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‘Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib (Template:ArB Template:PerB) (599 – 661) is an early Islamic leader. He is seen by Sunni Muslims as the last of the four Rightly Guided Caliphs. Shi'a Muslims consider him the First Imam appointed by Muhammad and the first rightful caliph. Ali was the cousin of Muhammad, and after marriage to Fatima Zahra, he also became Muhammad's son-in-law.
Birth
Ali was born in Mecca, in the Hijaz region of central western Arabia, sometime around 599 CE (the year is only an approximation).
Shi'a Muslims believe that Ali was born inside the Kaaba, the most sacred site in Islam. Many Sunni do not accept this tradition; non-Muslim historians do not discuss it. See also: People reported to be born in the Kaaba and Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib
Ali was given an auspicious name, which Shi'a Muslims say is derived from one of 99 Names of God, Al-Ali (The Exalted).
Early life
Ali's father, Abu Talib, was a member of the powerful tribe of the Quraysh, and an uncle to the young Muhammad. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather, Abu Talib took Muhammad into his house. Later on Muhammad set out and married Khadijah, Ali was born 5 years later and Muhammad took his gardianship. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, Ali, then only about ten years old, believed in him and professed Islam.
Shi'a, and some Sunni, believe that he was the first male to convert to Islam. Others say that Zayd ibn Harithah, his freed-slave and adopted son, or Abu Bakr, the first caliph, was the first male convert. See also: Identity of first male Muslim
Some Shi'a claim that it is wrong to say that Ali converted, as he was already a hanif, a pre-Islamic monotheist, as were Muhammad and his whole family.
Ali stood firmly in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca. In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's Hijrah (migration) to Yathrib, later renamed Medina, Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that his cousin could flee in safety. Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Makkah to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping.
Ali in Medina
The small community of Muslim immigrants in Medina, the Muhajirun, were at first extremely poor. They had no land, no houses, and lived on the charity of the Madinans who had converted to Islam (the Ansar). They hired themselves out for labor and raided Meccan caravans. Ali shared in all the labor and hardships of the community.
Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 CE, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Banu Umayyed champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. He was publicly praised by Muhammad. After this, he asked for the hand of Fatima Zahra, Muhammad's daughter by Khadijah, in marriage. Fatima and Muhammad consented, and the marriage was solemnized two months after the battle .
Shi'a believe that Ali was also prominent at the Battle of Uhud, as well as many other battles.
For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his cousin's service, serving in his armies, leading parties of warriors on raids, carrying messages and orders. With the exception of Tabuk, Ali joined all of Muhammad's battles and expeditions. As Muhammad's son-in-law and one of his lieutenants, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.
The death of Muhammad (632 CE)
Muhammad had been ailing for some time, but seemed to have recovered somewhat. He left his house to take part in prayers at the mosque, then returned to his quarters and died.
While Ali and the rest of Muhammad's close family were washing the prophet's body for burial, a gathering of Muslims at Saqifah swore allegiance to Abu Bakr as the new leader of the Muslim community. Ali had many friends, followers and supporters who believed that Ali should have succeeded Muhammad, as Ali was one of Muhammad's closest assistants, his cousin and son-in-law, and a well-respected leader. Yet Ali had not even been told of the meeting, nor had his name been mentioned as a possible leader.
When a new Arab chief was declared, everyone in the community had to give his or her bay'ah, declaration of allegiance to the chief. Ali accepted Abu Bakr as the chosen Caliph. Shia's believe that Ali should have been declared as the first caliph but ali himself declared Abu Bakr as Leader, this led to group forming called the Shi'tes this group associated itself with Ali and wanted him to be the First Caliph.
This is an extremely contentious issue, covered in detail in the Succession to Muhammad article. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue. The Shi'a argue that Muhammad, in accordance with God's command, designated Ali to succeed him, and that Ali was a victim of worldly intrigue; the Sunni consider that the community made a wise choice in uniting behind Abu Bakr and there was no such religious decree.
The two Muslim groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. The Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them. They argue that he did not do so because he was angry at having been denied worldly power and pleasure; rather, he felt that he had a duty to keep the Muslim community on the strict path of Islam, and that he was being kept from fulfilling the religious duty that Muhammad had appointed to him.
Inheritance
Shi'a Muslims believe that Ali and Fatima, as well as the wives of Muhammad had an additional cause for disaffection with Abu Bakr . The new caliph argued that the Muhammad's considerable landed property had been held by the prophet in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state -- despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89). According to Shia'a Muslims, Abu Bakr gave state pensions to Muhammad's widows, but Muhammad's blood relatives, Ali, Fatima and Ibn Abbas, did not receive even that much.
After Fatima's death, Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument. However, Umar, the caliph who succeeded Abu Bakr, did restore the estates in Medina to al-Abbas and Ali, as representatives of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim. The properties in Khaybar and Fadak were retained as state property (Madelung 1997 p. 62). Shi'a Muslims regard this as yet another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers. (Some of the hadith cited by both sides in this dispute can be found at .)
Succession to the caliphate
In 656 CE, the third caliph Uthman, was murdered in his own house while reading the Qur'an, in Medina, by rebellious Muslim soldiers. Medina, now a large city and the capital of an empire stretching from Africa to Central Asia, fell into chaos. In the crisis, some Muslims turned to Ali, who had been for years a faithful and steady lieutenant of Muhammad and his successors, and urged him to seek the caliphate. Ali at first refused. He is said to have been horrified by the assassination of Uthman, and did not wish to appear to be profiting from the situation. But his supporters persevered, and Ali finally allowed himself to be proclaimed caliph.
Some opponents at the time claimed that he had connived at the murder of Uthman, or at the very least had been negligent in seeking the murderers. However, most historians absolve him of any blame. Besides his extremely high status in Shi'a Islam, he is also revered by Sunnis as the last of the truly exemplary successors of Muhammad.
For a fuller discussion of this and succeeding events, see First Islamic civil war.
Caliphate
Almost the first act of his caliphate was to put down a rebellion led by Talha and az-Zubayr (two eminent companions of Muhammad), who were urged on by Aisha, Muhammad's widow. In the view of Shi'as, she was a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel army was defeated at the Battle of Basra (also known as the Battle of the Camel); Talha was killed, Zubayr fled and was killed later, and Aisha was captured and escorted with all respect to Medina, where she was given a pension.
Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik ibn Ashter and Salman the Persian. Ali then transferred his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, Damascus, was held by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor.
Mu'awiyah raised an army and marched against Ali, demanding vengeance for the death of Uthman. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 CE in the Battle of Siffin, near the Euphrates; the battle seemed to be turning in favor of Ali, when a number of the opposing army, fixing copies of the Qur'an to the points of their spears, exclaimed that "the matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Muslims to shed each other's blood."
At this point, the soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue be referred to arbitration. Ali and his followers are said to have disagreed over the choice of advocate for Ali. Ali wanted Malik ibn Ashter or Ibn Abbas; his followers are said to have objected. Finally, Abu Musa al Asha'ri was chosen as Ali's advocate. Amr ibn al-As, a veteran diplomat, was chosen to act for Mu'awiyah. It is claimed that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would be to the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Mu'awiyah, `Amr declared that he also deposed Ali, but invested Mu'awiyah with the caliphate. This decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt to Mu'awiya's forces.
Death
According to tradition, three Muslim zealots (purists later termed Kharijites) had agreed to assassinate Ali, Mu'awiyah and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among the faithful. The assassins sent against Mu'awiyah and `Amr failed; the only assassin who succeeded was the one who attacked Ali.
Ali suffered a mortal head wound on the 19th of Ramadan while he was performing morning prayers in mosque in the city of Kufa. Some say that the sword that wounded him was poisoned. As he was being struck, Ali cried out "By the Lord of the Ka'bah, I have succeeded"!
Shi'a accounts stress Ali's concern lest his assassin be mistreated. When Ali was given milk to drink, he is said to have asked if his assassin, Abdur Rahman bin Muljam al Sarimi, had been offered milk as well. Also, when he noticed that the assassin's ropes had been tied painfully tight, he ordered them to be loosened. Ali further decreed that if he was not to survive, then Bin Muljam should be killed with no more than one stroke, as he had only struck Ali once.
Madelung gives a different account; he writes:
- "He (the assassin) was led before Ali, who ordered that, if he died from his wound, Ibn Muljam should be put to death in retaliation. If he survived, he would decide on how to treat him." (Madelung 1997 p. 309)
Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan (three days after receiving the head wound) in the city of Kufa (Iraq) in 661 CE.
Grave of Ali
If Ali had been buried according to Islamic law, he would have been buried simply and quickly close to the place where he died, in Kufa.
Many Muslims, however, believe that Ali feared that his grave would be desecrated by his enemies and that he asked his friends to bury him secretly. This secret gravesite is supposed to have been revealed in later times.
Most Shi'a and Sunni accept that Ali was buried at what is now the city of Najaf, which grew around the mosque and shrine called Mashad Ali.
- One story recounts that the caliph Harun al-Rashid (ruled from 786 to 809) went hunting and came upon a bit of raised ground which his dogs refused to approach. Local inhabitants told him that this was the grave of Ali. The caliph ordered the building of a mausoleum, which was the nucleus of the city and the shrine.
- Another story claims that the location of the gravesite was passed from father to son along the line of Shi'a imams, and that Ja'far al-Sadiq, the sixth imam, told the caliph where to find the grave.
A summary of the various theories held by the Shi'a is found in the controversial Shi'a text, the Peshawar Nights .
Descendants
Main article: Descendants of Ali ibn Abi TalibAli had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children. He had two sons by Fatima, Hasan and Hussein. Hasan is said to have refrained from publicly claiming the caliphate, so as to prevent further bloodshed among Muslims. Mu'awiyah thus became caliph and established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs. Hasan is, however, revered by most Shi'a as the second imam; his brother Hussein is reckoned as the third, except by the Shi'a Ismaili, who consider him the second imam.
Ali's descendants by Fatima are known as sharifs, sayyeds, or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayyed/sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.
Many Muslim notables are descendents of Muhammad. The Hashemite royal families of Jordan and Iraq, the Alaouite royal family of Morocco, the Husseini (or Hussaini) family of Lebanon, and the Aga Khans of the Ismaili community claim direct descent from the prophet through Ali and Fatima. There are also many humbler sayyeds whose only distinction may be the title in front of their name, or the right to wear a black turban (a sign of Alid descent in some communities).
Legacy
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious authority. The most famous collection of speeches and letters attributed to Ali is the Peak of Eloquence (Arabic: Nahj al-Balāgha). A few famous quotations from it include:
- Inability is a disaster; patience is bravery; abstinence is a treasure, self-restraint is a shield; and the best companion is submission to Divine Will.
- Socialize with people in such a manner that when you die, they should weep for you and as long as you live, they should long for your company.
- Greed is a permanent slavery.
- Submission to God's will is the cure of the misery of the heart.
Ali is also reputed to have said:
- He who has a thousand friends has not a friend to spare, while he who has one enemy will meet him everywhere.
Muslim view
He is greatly respected by most Muslims; the Ibadi might be the only dissenters. Having been one of the first Muslims (or even the first), he was extremely knowledgeable in matters of religious belief and practice, as well as in the history of the Muslim community. He was known for his eloquence and heroism.
Just as Muslims do not picture God(in arabic Allah), but reference him by his Ninety-nine Names or titles, so Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims with titles of praise and add pious interjections after their names.
Moreover, Sunni and Shi'a alike agree that Ali deserves these titles:
- Commander of the Faithful (Arabic: Ameer-al-Momineen)
- Father of Dust/Soil (Arabic: Abu Turab)
- Winning Lion of God (Arabic: Asad-ullāh al-Ghaleb)
- The Charging Lion (Arabic: Haydar-al-Karrar)
- (Please note that translation from Arabic to English may change the way the words are interpreted)
Sunni view of Ali
Sunnis hold Ali in high respect as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Four Righteously Guided Caliphs. He was one of the first to accept Islam ; he was Muhammad's cousin; he was honored with the hand of Muhammad's daughter Fatima. Sunnis, however, believe that he shared this honor with Uthman, whom Sunni believe to have married two of Muhammad's biological daughters.
Sunnis believe that Shi'as distort history when they argue that he withdrew from public life after losing his bid to be the first caliph. Sunnis say that Ali supported the first three caliphs loyally, named some of his sons after them , and gave Umar his daughter in marriage .
Many Sunnis add the phrase "May God be pleased with him" (Arabic: radiallhu anu) after mentioning Ali's name, as is done for many illustrious figures in early Islamic history.
Shi'a view of Ali
The Shi'a hold Ali in extraordinary esteem; he is venerated as second only to Muhammad. He is seen not only as Muhammad's chosen successor, but also as holding a position of authority designated by God and as deserving his position by his great personal merits.
Shia add the phrase "Peace be upon him" (Arabic: 'Alayh-es-Salam) after mentioning Ali's name, as is done for the prophets.
Shia make several claims for Ali, believed to indicate Ali's special status, including claims:
- That he was born in the Kaaba. This is discussed at greater length in the competing articles People reported to be born in the Kaaba and Birthplace of Ali ibn Abi Talib.
- That he was the first male to convert to Islam. Some Shi'a, however, believe that he was a Muslim from birth and cannot be said to have converted.
- That he never worshipped idols.While Abu Bakr, Umer and Ustman worshipped idols before converting.
They also claim that Muhammad indicated in many times and in many ways his belief that Ali was his divinely appointed successor, and cite a number of hadith and verses from the Qur'an in support of that position. See Succession to Muhammad for further discussion.
In the Shi'a view, Ali's character, like Muhammad's, is considered perfect and unblemished. They celebrate the anniversaries of his death and birth and in the Shi'a version confession of faith (shahada) and call to prayer (adhan), there is an optional reference to Ali.
The non-Muslim view of Ali
Non-Muslim views of Ali have varied. Some, like the 19th century historian Carlyle, found him an attractive, romantic figure. Some later scholars, such as Lammens and Watt, dismissed Ali as pious but a poor leader. Wilferd Madelung, a specialist in Shi'a studies, takes a much more favorable view of Ali. Most contemporary historians of early Islam, however, are not interested in judging Ali's character. Contemporary historical approaches stress economic, cultural, and ecological issues, not the role of "great men" in forming history. See Non-Muslim view of Ali for further discussions.
See also
- Family tree of Ali ibn Abu Talib
- Imam Ali Mosque
- Imam Ali International Airport
- Shiites
- Ismailis
- Fatimids
- Hashemites
- Alawite
- Alevi
- Wali
- Succession to Muhammad
- Non-Muslim view of Ali
- Misconceptions about the Shi'a
- Ahl Al-Bayt
- Nahj al Balagha
- Zulfiqar
References
There are no English-language biographies specifically of Ali. Material for his biography must be extracted from the pages of general histories, or from biographies of Muhammad.
- Karen Armstrong -- Muhammad, Gollancz, 1991 (a popular biography)
- Alfred Guillaume -- The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955 (a reconstruction and translation of Ibn Ishaq).
- Ibn Sa'd -- The book of The Major Classes -- scattered volumes of English translation as issued by Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi (no date), and Ta-Ha Publishers, London, 1997 and 2000.
- Wilferd Madelung -- The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
- Tabari -- History of the Prophets and Kings, translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes by SUNY Press from 1987 to 1996; volumes 6-17 are relevant.
- William Montgomery Watt -- Muhammad at Mecca, 1953 and Muhammad at Medina, Oxford University Press, 1956
External links
Sunni biography
Shi'a biography
- Ali's Birth in the Kaaba
- Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Sayings of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib The Commander of the Faithfull
- Imam Ali foundation
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib Nahjul Balagha
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib's status
| Preceded byUthman | Caliph (in Sunni and Western chronologies) 656–661 |
Succeeded byMuawiyah I |
| Preceded byMuhammad | Shi'a Imam 632–661 |
Succeeded byHasan ibn Ali |