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Apologetics is the field of study concerned with the systematic defense of a position. Someone who engages in apologetics is called an apologist or an "apologete". The term comes from the Greek word apologia (απολογία), meaning defense of a position against an attack. When John Henry Newman entitled his spiritual autobiography Apologia Pro Vita Sua in 1864, he was playing upon both connotations. Early uses of the term include Plato's Apology (the defense speech of Socrates from his trial) and some works of early Christian apologists, such as St. Justin Martyr's two Apologies addressed to the emperor Marcus Aurelius.

Colloquial usage

Today the term "apologist" is colloquially applied in a general manner to include groups and individuals systematically promoting causes, justifying orthodoxies, or denying certain events, even of crimes. Apologists have been characterized as being deceptive, or "whitewashing" their cause, primarily through omission of negative facts (selective perception) and exaggeration of positive ones, techniques of classical rhetoric. When used in this context, the term often has a pejorative meaning. The neutralized substitution of "spokesperson" for "apologist" in conversation conveys much the same sense of "partisan presenter with a weighted agenda," with less rhetorical freight.

Technical usages

The term apologetics etymologically derives from the Classical Greek word apologia. In Classical Greek legal system two key technical terms were employed: the prosecution delivered the kategoria, and the defendant replied with an apologia. To deliver an apologia then meant making a formal speech to reply and rebut the charges, as in the case of Socrates' defence.

This Classical Greek term appears in the Koine (i.e. common) Greek of the New Testament. The Apostle Paul employs the term apologia in his trial speech to Festus and Agrippa when he says "I make my defence" (Acts 26:2). A cognate term appears in Paul's letter to the Philippians as he is "defending the gospel" (1:7 & 17), and in 1 Peter 3:15 believers must be ready to give an "answer" for their faith. The word also appears in the negative in Rom. 1:20: unbelievers are αναπολόγητος (anapologētos) (without excuse / defence / apology) for rejecting the revelation of God in creation.

The legal nuance of apologetics was reframed in a more specific sense to refer to the study of the defence of a doctrine or belief. In this context it most commonly refers to philosophical reconciliation. Religious apologetics is the effort to show that the preferred faith is not irrational, that believing in it is not against human reason, and that in fact the religion contains values and promotes ways of life more in accord with human nature than other faiths or beliefs.

In the English language, the word apology is derived from the Greek word apologia, but its use has changed; its primary sense now refers to a defensive plea for forgiveness for an action that is open to blame. It is occasionally used to refer to a speech or writing that defends the author's position.

Intellectual and social function of religious apologetics

Apologetics serves an intellectual function within religious communities by providing arguments that support the doctrinal and ethical tenets of the religion. These arguments strengthen the believer's faith and support the propagation of the religion by offering arguments intended to persuade the uncommitted.

Skeptics engaged in debate with apologists tend to expect apologetics to consist of powerful arguments intended to persuade skeptics. The effectiveness of these arguments can occasionally fail to meet skeptical anticipation, largely because the arguments are not always directed to skeptics, but have the stated purpose of reaffirming the beliefs of current believers. These arguments aim for a much lower burden, not trying to do more than make the religious belief plausible or cast doubt on skeptical arguments.

This faith-affirming aspect is often downplayed or even overlooked, but it can be very important, particularly in psychological and sociological terms. For some, the mere fact that even superficially reasonable arguments exist in support of their beliefs suffices to prevent them from making any effort at all to question whether they should continue to believe. For others, the ready-made arguments allow simplified defense of beliefs, sometimes to the detriment of intellectual debate. In the case of so-called true believers, more far-fetched arguments may replace traditional logic. This is consistent with the observations of sociologists of religion, such as Peter Berger and Douglas Cowan, who found that boundary maintenance of belief occurs when one religious tradition encounters another. In this view, engaging in apologetics is less about converting others than boosting their own faith.

Varieties of Christian apologetics

There are a variety of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. In the Thomistic or Classical apologetics tradition philosophical arguments for God's existence are emphasized before turning to the specific case for Christian revelation claims. In the Evidentialist tradition empirical arguments about the life, miracles, death and resurrection of Christ are presented as probabilistic proofs. The Presuppositional tradition argues that belief in God must be presupposed, and from that vantage point non-theistic assumptions are proven to be fallacious.

Early Church

In the first centuries AD a number of Christian writers undertook the task of proving that Christianity was beneficial for the Roman Empire and for humanity as a whole. Also they wrote to defend their faith against attacks made by other people or to properly explain their faith. Aristides and Quadratus of Athens, writing in the early second century, were two of the first Christians to write apologetics treatises. Other second-century apologetics writings of note included the First Apology and Second Apology of Justin Martyr and the Epistle to Diognetus , a response to the accusation that Christians were a danger to Rome, further more: Athenagoras, Tatian, Theophilos of Antioch, Tertullian and Minucius Felix.

About a century after Constantine's conversion to Christianity, the Roman Empire began falling to invaders from northern Europe. Some Christian writers sought to explain the decline of Roman culture and power by systematically downplaying the achievements of classical antiquity while emphasizing the persecution of Christians and the positive role of Christianity in society. Paulus Orosius wrote the first book advancing this perspective (History Against the Pagans), though the far more learned and influential work of this type was The City of God by Augustine of Hippo (426).

Several of the early Christian apologists developed arguments from fulfilled prophecy and gospel miracles as proofs of Christ's divinity. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Demonstration of the Gospel attempted to prove the truth of Christianity by fulfilled prophecies from the Old Testament, and by rebutting arguments that the apostles had made up the story of Christ's resurrection.

Medieval to post-Reformation era

In Medieval Europe Anselm of Canterbury composed the Monologion and Proslogion in which he developed the ontological argument for God's existence. He believed that faith was necessary as a precursor to philosophical argument and expressed his position as "I do not seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand: for this I also believe, that unless I believe I will not understand."

Theodore Abu Qurra, the ninth century bishop of Harran, composed On God and The True Religion. Abu Qurra represents a group of Christian Arabic apologists who argued their case under early Islamic rule.

A highly influential Catholic apologist was Thomas Aquinas who presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologiae. His approach, which adapted Aristotelian thought, is known as Thomism, and has dominated both Roman Catholic and Protestant approaches.

The first Protestant textbook of apologetics was written by the Dutch legal scholar Hugo Grotius, On The Truth of the Christian Religion. This work, which was released in 1632 and translated into many languages, remained in print in English until the late nineteenth century, defended the historicity of the gospels, and also addressed arguments to Jews and Muslims.

Modern era

Since the seventeenth century the controversies over Deism, the Enlightenment, humanism, and theories of Feuerbach, Marx, Freud and Darwin, have each in turn spurred both Catholic and Protestant apologists to reply. Changing modes in apologetics, whether or not they are currently fashionable, are important markers in the history of ideas. Among the notable apologists of the early modern era are Blaise Pascal, Joseph Butler, William Paley, Søren Kierkegaard, and John Henry Newman.

The Catholic G. K. Chesterton, the Anglican C. S. Lewis, the Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery, and the Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the 20th century. Among the most widely read Christian apologists writing in English have been Josh McDowell and Lee Strobel. Another modern apologist is Ravi Zacharias, author of The Lotus and the Cross: Jesus Talks with Buddha which argues for Christian truth over world religions and other modern movements. Other prominent Christian apologists include:

Apologetics in non-Christian religions

As the world's religions have encountered one another, apologists from within their respective faiths have emerged.

One of the earliest Buddhist apologetic texts is The Questions of King Milinda, which deals with ethical and intellectual problems. In the British colonial era, Buddhists in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) wrote tracts that challenged and rejected Christianity. In the mid-nineteenth century, encounters between Buddhists and Christians in Japan prompted the formation of a Buddhist Propagation Society. In recent times A. L. De Silva, an Australian convert to Buddhism, has written a text designed to refute the arguments of Christian evangelists. At a sophisticated academic level, Gunapala Dharmasiri has challenged the Christian concept of God from a Theravadan Buddhist perspective.

Apologists for Islam have defended the Qur'an using rationalist and empiricist arguments, and using cosmological arguments to "prove" God's existence. Muslim apologists have also challenged both Jewish and Christian beliefs. The late South African, Ahmed Deedat, was a prolific popular writer who debated Christian evangelists by arguing over discrepancies in the Bible, and claiming the Gospel of Barnabas is the only authentic record of Jesus' life.

Famously among student associations, apologists for Islam use both semantic and historical rationale to both challenge and deny conflict with Christian beliefs. For example, Jesus Christ is vehemently denied as the son of God, yet is persistently claimed to be as highly regarded, if not the most highly honored, of all Islamic prophets.

Hindu apologetics designed to counter Christian missions developed in the British colonial era. Richard Fox Young has collated examples of these early apologetic tracts.

In a famous speech in 1805, Seneca chief Red Jacket was an apologist for Native American religion, as opposed to Christianity.

See also

External links

Bibliography

1. Reference Works in Christian Apologetics

Bush, L. Russ. 1983. Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics AD. 100-1800.Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geisler, Norman L. 1999. Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Baker Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

2. Popular Christian Apologists

Geisler, Norman L., and Ronald M. Brooks. 1990. When Skeptics Ask: A Handbook of Christian Evidences. Victor Books, Wheaton, Illinois.

Lewis, C. S. 1955. Mere Christianity. Fontana, Glasgow.

Lewis, C. S. 1960 (1947). Miracles: A Preliminary Study. Fontana, Glasgow.

Lewis, C. S. 1957 (1940). The Problem of Pain. Fontana, Glasgow.

Little, Paul E. 1968. Know Why You Believe. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove.

McDowell, Josh. 1979. Evidence That Demands A Verdict. Revised Edition. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

McDowell, Josh. 1981. The Resurrection Factor. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

McDowell, Josh., and Don Stewart. 1980. Answers to Tough Questions Skeptics Ask About the Christian Faith. Here's Life Publishers, San Bernadino, California.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 2002. History, Law and Christianity. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 2003. Tractatus Logico-Theologicus. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers.

Schaeffer, Francis A. 1982. The Complete Works of Francis Schaeffer. 5 Volumes. Crossway Books, Westchester, Illinois.

Strobel, Lee. 1998. The Case for Christ: A Journalist's Personal Investigation of the Evidence for Jesus. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

3. Introductory Textbooks on Christian Apologetics

Beckwith, Francis J., J. P. Moreland & William Lane Craig (eds). 2004. To Everyone An Answer: A Case for the Christian Worldview: essays in Honor of Norman L. Geisler. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove.

Craig, William Lane. 1994. Reasonable Faith: Christian Truth and Apologetics. Crossway Books, Wheaton, Illinois.

Dembski, William A., and Jay Wesley Richards (eds). 2001. Unapologetic Apologetics: Meeting the Challenges of Theological Studies. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Frame, John M. 1994. Apologetics to the Glory of God: An Introduction. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey.

Kreeft, Peter., and Ronald K. Tacelli.1994. Handbook of Christian Apologetics. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

McGrath, Alister. 1992. Bridge-Building: Effective Christian Apologetics. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK.

Montgomery, John Warwick (ed). 1991. Evidence for Faith: Deciding the God Question. Probe, Dallas.

Moreland, J. P. 1987. Scaling the Secular City: A Defense of Christianity. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Philip, Johnson C.,et al, 2004 Complete Christian Apologetics: An Introductory Textbook (Malayalam). Wise Men Publication, Kochi, India.

4. Historical Surveys of Christian Apologetics

Kommentar zu frühchristlichen Apologeten (KfA), 12 Vols., ed. by Norbert Brox, Kurt Niederwimmer, Horacio E. Lona, Ferdinand R. Prostmeier, Jörg Ulrich. Verlag Herder, Freiburg u.a. 2001ff.

Barnard, L. W. 1978. "Early Christian Art as Apologetic." Journal of Religious History 10 (1): 20-31.

Chadwick, Henry. 1965. "Justin Martyr's Defence of Christianity." Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library 47: 275-297.

Clark, M. L. 1974. Paley: Evidences for the Man. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Ontario.

Craig, William Lane.1985. The Historical Argument for the Resurrection of Jesus During The Deist Controversy. Texts & Studies in Religion Volume 23. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York & Queenston, Ontario.

Dahan, Gilbert. 1998. The Christian Polemic against the Jews in the Middle Ages. Translated by Jody Gladding. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Indiana.

Dulles, Avery. 1999. A History of Apologetics. Wipf & Stock, Eugene, Oregon.

Edwards, Mark., Martin Goodman & Simon Price (eds). 1999. Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians. Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York.

Lona, Horacio E. 2001. "An Diognet" Übersetzt und erklärt. Series: Kommentar zu frühchristlichen Apologeten (KfA, Vol. 8), ed. by N. Brox, K. Niederwimmer, H. E. Lona, F. R. Prostmeier, J. Ulrich. Verlag Herder, Freiburg u.a. 2001 (ISBN 3-451-27679-8).

Lona, Horacio E. 2005. "Die »Wahre Lehre« des Kelsos." Übersetzt und erklärt. Series: Kommentar zu frühchristlichen Apologeten (KfA, Suppl.-Vol. 1), ed. by N. Brox, K. Niederwimmer, H. E. Lona, F. R. Prostmeier, J. Ulrich. Verlag Herder, Freiburg u.a. 2005 (ISBN 3-451-28599-1).

Murphy, Gannon. 2005. "Voices of Reason in Christian History: The Great Apologists-Their Lives and Legacies". Christian Publications, Inc. Camp Hill, PA. (ISBN 0-88965-233-3).

Phillips, Walter. 1977. "The Defence of Christian Belief in Australia 1875-1914: The Responses to Evolution and Higher Criticism." Journal of Religious History, 9 (4):402-423.

Reid, J. K. S. 1970. Christian Apologetics. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Rurak, James. 1980. "Butler's Analogy: A Still Interesting Synthesis of Reason and Revelation." Anglican Theological Review 52: 365-381.

Samir, S. Khalil (ed). 1994. Christian Arabic Apologetics During the Abbasid Period. Studies in the History of Religions. Brill Academic, Leiden, The Netherlands.

Sell, Alan P. F. 1987. Defending and Declaring the Faith: Some Scottish Examples 1860-1920. Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK/Helmers & Howard, Colorado Springs.

Sims, John A. 1995. Missionaries to the Skeptics: Christian Apologists for the Twentieth Century. C. S. Lewis, E. J. Carnell and Reinhold Niebuhr. Mercer University Press, Macon, Georgia.

5. Discussion of Methodology in Christian Apologetics

Bahnsen, Greg. 1998. Van Til's Apologetic: Readings and Analysis. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Phillipsburg, New Jersey.

Boa, Kenneth D., and Robert M. Bowman. 2001. Faith Has Its Reasons: An Integrative Approach to Defending Christianity. NAV Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Clark, David K. 1993. Dialogical Apologetics: A Person-Centered Approach to Christian Defense. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Cowan, Steven B. (ed). 2000. Five Views on Apologetics. Counterpoint Series. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geehan, E. R. (ed). 1971. Jerusalem and Athens: Critical Discussions on the Philosophy and Apologetics of Cornelius Van Til. Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, Nutley, New Jersey.

Griffiths, Paul J. 1991. An Apology for Apologetics: A Study in the Logic of Interreligious Dialogue. Faith Meets Faith Series. Orbis Books, Maryknoll, New York.

Hanna, Mark M. 1981. Crucial Questions in Apologetics. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, John. 2003. "A Case for 'Reformed Evidentialism'." Churchman 117 (1): 7-32.

Lewis, Gordon R. 1976. Testing Christianity's Truth Claims. Moody Press, Chicago.

Mayers, Ronald B. 1984. Both/And: A Balanced Apologetic. Moody Press, Chicago.

Montgomery, John Warwick. 1978. Faith Founded on Fact: Essays in Evidentialist Apologetics. Thomas Nelson, Nashville & New York.

Morris, Thomas V. 1987. Francis Schaeffer's Apologetics: A Critique. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Netland, Harold. 1988. "Toward Contextualized Apologetics." Missiology: An International Review 16 (3): 289-303.

Ramm, Bernard. 1962. Varieties of Christian Apologetics: An Introduction to the Christian Philosophy of Religion. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Sproul, R. C., John Gerstner, and Arthur Lindsley. 1984. Classical Apologetics: A Rational Defense of the Christian Faith and a Critique of Presuppositional Apologetics. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

6. Christian Apologetics and Post-Modernity

Carson, D. A. 1996. The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Pluralism. Zondervan, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, Philip. 1998. "Apologetics and Myths: Signs of Salvation in Postmodernity." Lutheran Theological Journal 32 (2): 62-72.

Middleton, J. Richard., and Brian J. Walsh. 1995. Truth Is Stranger Than It Used To Be: Biblical Faith in a Postmodern Age. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Phillips, Timothy R., and Dennis L. Okholm (eds). 1995. Christian Apologetics in the Postmodern World. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Sire, James W. 1994. Why Should Anyone Believe Anything At All? InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Stackhouse, John G. 2002. Humble Apologetics: Defending the Faith Today. Oxford University Press, New York.

Wilkinson, David. 2002. "The Art of Apologetics in the Twenty-First Century." Anvil 19 (1): 5-17.

7. Historical Apologetics for Christ's Resurrection

Craig, William Lane. 1989. Assessing the New Testament Evidence for the Historicity of the Resurrection of Jesus. Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity, Volume 16. Edwin Mellen Press, Lewiston, New York/Queenston, Ontario/Lampeter, Wales.

Habermas, Gary R. 1980. The Resurrection of Jesus: An Apologetic. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Miethe, Terry L. (ed).1987. Did Jesus Rise From The Dead?: The Resurrection Debate. (Gary Habermas and Antony Flew). Harper & Row, San Francisco.

8. Legal Apologetics

Clifford, Ross. 1996. Leading Lawyers' Case for the Resurrection. Canadian Institute for Law, Theology & Public Policy, Edmonton, Alberta.

Clifford, Ross. 2004. John Warwick Montgomery's Legal Apologetic: An Apologetic For All Seasons. Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft/Culture and Science Publishers, Bonn.

Ewen, Pamela Binnings. 1999. Faith on Trial: An Attorney Analyzes the Evidence for the Death and Resurrection of Jesus. Broadman & Holman, Nashville, Tennessee.

Johnson, Philip. 2002. "Juridical Apologists 1600-2000 AD: A Bio-Bibliographical Survey." Global Journal of Classical Theology3/1.

Parton, Craig A. 2003. The Defense Never Rests: A Lawyer's Quest for the Gospel. Concordia Publishing House, St. Louis, Missouri.

9. Philosophical Apologetics

Beckwith, Francis J. 1989. David Hume's Argument Against Miracles: A Critical Analysis. University Press of America. Lanham, Maryland & London.

Brown, Colin. 1984. Miracles and the Critical Mind. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan/Paternoster Press, Exeter, UK.

Clark, Kelly James. 1990. Return To Reason: A Critique of Enlightenment Evidentialism and a Defense of Reason and Belief in God. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Craig, William Lane. 1979. The Kalām Cosmological Argument. MacMillan, London.

Craig, William Lane., and Quentin Smith. 1993. Theism, Atheism, and Big Bang Cosmology. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

Geivitt, R. Douglas., and Gary R. Habermas (eds). 1997. In Defence of Miracles: A Comprehensive Case for God's Action in History. Apollos, Leicester, UK/InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Miethe, Terry L., and Antony Flew. 1991. Does God Exist? A Believer and an Atheist Debate. Harper, San Francisco.

Morris, Thomas V. 1986. The Logic of God Incarnate. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London.

Plantinga, Alvin. 1990 (1967). God and Other Minds: A Study of the Rational Justification of Belief in God. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London.

Plantinga, Alvin C. 1977 (1974). God, Freedom, and Evil. William B. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Plantinga, Alvin., and Nicholas Wolterstorff (eds). 1983. Faith and Rationality: Reason and Belief in God. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame & London.

Swinburne, Richard. 1996. Is There A God? Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York.

Wolterstorff, Nicholas. 1995. Divine Discourse: Philosophical Reflections on the Claim that God Speaks. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

10. Scientific Apologetics

Barclay, Oliver R. (ed). 1985. Creation and Evolution. When Christians Disagree Series. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK.

Behe, Michael. 1996. Darwin's Black Box. Touchstone, New York.

Beilby, James (ed). 2001. Naturalism Defeated? Essays on Plantinga's Evolutionary Argument Against Naturalism. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York & London.

Dembski, William A. 1999. Intelligent Design: The Bridge Between Science and Theology. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Hummel, Charles E. 1986. The Galileo Connection: Resolving Conflicts between Science and the Bible. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Johnson, Phillip E. 1991. Darwin on Trial. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Johnson, Phillip E. 1995. Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law & Education. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, Illinois.

Larson, Edward J. 1989. Trial and Error: The American Controversy Over Creation and Evolution. Oxford University Press, New York.

Moore, James R. 1979. The Post-Darwinian Controversies: A Study of the Protestant Struggle to come to terms with Darwin in Great Britain and America 1870-1900. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Newman, Robert C., and Herman J. Eckelmann. 1981. Genesis One and the Origin of the Earth. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Polkinghorne, John. 1986. One World: The Interaction of Science and Theology. S.P.C.K., London.

Ratzsch, Del. 1996. The Battle of the Beginnings. InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove.

Ross, Hugh. 1993. The Creator and The Cosmos: How the Greatest Scientific Discoveries of the Century Reveal God. NAV Press, Colorado Springs, Colorado.

Van de Fliert, J. R. 1968. "Fundamentalism and Fundamentals of Geology." International Reformed Bulletin 32/33: 5-27.

Wilder-Smith, A. E. 1970. The Creation of Life: A Cybernetic Approach to Evolution. Master Books, San Diego, California.

Youngblood, Ronald F. (ed). 1990. The Genesis Debate: Persistent Questions about Creation and the Flood. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

11. Christian Apologetics to New Spiritualities and New Religious Movements

Abanes, Richard. 1997. Defending the Faith: A Beginner's Guide to Cults and New Religions. Baker Books, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Geisler, Norman L., and David K. Clark. 1990. Apologetics in the New Age: A Christian Critique of Pantheism. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Hexham, Irving., Stephen Rost & John W. Morehead (eds). 2004. Encountering New Religious Movements: A Holistic Evangelical Approach. Kregel Publications, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Johnson, Philip. 2002. "Apologetics, Mission, and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach." Sacred Tribes: Journal of Christian Missions to New Religious Movements 1 (1).

Johnson, Philip., and Simeon Payne. 2004. "Evangelical Countercult Apologists versus Astrology: An Unresolved Conundrum." Australian Religion Studies Review 17 (2): 73-97.

Martin, Walter Ralston. 2003. The Kingdom of the Cults. Revised Edition, edited by Ravi Zacharias. Bethany House, Bloomington.

Mosser, Carl., and Paul Owen. 1998. "Mormon Scholarship, Apologetics and Evangelical Neglect: Losing the Battle and Not Knowing It?" Trinity Journal (New Series) 19: 179-205.

Pement, Eric N. (ed). 1992. Contend for the Faith: Collected Papers of the Rockford Conference on Discernment and Evangelism. Evangelical Ministries to new Religions, Chicago.

Saliba, John A. 1999. Christian Responses to the New Age Movement: A Critical Assessment. Geoffrey Chapman, London.

Sire, James W. 1988. The Universe Next Door: A Guide Book to World Views. Revised Edition. InterVarsity Press, Leicester, UK.

12. Buddhist Approaches to Apologetics

Dharmasiri, Gunapala. 1988. A Buddhist Critique of the Christian Concept of God. Golden Leaves Publishing, Antioch, California.

De Silva, A. L. 1994. Beyond Belief: A Buddhist Critique of Fundamentalist Christianity. Three Gem Publications, Camperdown, Sydney, Australia.

Thelle, Notto R. 1987. Buddhism and Christianity in Japan: From Conflict to Dialogue, 1854-1899. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Young, Richard Fox., and G.P.V. Somaratna. 1996. Vain Debates. The Buddhist-Christian Controversies of Nineteenth-Century Ceylon. Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Vienna, Austria.

13. Hindu Approaches to Apologetics

Young, Richard Fox. 1981. Resistant Hinduism: Sanskrit Sources on Anti-Christian Apologetics in Early Nineteenth Century India. Publications of the De Nobili Research Library, Vienna, Austria.

14. Islamic Approaches to Apologetics

Bucaille, Maurice, 1993. The Bible, The Qur'an and Science: The Holy Scriptures examined in the Light of Modern Knowledge. Taj Publications, Delhi, India.

Leirvik, Oddbjørn. 2001. "History as a Literary Weapon: The Gospel of Barnabas in Muslim-Christian Polemics." Studia Theologica 54: 4-26.

Watt, William Montgomery. 1991. Muslim-Christian Encounters: Perceptions and Misperceptions. Routledge, London & New York.

Westerlund, David. 2003. "Ahmed Deedat's Theology of Religion: Apologetics Through Polemics." Journal of Religion in Africa 33 (3):263-278.

15. Neo-Pagan Approaches to Apologetics

DiZerega, Gus. 2001. Pagans and Christians: The Personal Spiritual Experience. Llewellyn Publications, St. Paul, Minnesota.

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