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John Philippe Rushton
Born (1943-12-03) December 3, 1943 (age 81)
Bournemouth
CitizenshipCanada
Alma materUniversity of London
Known forRace, Evolution and Behavior, Race and intelligence
Scientific career
FieldsPsychology, Psychometrics
InstitutionsUniversity of Western Ontario

John Philippe Rushton (born December 3, 1943) is a psychology professor at the University of Western Ontario, Canada, most widely known for his work on racial group differences such as research on race and intelligence, race and crime and the application of r/K selection theory to humans in his book Race, Evolution and Behavior. His work in this area is highly controversial, and has been criticized by several researchers and civil rights organizations as being poorly researched and racist in nature. Some researchers have been supportive. He is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American, British, and Canadian Psychological Associations. In 1988, he was made a Fellow of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. Since 2002 he has been head of the controversial Pioneer Fund, an organization that has been widely criticized for financing research that promotes Scientific Racism and has been frequently associated with racism and White Supremacy. The Fund, Rushton, and the prior head have criticized these accusations and argue that the Fund has funded much important but controversial research.

Biography

Rushton was born in Bournemouth, England. During his childhood, he emigrated with his family to South Africa where he lived from age four to eight (1948–1952). His father was a building contractor, and his mother, who was French, gave him his middle name. He spent most of his teen years in Canada. Rushton received a B.Sc. in psychology from Birkbeck College at the University of London in 1970, and, in 1973, received his Ph.D. from the London School of Economics for work on altruism in children. He continued his work at the University of Oxford until 1974. Rushton taught at York University in Canada from 1974–1976 and the University of Toronto until 1977. He then moved to the University of Western Ontario and was made full professor there in 1985. He received a D.Sc. from the University of London in 1992.

He has published more than 250 articles and six books, including two on altruism, one on scientific excellence, and co-authored an introductory psychology textbook. Over ten of his papers have appeared in Intelligence, a journal for which Rushton sits on the editorial board. He is a signatory to the opinion piece "Mainstream Science on Intelligence".

In 2005 The Ottawa Citizen described him as the most famous university professor in Canada.

Work

Genetic similarity theory

Early in his career, Rushton's research focused on altruism. He theorized a heritable component in altruism and developed Genetic Similarity Theory, which is an extension of W. D. Hamilton's theory of kin selection, which states that individuals tend to be more altruistic to individuals who are genetically similar to themselves even if thjey are not kin, and less altruistic, and sometimes outwardly hostile to individuals who are less genetically similar. Rushton describes "ethnic conflict and rivalry" as "one of the great themes of historical and contemporary society" and suggests that it may have its roots in the evolutionary impact on individuals from groups "giving preferential treatment to genetically similar others." He says "the makeup of a gene pool causally affects the probability of any particular ideology being adopted."

A number of articles in a 1989 issue of Behavioral and Brain Sciences criticized the theory. One criticism was for being based on statistically flawed evidence, for failing to understand and for misapplying kin selection theory, for being speculative and failing to define the concept of altruistic behavior in a way that makes it possible to operationalize and for failing to show any plausible mechanism by which members of a species can detect the "altruism gene" in other members of the species, and for being uncompelling in terms of its attractiveness as an explanatory model, that it fails to take into account the fact that many other traits raging from age, sex, social and political group membership are observable more important in predicting altruistic behavior between non-kin than genetic similarity, for failing to conduct an adequate control group study and for ignoring contradictory evidence.

Littlefield and Rushton (1984) examined degree of bereavement after death of a child. One of the results were that children perceived as more physically similar to their parents were grieved for more intensely than less similar children.

Russell, Wells, and Rushton (1985) reanalyzed several previous studies on similarities between spouses and argued that there is higher similarity on the more heritable characteristics. Rushton and Nicholson (1988) argued that spouses are more similar on those cognitive tests which are more genetically influenced. Rushton examined blood group genes and found that sexually interacting couples had more similar blood group genes than randomly paired individuals.

Rushton and Bons (2005) examined personality, attitude, and demographic characteristics for similarity in different groups of people. Monozygotic twins resembled one another (r = .53) more than dizygotic twins (r = .32), pairs of spouses (r = .32), and pairs of best friends (r = .20). The monozygotic twins twins also chose spouses and best friends that were more similar to their co-twins' friends and spouses than did dizygotic twins twins. The authors argued that there were a substantial genetic contribution to these effects in the twins. Similarity to social partners was higher on more heritable characteristics than on less.

Other researchers doing empirical research have found results compatible with the theoy.

Race and intelligence

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Rushton has also been one of the proponents for the partially-genetic explanation for racial differences in IQ. Research areas includes brain size, effects of inbreeding depression on IQ, and effects of admixture.

Application of r/K selection theory to race

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Rushton's book Race, Evolution, and Behavior (1995) uses r/K selection theory to explain how East Asians consistently average high, blacks low, and whites in the middle on characteristics indicative of nurturing behavior on an evolutionary scale. He first published this theory in 1984. Rushton argues that East Asians and their descendants average a larger brain size, greater intelligence, more sexual restraint, slower rates of maturation, and greater law abidingness and social organization than do Europeans and their descendants, who average higher scores on these dimensions than Africans and their descendants, and he theorizes that r/K selection theory explains these differences. Rushton's application of r/K selection theory to explain differences among racial groups has been widely criticised. One of his many critics are Evolutionary biologist Joseph L. Graves who has done extensive testing of the r/k selection theory with species of drosophila flies, argues that not only is r/K selection theory considered to be virtually useless when applied to human life history evolution, but Rushton himself does not apply the theory correctly, and displays a lack of understanding of evolutionary theory in general. Graves also states that the sources for the biological data gathered in support of Rushton's hypothesis were misrepresented and that much of his social science data was collected by dubious means. Other scholars have subsequently argued against Rushton's hypothesis on the basis that the concept of race is not supported by genetic evidence about the diversity of human populations and that his research is based on folk taxonomies.

Opinions on Rushton and his work

Various authors have commented on Rushton and his work.

Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson (one of the two co-founders of the r/K selection theory Rushton's adopts) made the following statement when asked about his opinion of Rushton:

I think Phil is an honest and capable researcher. The basic reasoning by Rushton is solid evolutionary reasoning; that is, it is logically sound. If he had seen some apparent geographic variation for a non-human species-a species of sparrow or sparrow hawk, for example-no one would have batted an eye. (...) when it comes to racial differences, especially in the inflamed situation in this country, special safeguards and conventions need to be developed.

Robert Sussman, evolutionary anthropologist and editor in-chief of American Anthropologist, when explaining why the journal would not place ads for Rushton's 1998 book:

This is an insidious attempt to legitimize Rushton’s racist propaganda and is tantamount to publishing ads for white supremacy and the neo-Nazi party. If you have any question about the validity of the “science” of Rushton’s trash you should read any one of his articles and the many rebuttals by ashamed scientists.

Psychologist Hans Eysenck, known for his support of the idea that some races are inherently inferior, and Rushton's former doctoral supervisor, of the University of London:

Professor Rushton is widely known and respected for the unusual combination of rigour and originality in his work... (and commenting on Rushton's book Race, Evolution and Behavior) ... Few concerned with understanding the problems associated with race can afford to disregard this storehouse of well-integrated information which gives rise to a remarkable synthesis.

Biological Anthropologist C. Loring Brace was very critical of Rushton in a book review of Race Evolution and Behavior:

Virtually every kind of anthropologist may be put in the position of being asked to comment on what is contained in this book, so, whatever our individual specialty, we should all be prepared to discuss what it represents. Race, Evolution, and Behavior is an amalgamation of bad biology and inexcusable anthropology. It is not science but advocacy, and advocacy for the promotion of "racialism." Tzvetan Todorov explains "racialism," in contrast to "racism," as belief in the existence of typological essences called "races" whose characteristics can be rated in hierarchical fashion (On Human Diversity: Nationalism, Racism, and Exoticism in French Thought, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993, p. 31). "Racism," then, is the use of racialist assumptions to promote social or political ends, a course that Todorov regards as leading to "particularly catastrophic results." Perpetuating catastrophe is not the stated aim of Rushton's book, but current promoters of racist agendas will almost certainly regard it as a welcome weapon to apply for their noxious purposes.


Some criminologists who study the relationship between Race and crime, regard Rushton's r/K theory as one of several possible explanations for racial disparities in crime rates. According to criminologist Shaun L. Gabbidon, Rushton's theory is one of the more controversial biosocial theories related to race and crime, and has faced criticism both for failing to explain all of the data and for its potential to support racist ideologies. Criminologist Anthony Walsh has defended Rushton, arguing that none of Rushton's critics have supplied data indicating anything other than the racial gradient he identifies, and that it is unscientific to dismiss Rushton's ideas on the basis of their political implications.

Since 2002, Rushton has been the president of the Pioneer Fund. Tax records from 2000 show that his Charles Darwin Research Institute received $473,835 — 73% of that year's grants. The Southern Poverty Law Center (a civil rights activist organization) characterizes the Pioneer Fund as a hate group. Rushton has spoken on eugenics several times at conferences of the American Renaissance magazine, a monthly racialist magazine, in which he has also published a number of general articles.

Geneticist and activist David Suzuki spoke out against Rushton's racial theories in a live televised debate (1989) at the University of Western Ontario. "There will always be Rushtons in science," Suzuki said "and we must always be prepared to root them out!". "Oh, no!" exclaimed Rushton when asked if he himself believed in racial superiority. He went on to explain that "from an evolutionary point of view, superiority can only mean adaptive value--if it even means this. And we've got to realize that each of these populations is perfectly, beautifully adapted to their own ancestral environments.".

He has written articles for VDARE, a website that advocates reduced immigration into the United States. Stefan Kühl wrote in his book The Nazi Connection: eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism that Rushton was a part of the revival of public interest in scientific racism in the 1980s.

William H. Tucker, a professor of psychology who writes histories of scientific racism, noted:

Rushton has not only contributed to American Renaissance publications and graced their conferences with his presence but also offered praise and support for the "scholarly" work on racial differences of Henry Garrett, who spent the last two decades of his life opposing the extension of the Constitution to blacks on the basis that the "normal" black resembled a European after frontal lobotomy. Informed of Garrett's assertion that blacks were not entitled to equality because their "ancestors were ... savages in an African jungle," Rushton dismissed the observation as quoted "selectively from Garrett's writing", finding nothing opprobrious in such sentiments because the leader of the scientific opposition to civil rights had made other statements about black inferiority that were, according to Rushton, "quite objective in tone and backed by standard social science evidence." Quite apart from the questionable logic in defending a blatant call to deprive citizens of their rights by citing Garrett's less offensive writing—as if it were evidence of Ted Bundy's innocence that there were some women he had met and not killed—there was no sense on Rushton's part that all of Garrett's assertions, whether or not "objective," were utterly irrelevant to constitutional guarantees, which are not predicated on scientific demonstrations of intellectual equality.

Rushton was quoted in the Ottawa Citizen blaming the destruction of "Toronto the Good" on its black inhabitants. In the same article Rushton suggested that equalizing outcomes across groups was "impossible." Southern Poverty Law Center called the piece "yet another attack" by Rushton and it criticized those who published his work and that of other "race scientists".

Rushton spoke at the Preserving Western Civilization conference in Baltimore in February 2009, organized by Michael H. Hart to address the need to defend "America’s Judeo-Christian heritage and European identity" from immigrants, Muslims, and African Americans. In his speech, Rushton contended that Islam was not just a cultural, but also a genetic problem. According to Rushton, the Muslim problem is not just a condition of their particular belief system. Instead, he argued that Muslims have an aggressive personality with relatively closed, simple minds, and are less impervious to reason than one might expect. The Anti-Defamation League describe the conference as being attended by "racist academics, conservative pundits and anti-immigrant activists".

There has been criticism of Rushton's work in the scholarly literature, to which Rushton has generally responded, often in the same journal.

Steven Cronshaw and colleagues wrote in a paper for the International Journal of Selection and Assessment in 2006 that psychologists need to critically examine the science employed in Rushton's race-realist research. Through a re-analysis of the validity criteria for test bias using data reported in the Rushton et al. paper, they assert that the testing methods were in fact biased against Black Africans. They disagree with other aspects of Rushton's methodology, such as the use of non-equivalent groups in test samples. Rushton replied in the next issue of the journal, explaining why his results were valid, and why the criticisms were incorrect.

Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote in 2005 that Rushton has ignored evidence that fails to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent a genetic racial hierarchy. He has not changed his position on this matter for 30 years. Rushton replied in the same issue of the journal.

After Rushton had mailed a booklet to psychology, sociology, and anthropology professors across North America, Hermann Helmuth, a professor of anthropology at Trent University, said: "It is in a way personal and political propaganda. There is no basis to his scientific research." Rushton responded, "It's not racist; it's a matter of science and recognizing variation in all groups of people."

Zack Cernovsky, in the Journal of Black Studies, claims "some of Rushton's references to scientific literature with respects to racial differences in sexual characteristics turned out to be references to a nonscientific semipornographic book and to an article in the Penthouse magazine's Forum."

Articles in the Canadian press based on interviews with Rushton's first-year psychology students reported that Rushton had surveyed students in 1988 by asking "such questions as how large their penises are, how many sex partners they have had, and how far they can ejaculate." First-year psychology students at UWO are required "to participate in approved surveys as a condition of their studies. If they choose not to, they must write one research paper. Also, many students feel subtle pressure to participate in order not to offend professors who may later be grading their work. However, if a study is not approved, these requirements do not apply at all." For not telling them they had the option to not participate without incurring additional work, Rushton was barred by the university where he is tenured from using students as research subjects for two years.

Also in 1988, Rushton conducted a survey at the Eaton Centre mall in Toronto where 50 whites, 50 blacks, and 50 Asians were paid to answer questions about their sexual habits. For not receiving permission of the university committee where he is employed, the administration at the University of Western Ontario reprimanded Rushton, calling his transgression "a serious breach of scholarly procedure," said University President, George Pederson.

See also

References

  1. Cronshaw, Steven F., Hamilton, Leah K., Onyura, Betty R., & Winston, Andrew S. (2006). “Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on International Journal of Selection and Assessment”. Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 381–384. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2006.00346.x.
  2. Knudson P. (1991), A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society; Rushton on Race, Stoddart Publishing (ISBN 0773724672) pp176
  3. for example, Rushton, J. P., & Bons, T. A. (2005). Mate choice and friendship in twins: Evidence for genetic similarity.Psychological Science, 16, 555-559.
  4. ^ Into the Mainstream: Academic Racists' Work Inching Toward Legitimacy
  5. William H. Tucker (2003) The Leading Academic Racists of the Twentieth Century; The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 39, 90-95
  6. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.paid.2008.05.010, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2008.05.010 instead.
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  8. Pioneer Fund Board
  9. Avner Falk. Anti-semitism: a history and psychoanalysis of contemporary hatred. Abc-Clio, 2008, pg. 18
  10. William H. Tucker, The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press, 2002
  11. Andrew Wroe. The Republican party and immigration politics: from Proposition 187 to George W. Bush. University of Illinois Press, 2008, pg. 81
  12. http://www.bethuneinstitute.org/documents/racialscientestrushton.html Racial Scientist Rushton Takes Over Pioneer Fund
  13. The Science of Human Diversity: A History of the Pioneer Fund, Richard Lynn, 2001, University Press of America.Preface
  14. Book review of The Science of Human Diversity: A History of the Pioneer Fund, J. Philippe Rushton, Personality and Individual Differences 32 (2002) 1431-1433 Online
  15. The Pioneer Fund, Controversies: Setting the Record Straight, http://www.pioneerfund.org/Controversies.html
  16. J. Philippe Rushton, Ph.D. - Bio Sketch
  17. Curriculum Vitae
  18. Roediger, H. L. III., Rushton, J. P., Capaldi, E. D., & Paris, S. G. (1984). Psychology. Boston: Little, Brown.(1987, 2nd Edition)
  19. Gottfredson, Linda (December 13, 1994). "Mainstream Science on Intelligence". Wall Street Journal, p A18.
  20. “Mainstream Science on Intelligence: An Editorial With 52 Signatories, History, and Bibliography,” Linda S. Gottfredson, University of Delaware.
  21. ^ "Rushton Revisited" Andrew Duffy.The Ottawa Citizen. Ottawa, Ont.: Oct 1, 2005. pg. A.1.
  22. Anderson,Judith. 1989. A methodological critique of the evidence for genetic similarity detection BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p.518
  23. Archer, John. 1989. Why help friends when you can help sisters and brothers? BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p. 519
  24. Daly, Martin. 1989. On distinguishing evolved adaptation from epiphenomena. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p.520
  25. Tooby, John and Leda Cosmides. 1989. Kin selection, genic selection, and information-dependent strategies. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p.542-44
  26. Economos, Judith . 1989. Altruism, nativism, chauvinism, racism, schism, and jizzum. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p. 521-23.
  27. Gangestad, Steven W. 1989. Uncompelling theory, uncompelling data. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p. 525-26.
  28. Hallpike, C. R. 1989. Green beard theory. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p. 528
  29. Hartung,John. 1989. Testing genetic similarity: Out of control. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN SCIENCES (1989) 12:3 p. 529
  30. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.4.797, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.51.4.797 instead.
  31. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/0162-3095(85)90030-5, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/0162-3095(85)90030-5 instead.
  32. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/0162-3095(88)90004-0, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/0162-3095(88)90004-0 instead.
  33. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/0162-3095(88)90025-8, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/0162-3095(88)90025-8 instead.}
  34. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01574.x, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01574.x instead.
  35. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.3389/neuro.18.001.2009, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.3389/neuro.18.001.2009 instead.
  36. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1002/per.620, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1002/per.620 instead.
  37. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1037/1076-8971.11.2.235 instead.
  38. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.2174/1874350101003010009, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.2174/1874350101003010009 instead.
  39. Graves, J. L. (2002). "What a tangled web he weaves Race, reproductive strategies and Rushton's life history theory". Anthropological Theory. 2: 2 131–154. doi:10.1177/1469962002002002627.
  40. Robert J. Sternberg, Elena L. Grigorenko, and Kenneth K. Kidd (2005). Intelligence, Race, and Genetics American Psychologist Vol. 60, No. 1, 46–59. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.1.46
  41. from Knudson P. (1991), A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society; Rushton on Race, Stoddart Publishing (ISBN 0773724672)pg 190
  42. from Knudson P. (1991), A Mirror to Nature: Reflections on Science, Scientists, and Society; Rushton on Race, Stoddart Publishing (ISBN 0773724672) pg 190
  43. Alland, Alexander (2002), Race in Mind: Race, IQ, and Other Racisms, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 168, ISBN 031223838X
  44. John Gabriel, Racism, culture, markets, Psychology Press, 1994, pg. 49
  45. Brace, C Loring (1996). "Racialism and Racist Agendas: Race, Evolution, and Behavior: A Life History Perspective. J. Philippe Rushton". American Anthropologist. 98: 1 176–177. doi:10.1525/aa.1996.98.1.02a00250.
  46. Goodison, Sean (2009), "r/K Theory", in Gabbidon, Shaun L.; Greene, Helen T. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Race and Crime. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, pp. 713–716. ISBN 978-1-4129-5085-5.
  47. Gabbidon, Shaun L. (2010). Criminological Perspectives on Race and Crime, 2nd ed.. New York: Routledge, pp. 41-44. ISBN 978-0415874243.
  48. Walsh, Anthony (2004). Race and crime: a biosocial analysis. Hauppauge, Nova Science Publishers, pp. 15-17. ISBN 978-1590339701.
  49. Academic Racism: Key race scientist takes reins at Pioneer Fund From the Southern Poverty Law Center
  50. SPLCenter.org: Into the Mainstream
  51. Race and 'Reason' "In publication after publication, hate groups are using this "science" to legitimize racial hatred."
  52. 'Science' at the Mall
  53. CBC News (1989-02-08). "The Rushton-Suzuki debate". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Queen in Right of Canada. Retrieved 2009-11-02.
  54. A Mirror to Nature, by Peter Knudson, pg 187
  55. The Nazi Connection: eugenics, American racism, and German national socialism By Stefan Kühl
  56. Tucker, W. H. (2002). The Funding of Scientific Racism, Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press.
  57. Preserving Western Civilization: Purpose
  58. Preserving Western Civilization: Speakers"
  59. "Stateside: Inside the Preserving Western Civilization Conference" Searchlight, Devin Burghart, April 2009
  60. "Racists Gather in Maryland to 'Preserve' Western Civilization" ADL, February 13, 2009
  61. Steven F. Cronshaw, Leah K. Hamilton, Betty R. Onyura, and Andrew S. Winston (2006) Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on International Journal of Selection and Assessment 14 (3), 278–287. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2006.00346.x
  62. See International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 14, 381-384.
  63. Suzuki, Lisa & Aronson, Joshua (2005). “The Cultural Malleability of Intelligence and Its Impact on the Racial/Ethnic Hierarchy”. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 320–327.
  64. Rushton, J. Philippe & Jensen, Arthur R. (2005). “Wanted: More Race Realism, Less Moralistic Fallacy” ‘’Psychology, Public Policy, and Law,’’ Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 328–336.
  65. UWO Gazette Volume 93, Issue 68 Tuesday, February 1, 2000 Psych prof accused of racism
  66. Cernovsky, Zack (July 1, 1995). On the similarities of American blacks and whites: A reply to J.P. Rushton. Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 25, p. 672.
  67. ^ Charles Lane, Response to Daniel R. Vining, Jr., New York Review of Books, Vol. 42, Number 5, March 23, 1995

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