriors ,though effective in tribal warfare, were no match for the Spanish arms.

	By 1535, the Inca society was completely overthrown, and Pizzaro moved the capital from Cuzco to Lima.

	Menu

	== Society ==		== Society ==

Revision as of 03:19, 7 December 2006

Inca EmpireTawantin Suyu

1197–1572

Capital

Cuzco (1197-1533)
Vilcabamba (1533-1572)
(Empire dissolved in reality in 1532-1537, when the spaniards secured power over Peru)

Common languages

Quechua

Government

Monarchy

Sole ruler

History

• Established

1197

• Conquest

1572

Area

1527

2,000,000 km (770,000 sq mi)

Population

• 1527

15,000,000

Succeeded by

Viceroyalty of Peru

The Inca Empire was the largest empire in Pre-Columbian America, and a considerably large empire in the world at the time of its collapse. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cuzco. The Inca Empire arose from the highlands of Peru in 1197. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including large parts of modern Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. In 1533, Atahualpa, the last Inca emperor (Qhapaq Inka, also Sapa Inca) not being a puppet or freedom fighter, was killed on the orders of the conquistador Francisco Pizarro, marking the beginning of Spanish rule. The Inca Empire was organized in “señoríos” (dominions) with a stratified society, in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by an economy based on the collective property of the land. In fact, the Inca Empire was conceived like an ambitious and audacious civilizing project, based on a mythical thought, in which the harmony of the relationships between the human being, nature and Gods was truly essential.

The Quechua name was Tawantin Suyu which can be translated The Four Regions or The Four United Regions. Before the Quechua spelling reform it was written in Spanish as Tahuantinsuyo. Tawantin is a group of four things (tawa "four" with the suffix -ntin which names a group); suyu means "region" or "province".

The empire was divided into four suyus, whose corners met at the capital, Cuzco (Qusqu), in modern-day Peru.

The official language of the empire was Quechua, although over seven hundred local languages were spoken.

There were many local forms of worship, but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of the Pachamama, or Mother Earth. Because the sun was very important in Inca mythology, there is a common misbelief that the foremost god was the Inti or sun god.

Origin stories

Legacy of the Incas

The major languages of the empire, Quechua and Aymara, were employed by the Roman Catholic Church to evangelize in the Andean region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread Amerindian languages.

The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the 1780 rebellion led by Tupac Amaru II against the Spanish, as well as the contemporary guerrilla movements, Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) and Sendero Luminoso in Peru and Tupamaros in Uruguay.

In modern times a flag has been associated with the Tawantinsuyu and is displayed as a symbol of the Peru's Inca heritage.

Society

Main article: Inca society

The most powerful figure in the empire was the Sapa Inca ('the unique Inca'). Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended Yachay Wasis (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education.

The Tahuantinsuyu was a federalist system which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: Chinchay Suyu (NW), Anti Suyu (NE), Kunti Suyu (SW), and Qulla Suyu (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the mita (mandatory public service).

Architecture was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The main example is Machu Picchu constructed by Incan engineers. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction process first used on a large scale by the Tiwanaku. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cuzco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable in the frequent earthquakes that hit the area. The Inca used straight walls except on important religious sites and constructed whole towns at once.

An important Inca technology was the Quipu, which were assemblages of knotted strings used to record numerical and other information.

The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful skull surgery, which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds. Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The Chasqui (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire.

The Inca diet consisted primarily of fish, vegetables, nuts, and Maize (corn), supplemented less frequently with the meat of cuyes (guinea pigs) and camelids. In addition, they hunted various animals for meat, skins and feathers. Maize was malted and used to make chicha, a fermented alcoholic beverage. The Inca road system was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through El Niño years while neighboring civilizations suffered.

The Inca believed in reincarnation. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code — ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) — went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth. The Inca also practiced cranial deformation. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage.

Aqllawasi

The Aqllawasi (Acllahuasi) which means "house of the sun virgins" was developed under the Incans in Peru at about 1438-1532 CE. Its central purpose was in the manufacturing of garments for the Inca royalty and the worship of the sun god, Inti.

Agriculture and food

Amaranth was one of the staple foodstuffs of the Incas, and it is known as kiwicha in the Andes today. The Inca used terraces, a sophisticated approach to the problem of farming mountainous terrain. An abundance of potato farming allowed the Incan community to flourish in trade as potatoes were a new thing to eastern civilization.

The Inca Empire was spread out over several extreme climates, requiring the use of a wide range of agricultural systems. Native Americans were responsible for some of the world’s most prolific crops, including tomatoes, peppers, lima beans, ancient ancestors to modern squash and, most importantly, the potato. Maize was also deeply integrated into Inca agriculture and daily life. However, the Inca Empire cultivated a large variety of distinctly Andean crops that were not appreciated or adapted by Pizarro or the Spanish. These crops included over a dozen different species of roots and tubers, several types of grain, three distinctive varieties of legume and many Andean fruits. Many of these crops were of great value to Inca society, like the grain called Quinoa, which was not only nutritionally superior to the grains of the western world, but thrived in cold, rugged terrain at high elevations. Other tubers, like Maca and Oca proved very hardy and were important staples in the Inca diet.

The Inca Empire was quite ecologically diverse. The Empire started in the low coastal valleys along the Pacific Ocean and stretched over the second highest mountain range in the world, the Andes, all the way down into the cloud forests of the Amazon Rainforest. This vast environmental diversity was mainly responsible for the large variety of Inca crops as well as a continuous abundance of food. Inca farmers used this wide range of terrain to their advantage, planting crops at several different elevations, so if one harvest failed, another could very potentially flourish. This practice then helped different crops to adapt to a larger variety of environments. The Inca used this same concept on a larger scale throughout the whole Empire. By building an extensive and thorough road system, the Inca could grow different crops across the various climates and harvest them to feed the entire population. The Inca were also good at assimilating other food sources into their agricultural system. They did this by not only forcibly instilling crops from conquered neighbors, but by also moving the farmers who had originally grown the crop to help with its incorporation.

The Inca had several original and inventive ways of turning their harsh landscape into an agricultural cornucopia. The first was the terracing of fields in the Andes Mountains. While terraced fields were widely used around the world, pre-Inca people developed their own form of terracing that the Inca Empire then expanded upon to create more stable, aerated soil and efficient growing conditions. The Inca used guano, or bird dung, as fertilizer to help create bigger harvests on these terraced fields. Another Andean agricultural technique that made a huge difference in farming capacity was the waru waru, or raised fields. These fields were man-made platforms surrounded by canals, which provided a sophisticated irrigational effect, in which the canals provided water to plants’ roots during drought, and acted as drainage during heavy rains. These canals also created nitrate rich sediment which could be used as fertilizer, on top of helping regulate the temperature of the fields. There are remnants of raised fields surrounding Lake Titicaca that are at least two thousand years old, and recent studies have shown that the raised fields were actually more productive than modern day, fertilized fields.

There were two reasons that the Inca Empire thrived agriculturally. The first was the aforementioned wide range of crops grown under resourceful agricultural systems, which consistently produced food for the Empire. The second reason the Inca never suffered from lack of food was their ability to preserve and store their crops. It is estimated that at any given time in Incan history, the Inca had three to seven years worth of food in storage. The Inca people had a unique way of freeze-drying root and tuber crops. In the high elevations of the Andes, setting these crops out in the dry days and cold nights would freeze-dry them in a matter of days. The farmers would help the process by covering the crops to protect them from dew, and by stomping on them to release the excess water quickly. In addition to fruits, vegetables and roots, the Inca also preserved meat by drying and salting it, making for complete nutritional stores. These food preservation techniques, combined with their far-reaching road system, allowed the Inca Empire to easily withstand natural disasters such as droughts and El Niño, as well as making the Inca capable of feeding a standing army.

Cooking in the Inca Empire was simple and rather conservative. Because so much of the Empire was in the high mountains and barren costal plains, wood was saved as much as possible. The Inca used several kinds of grain to make bread, and they raised ducks, dogs and guinea pigs as supplemental meat when there was no wild game.

Governors ate venison, roast duck, fresh fish, and tropical friuts (bananas, guavas). Peasants ate squash, vegetable stew, and fish if available. They also ate maize, potatoes, cassava, and a highland plant called oca. Both peasants and nobles drank chicha, an alcoholic beverage made from maize.

Manners: Nobles ate and drank from wooden plates and painted beakers called keros. Peasants drank and ate from gourds.

Tropical Menu: avocado pears, beans, tomatoes, chili-peppers, and guavas.

Bibliography

Popenoe, Hugh, Steven R. King, Jorge Leon, Luis Sumar Kalinowski, and Noel D. Vietmeyer. Lost Crops of the Incas. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1989.

de la Vega, Garcilaso . The Incas: The Royal Commentaries of the Inca. New York: The Orion Press, 1961.

Mc Neill, William H.. "How The Potato Changed The World's History." Social Research 66.1 (1999) 16 Sep 2006.

James Does St John

Notes

Tawantin suyu derives from the Quechua "tawa" (four) , to which the suffix "-ntin" (together or united) is added, followed by "suyu" (region or province), which roughly renders as "The four lands together". The four suyos were: Chinchay Suyo (North), Anti suyo (East. The Amazon jungle), Colla Suyo (South) and Conti Suyo (West).

External links

Conquest of Peru, Prescott, 1847 Full text, free to read and search, a definitive history of the Incas. One of the most readable and engaging history books of all time. Humankind lost a civilization of impressive societal value.
Inca Land by Hiram Bingham (published 1912-1922 CE)
Tupac Amaru, the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca.
Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and Peruvian landscapes.
Inca civilization and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.
Inca stone cutting techniques: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.
Ancient Civilizations - Inca Great research site for kids.
"Ice Treasures of the Inca" National Geographic site.
Incan Ice Mummies NOVA site based on their series about the 1996 expedition that discovered Incan ice mummies.

Pre-Columbian civilizations and cultures

Americas

North America

Mesoamerica

South America

	Aztec	Maya	Muisca	Inca
Capital	Tenochtitlan	Multiple	Hunza and Bacatá	Cusco
Language	Nahuatl	Mayan Languages	Muysc Cubun	Quechua
Writing	Script	Script (Numerals)	Numerals	Quipu
Religion	Religion (Human Sacrifice)	Religion (Human Sacrifice)	Religion	Religion
Mythology	Mythology	Mythology	Mythology	Mythology
Calendar	Calendar	Calendar (Astronomy)	Calendar (Astronomy)	Mathematics
Society	Society	Society (Trade)	Economy	Society
Warfare	Warfare	Warfare	Warfare	Army
Women	Women	Women	Women	Gender Roles
Architecture	Architecture	Architecture	Architecture	Architecture (Road System)
Art	Art	Art	Art	Art
Music	Music	Music	Music	Andean Music
Agriculture	Chinampas	Agriculture	Agriculture	Agriculture
Cuisine	Cuisine	Cuisine	Cuisine	Cuisine
History	History	History	History	Inca history Neo-Inca State
Peoples	Aztecs	Mayans	Muisca	Incas
Notable Rulers	Moctezuma I Moctezuma II Cuitláhuac Cuauhtémoc	Kʼinich Janaabʼ Pakal Uaxaclajuun Ubʼaah Kʼawiil Jasaw Chan Kʼawiil I	Nemequene Quemuenchatocha Tisquesusa Tundama Zoratama	Manco Cápac Pachacuti Atahualpa Manco Inca Yupanqui Túpac Amaru
Conquest	Spanish Conquest (Hernán Cortés)	Spanish Conquest Spanish Conquest of Yucatán (Francisco de Montejo) Spanish Conquest of Guatemala (Pedro de Alvarado)	Spanish Conquest (Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada) (Hernán Pérez de Quesada) (List of Conquistadors)	Spanish Conquest (Francisco Pizarro)

See also
Category: Archaeological sites in the Americas Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas Portal:Mesoamerica Ceramics of Indigenous peoples of the Americas Columbian exchange Indigenous cuisine of the Americas Mesoamerican writing systems Painting in the Americas before European colonization Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas Pre-Columbian art
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