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The Diablada or Danza de los Diablos (Template:Lang-en), is an Andean dance performed in the Altiplano region, characterized by performers wearing masks and costumes representing the devil. The dance is a mixture of religious theatrical presentations brought from Spain and Andean religious ceremonies such as the Llama llama dance in honour of the Uru god Tiw, and the Aymaran ritual to the demon Anchanchu.

History

While the dance had been performed in the Andean region as early as the 1500s, its name originated in 1789 in Orouro, Bolivia, where performers dressed like the devil in parades were called Diabladas. The first organized Diablada group with defined music and choreography appeared in 1904. There is also some evidence of the dance originating among miners in Potosi, Bolivia.

Ancient drawing of the Collasuyus.
Depiction of a Collasuyu party in the 17th century book Primer Nueva Corónica y Buen Gobierno of Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala.

Pre-Columbian origins

Bolivia claims to have originated the dance and claims that Oruro should be named as its place of origin under Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity policy promoted by UNESCO; Bolivia has also claimed that performances of the dance in other countries is a form of cultural appropriation. Bolivian historians currently maintain that the Diablada dates back 2000 years to the rituals of the Uru civilization dedicated to Tiw, who protected caves, lakes, and rivers as places of shelter. The dance is believed to have originated as the Llama llama in the ancient settlement of Oruro, which was one of the major centers of the Uru civilization.

Due to syncretism caused by Spanish influence in later centuries, Tiw was eventually associated with the devil; Spanish autorities also outlawed several of the ancient traditions but incorporated others into Christian theology. The dance includes references to animals that appear in Uru mythology such as ants, lizards, toads, and snakes. Local and regional Diablada festivals arose during the Spanish colonial period and were eventually consolidated as the Carnaval of Oruro in the modern city of that name.

...//...The Spanish banned these ceremonies in the seventeenth century, but they continued under the guise of Christian liturgy: the Andean gods were concealed behind Christian icons and the Andean divinities became the Saints. The Ito festival was transformed into a Christian ritual, celebrated on Candlemas (2 February). The traditional llama llama or diablada in worship of the Uru god Tiw became the main dance at the Carnival of Oruro.//...

— Proclamation of "Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" to the "Carnival of Oruro", UNESCO 2001

Chilean and Peruvian organizations suggest that since the dance is inspired in the Andean civilizations previous to the formation of the current national borders, it should belong equally to the three nations. Some Chilean historians concede that the Diablada originated in Bolivia and was adopted for Chile's Fiesta de La Tirana in 1952, though it is influenced by a similar 16th Century Chilean tradition called diablos sueltos.

Some Peruvian historians also concede that the dance originated in Bolivia but was influenced by earlier traditions practiced across the Altiplano region, including some specific to Peru. The Peruvian version, diablada puneña, originated in the late 1500s among Jesuits and the Lupaka people in the Puno region, and merged with the Bolivian version in the early 1900s. Scholars who defend the Diablada's origins in Peru cite Aymaran traditions surrounding the deity Anchanchu that had been documented by 16th Century historian Inca Garcilaso de la Vega.

Spanish influence

"Struggle of the Diablada" as performed during the Carnival of Oruro.

Some historians have theorized that the modern Diablada exhibits influences from Spanish dance traditions. In her book La danza de los diablos, Julia Elena Fortún proposed a connection with the Catalan dance Ball de diables as performed in the Catalonian communities of Penedès and Tarragona. Historians have also proposed connections with the Catalonian entremés called Ball de diables, depicting a struggle between Lucifer and the archangel Saint Michael that is first known to have been performed in 1150. Catalan scholar Jordi Rius i Mercade has also found similarities between the Ball de diables and several Andean dances including the similarly-themed Baile de Diablos de Cobán in Guatemala and Danza de los diablicos de Túcume in Peru.

Those theories contradict the more common theory that the modern Diablada is most influenced by the Spanish practice of autos sacramentales during which the colonizers introduced Christianity to the natives of the Andes, due to differing conceptions of the devil and his temptations. However, the autos sacramentales process has been cited as an influence on the emergence of the diablada puneña in Peru, shortly after the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, as believed by Garcilaso de la Vega. Peruvian scholar Nicomedes Santa Cruz and Bolivian anthropologist Freddy Arancibia Andrade have suggested a similar process, with the dance originating among miners who rebelled against the Spanish at Potosi in 1538, while combining the ancient ritual of Tinku with Christian references. Andrade has also proposed a similar process among striking miners in 1904 as the origin of the modern version of the Diablada.

Post-independence period

While the traditions of the Diablada were merged with Christianity during the colonial period, the meanings of the original traditions were revived and reassessed during the Latin American wars of independence. The Altiplano region, particularly around Lake Titicaca, became a center of appreciation for pre-Columbian dance and music. During the Bolivian War of Independence, the main religious festival honoring the Virgin of the Candlemas was replaced by Carnival, whc=ich allowed for greater acknowledgement of pre-Christian traditions including the Diablada. The present annual festival was established in Oruro by 1891.

Choreography

Diablada dancers in Puno, Peru.

In its original form, the dance was performed with music by a band of Sikuris, who played the Siku. In modern times the dance is accompanies by an orchestra. Dancers often perform on streets and public squares, but the ritual can also be performed at indoor theaters and arenas. The ritual begins with a krewe fearturing Lucifer and Satan with several China Supay, or devil women. They are followed by the personified seven deadly sins of pride, greed, lust, anger, gluttony, envy, and sloth. Afterwards, a troop of devils come out. They are all led by Saint Michael, with a blouse, short skirt, sword, and shield. During the dance, angels and demons move continuously. This confrontation between the two sides is eclipsed when Saint Michael appears and defeats the Devil.

The choreography has three versions, each conformed by seven moves.

Music

A partiture of a Diablada tune.
1862 partiture of a Diablada tune named Déjame by the composer Froilán Zevillano of the Poopó Province in Oruro, Bolivia.

The music associated with the dance has two parts: the first which is known as the March and the second one named the Devil's Mecapaqueña. Some squads play only one melody or start the Mecapaqueña in the fourth movement "by four". Since the second half of the 20th century "the dialogue" is omitted focusing only on the dance.

Regional variations

Puno

Main article: Diablada Puneña
Diablos from Puno.

The Diablada Puneña is inspired in the Lupakas people when they presented their version of the Autos Sacramentales taught by the Spanish Jesuit priests in 1576 in the city of Juli [es] in present-day Peru. Nevertheless, the dance holds Native American roots from the cult of Anchanchu, a pre-Hispanic Aymara deity, and the narrative of the Myth of the Supaya. The dance's association with the cult of the Virgin of Candelaria stems from a popular legend that tells that in 1675, in the mine of Laikakota (located near Puno), a Spaniard by the name of José Salcedo changed his decision to destroy the miner's houses because he saw a fire coming out of the mine as a result of the Virgin Mary fighting the Devil inside the mine.

According to historian Enrique Cuentas Ormachea, until 1965 the Diablada Puneña was very different from the Diablada of Oruro when the group Los Vaporinos (formed by workers from the Peruvian Corp that worked in Lake Titicaca) began to dance in the Fiesta de la Candelaria with costumes and bands from Bolivia. Despite this, due to budget restrictions, the groups from Puno couldn't afford hiring Bolivian bands and started using their traditional groupings of Sicu-Morenos, such as the orchestra Sikuris del Barrio Mañazo (whom integrated this dance in 1922). Nowadays, the dance still maintains its differences from the Diablada of Oruro and integrates new characters such as Superman, Redskins, the Mexican, and others taken from films.

Since its beginnings, the performance had a variety of changes. Originally the masks were made from plaster and the hair from baize (a coarse woollen cloth). Overtime, the mask models were influenced by Tibetan masks as well as elements from Native American cultures such as Sechin, Chavin, Nazca, and Mochica. These masks were traditionally made by each dancer or bought from a Bolivian mask-maker named Antonio Vizacarra, but in 1956 the brothers Alberto and Ramón Velásquez established a workshop in Puno where masks were created and sold for the event. Also, the Diablada was at first small and reserved for important religious dates in the Catholic Church. As the dance further developed, the devil dancers began to accompany groups of Sikuris, which are an assemblage of musicians that play the Siku (the traditional Andean panpipe). Among the first Sikuris that surged at this point were those of the Barrio Mañazo (1892) and Juventud Obrera (1909). Nevertheless, anthropologist José María Arguedas suggests that eventually the role of the Sikuris was minimized to the point that they began to accompany the devil dancers under the new name of Sicu-Morenos. The Sicu-Morenos play with sicus, bombos, snare drums, cymbals, and triangles; and they dance Huaynos while accompanied by characters such as Caporales, minor devils, Chinas Diablas, the old man, the big-lipped negro, the Apache, the lion, the bat, the condor, the bear, the gorilla, and the giraffe (among others). These characters, along with the central performance of the devil dancers and the archangel Saint Michael, make the Diablada Puneña one of the dances in the Fiesta de la Candelaria.

Oruro

Main article: Diablada of Oruro
A Diablada dance squad passing through the streets of Oruro.
A Diablada dance squad passing through the streets during the Oruro Carnival in Bolivia.
1880 Diablada patronal squad mask, from Paria, Oruro

The Diablada of Oruro goes back to the pre-Columbian period of the Urus who used to practice this dance in honour of the god Wari (also known as Huaricato or Huari). With the arrival of the Spanish conquerors and the evangelicalism, this divinity gradually personified the devil. The iconography depicted in the current suits, such as the snake, frog and ants, respond to the Uru mythology with the belief that if Wari wouldn't protect them they'd be destroyed by those creatures. Wari after petrifying the creatures retired to the depths of the mountains.

The Bolivian anthropologist, Milton Eyzaguirre, based on a 16th-century chronicle of Bartolomé de Álvarez commented that in the Andean region of Bolivia, a cult in honour of the dead, named cupay, was practised. Over the centuries the cupay derived in supay, the figure of the devil in the modern Diablada. In pre-Columbian times the dead season started in November with the crop season, the conquerors made efforts to coincide the Andean calendar with their festivities, such as the carnival.

The Diablada as is danced today in was originally the accompaniment of a theatrical play. In Bolivia there are two versions of this play preserved by Julia Elena Fortún. The oldest of these pieces belongs to the 16th century when in the parties of the city of Potosí in honour of the Virgin of Guadalupe, this play tells the story of Lucifer who, riding a horse, delivers a letter to be read to the public telling that Proserpina, the goddess of hell, was the most beautiful. A gentleman, representing the church, faces the demon defending Virgin Mary as the most beautiful. In the play after this dialogue a tournament started with fireworks and artillery shots followed by a squad of light cavalry of demons wearing black clothes and torches leading a chariot with snakes carrying Proserpina.

A crowd gathered in front of the Sanctuary of the Virgin of Socavón.
Sanctuary of the Virgin of Socavón during the festivities for the Oruro Carnival in Bolivia.

This tradition continued in the city of Oruro over the centuries, in 1789 with the tale of the Chiru Chiru the festivity had another transformation with the introduction of the tale of the Seven deadly sins written by the parish priest Ladislao Montealegre, and with the Bolivian War of Independence the parade was moved to Carnival. By the 19th century the tradition had profound roots with the mining and the devotion to the Virgin of Socavón and, as it was recorded in the newspapers of that time, the dancers made offerings to the feet of the Virgin after the parade. At the beginning it was considered a working class custom but by the ends of the 19th century and beginnings of the 20th century the tradition was popularized reaching all groups of the Oruro society.

The first institutionalized dance squad is the Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro founded on 25 November 1904 by Pedro Pablo Corrales, followed by a Tradicional Folklórica Diablada de Oruro (1943), Diablada Círculo de Artes y Letras (1943) and the Fraternidad Artística y Cultural ´La Diablada´ (1944). The squad founded by Pedro Pablo Corrales travelled to Peru in 1918 teaching to the squad Los Vaporinos the dance. In 1956 this dance entered Chile brought by the squad Diablada Ferroviaria of Oruro which was invited to participate in the Tirana festivities of that year. The Chilean citizen, Gregorio Ordenes, was inspired by this visit to form the first Chilean Diablada squad Primera Diablada Servidores Virgen del Carmen in Iquique.

In the year 2001, the Carnival of Oruro was declared one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity where the Diablada along with 19 other dances were registered as part of the festivity. And in the year 2004 the squad Gran Tradicional y Auténtica Diablada Oruro in its 100th anniversary received the Cóndor de Los Andes award, the highest distinction given by the Bolivian government.

La Tirana

Main article: Diablada in Chile
A dancer in the Tirana festivity in Chile.
Diablada during the Tirana festivity in Chile.

The Diablada in Chile form part of the Tirana festivities, or Fiesta de La Tirana, a festival of the northern region of that country. The town of La Tirana is located at 84 kilometres from the city of Iquique with a population of less than 400 inhabitants but during the week of the festivities, which are held in the week of 12 to 16 July, it receives nearly 120,000 visitors. A documentary broadcast by Iquique TV (A Chilean television station) asserts that the dance has its roots in miners of Oruro.

The sanctuary of the Virgin of Carmen was built in the region in the year 1540 and since then the festival is made in her honour in that locality with different dances.

There are two kinds of squad organization:

  • Ancient type: with a structure not too differenced, traditional type authority, paternalistic, religiously guarantee, The power is in one person who is representative of a familiar clan.
  • Modern type: has a differenced internal structure, with defined statutes and rules. Tend to be named dance society. There are managers and a director, they are responsible of the social life of the group. There is the figure of the Caporal as well, who has the authority with respect to the religious activities.

The first Diablada squad in Chile was founded in the city of Iquique by Gregorio Ordenes in 1956 under the name of Primera Diablada Servidores Virgen del Carmen after the visit of the Bolivian squad Diablada Ferroviaria to the festival of that year.

See also

References

  1. https://books.google.com/books?id=S2E3Q62l-lUC&pg=PA63&dq=Diablada+Danza+de+Diablos&hl=en&ei=tKWGTYqXAsOV0QHg2K3CCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=Diablada%20Danza%20de%20Diablos&f=false Page 63
  2. ^ Real Academia Española (2001). "Diccionario de la Lengua Española – Vigésima segunda edición" [Spanish Language Dictionary - 22nd edition] (in Spanish). Madrid, Spain. Retrieved 30 November 2009. Danza típica de la región de Oruro, en Bolivia, llamada así por la careta y el traje de diablo que usan los bailarines (Typical dance from the region of Oruro, in Bolivia, called that way by the mask and devil suit worn by the dancers).
  3. ^ "Bolivia (Plurinational State of) - Information related to Intangible Cultural Heritage". UNESCO. 2001. Retrieved 3 October 2009. The town of Oruro, situated at an altitude of 3,700 metres in the mountains of western Bolivia and once a pre-Columbian ceremonial site, was an important mining area in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Resettled by the Spanish in 1606, it continued to be a sacred site for the Uru people, who would often travel long distances to perform their rituals, especially for the principal Ito festival. The Spanish banned these ceremonies in the seventeenth century, but they continued under the guise of Christian liturgy: the Andean gods were concealed behind Christian icons and the Andean divinities became the Saints. The Ito festival was transformed into a Christian ritual, celebrated on Candlemas (2 February). The traditional llama llama or diablada in worship of the Uru god Tiw became the main dance at the Carnival of Oruro.
  4. ^ Rubio Zapata, Miguel (Fall 2007). "Diablos Danzantes en Puno, Perú" [Dancing devils in Puno, Peru]. ReVista, Harvard Review of Latin America (in Spanish). VII (1): 66–67. Archived from the original on 1 April 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
  5. Morales Serruto, José (3 August 2009). "La diablada, manzana de la discordia en el altiplano " (Interview) (in Spanish). Puno, Peru: Correo. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
  6. http://www.carnavaldeoruroacfo.com/documentos/FORMULARIO%20DE%20CANDIDATURA.pdf Archived 2009-11-04 at the Wayback Machine Compilation of historians, anthropologists, researchers and folklorists about the Carnival of Oruro and La Diablada
  7. ^ Arancibia Andrade, Freddy (20 August 2009). "Investigador afirma que la diablada surgió en Potosí " (Interview) (in Spanish). La Paz, Bolivia. Archived from the original on 4 September 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  8. "Perú dice que la diablada no es exclusiva de Bolivia" [Peru says that the Diablada is not exclusive of Bolivia]. La Prensa (in Spanish). La Paz, Bolivia: Editores Asociados S.A. 14 August 2009. Retrieved 10 December 2009.
  9. Echevers Tórrez 2009
  10. ^ A.C.F, O. 2001, pp.10-17.
  11. Guaman Poma de Ayala 1615, p.235.
  12. A.C.F, O. 2001, p.3.
  13. Claure Covarrubias, Javier (January 2009). "El Tío de la mina" [The Uncle of the mine] (in Spanish). Stockholm, Sweden: Arena y Cal, revista literaria y cultural divulgativa. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
  14. Ríos, Edwin (2009). "Mitología andina de los urus" [Andean mythology of the Urus] (in Spanish). Oruro, Bolivia: MiCarnaval.net. Archived from the original on 24 December 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2010. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  15. Ríos, Edwin (2009). "La Diablada originada en Oruro – Bolivia" [The Diablada originated in Oruro – Bolivia] (in Spanish). Oruro, Bolivia: MiCarnaval.net. Archived from the original on 15 August 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2010. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help)
  16. Moffett, Matt; Kozak, Robert (21 August 2009). "In This Spat Between Bolivia and Peru, The Details Are in the Devils". The Wall Street Journal. p. A1. Retrieved 4 October 2009.
  17. "Memoria Chilena diabladas" (in Spanish).
  18. Américo Valencia Chacon. "Candelaria una propuesta frente a una gran responsabilidad" (in Spanish).
  19. Luis Valverde Caldas. "La diablada como danza" (in Spanish).
  20. ^ Cuentas Ormachea 1986, pp. 35–36, 45.
  21. ^ Morales Serruto, José (3 August 2009). "La diablada, manzana de la discordia en el altiplano " (Interview) (in Spanish). Puno, Peru: Correo. Retrieved 27 September 2009.
  22. ^ McFarren, Peter; Choque, Sixto; Gisbert, Teresa (2009) . McFarren, Peter (ed.). Máscaras de los Andes bolivianos [Masks of the Bolivian Andes] (in Spanish). Indiana, United States: Editorial Quipus. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
  23. Fortún 1961, p. 23.
  24. ^ Rius I Mercade 2005
  25. Fortún 1961, p. 24.
  26. De la Vega, Garcilaso; Serna, Mercedes (2000) . "XXVIII". Comentarios Reales [Royal Commentaries]. Clásicos Castalia (in Spanish). Vol. 252 (2000 ed.). Madrid, Spain: Editorial Castalia. pp. 226–227. ISBN 84-7039-855-5. OCLC 46420337.
  27. Santa Cruz, 2004, p. 285.
  28. Salles-Reese 1997, pp. 166-167.
  29. ^ Harris 2003, pp. 205-211.
  30. ^ Fortún, Julia Elena (1961). "Actual coreografía del baile de los diablos" [Current choreography of the devils dance]. La danza de los diablos [The dance of the devils] (DOC). Autores bolivianos contemporáneos (in Spanish). Vol. 5. La Paz, Bolivia: Ministerio de Educación y Bellas Artes, Oficialía Mayor de Cultura Nacional. OCLC 3346627.
  31. Gisbert 2002, p. 9.
  32. ^ Cite error: The named reference CuentasOrmachea2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  33. Jiménez Borja, Arturo (1996). Fundación del Banco Continental para el Fomento de la Educación y la Cultura (ed.). Máscaras peruanas [Peruvian masks] (in Spanish). Lima, Peru. Retrieved 24 October 2009.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  34. Museo Nacional de Etnografía y Folklore (Bolivia) (2003). MUSEF (ed.). Serie anales de la reunión anual de etnología [Records of the annual reunion of ethnology series] (in Spanish). Vol. 2. La Paz, Bolivia: MUSEF. Retrieved 24 October 2009.
  35. ^ "La diablada orureña se remonta a la época de los Urus precoloniales" [The Diablada of Oruro goes back to the times of the Pre-Columbian Urus]. La Razón (in Spanish). La Paz, Bolivia. 9 August 2009. Archived from the original on 13 August 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2010.
  36. Gisbert 2002, p. 8.
  37. Cajías 2009
  38. ^ "El folclor de Chile y sus tres grandes raíces" [The Chile’s folklore and its three great roots] (in Spanish). Memorias Chilenas. 2004. Archived from the original on 11 September 2008. Retrieved 9 December 2009.
  39. "La Diablada De Oruro, máscara danza pagana" [The Diablada of Oruro, mask pagan dance] (in Spanish). 2009. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 9 December 2009.
  40. ^ "Danzas ceremoniales del área cultural del Norte" [Ceremonial dances of the northern cultural area] (in Spanish). Chile: Hamaycan. Archived from the original on June 9, 2009. Retrieved 8 April 2010.
  41. "Audiovisual que recoge el origen de la Diablada, con sus raíces en los piques mineros bolivianos, en el marco de una nueva celebración de la Fiesta de La Tirana. El documental contó con el apoyo de la Minera Collahuasi y fue estrenado en la sala de artes de la compañía. Fecha: 13 de julio del 2010". Archived from the original on 2011-03-27. Retrieved 2011-03-21.

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