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Transylvania (Romanian: Transilvania or Ardeal; Hungarian: Erdély; German: Siebenbürgen; see also other languages) forms the western and central parts of Romania. Transylvania was a principality during the Middle Ages.

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Geography

The territory known today as Transylvania, consists of a region of 16 counties (Romanian: judeţ), which cover nearly 103 600 km² in central and northwest Romania. The 16 counties are Alba, Arad, Bihor, Bistriţa-Năsăud, Braşov, Caraş-Severin, Cluj, Covasna, Harghita, Hunedoara, Maramureş, Mureş, Sălaj, Satu Mare, Sibiu, and Timiş.

The Transylvanian plateau, 300 to 500 metres (1,000-1,600 feet) high, is drained by the Mureş, Someş, Criş, and Olt rivers, as well as other tributaries of the Danube. Cluj-Napoca (318,027) is the chief city; other major urban centers are Timişoara (317,651), Braşov (283,901), Oradea (206,527), Arad (172,824), Sibiu (155,045), Târgu Mureş (149,577), Baia Mare (137,976), and Satu Mare (115,630).

Economy

Transylvania is rich in mineral resources, notably lignite, iron, lead, manganese, gold, copper, natural gas, salt, and sulfur. There are large iron and steel, chemical, and textile industries. Stock raising, agriculture, wine production, and fruit growing are important occupations. Timber is another valuable resource.

Transylvania accounts for around 35% of Romania's GDP, and has a GDP per capita (PPP) of around $9,000, around 8.5% higher than the Romanian average.

Population

According to the census in 2002, the province has a population of 7,221,733 persons, with a large Romanian majority. In addition, sizable Hungarian (1,415,718 in all Romania), Roma and German communities live in Transylvania.

Etymology

Main article: Historical names of Transylvania

Transylvania was first referred to in a Latin language document in 1075 as "Ultra silvam," meaning "beyond the forest."

In 1075 King Géza I of Hungary when endowing the Benedictine abbey of Garamszentbenedek (now in Slovakia: Hronský Beňadik) granted to it half of the royal salt duty to be collected on the lading point of Arieş (Hungarian: Aranyos) riverside ("in loco, qui dicitur hungarice Aranas, latine autem Aureus"), near the Turda (Hungarian: Torda, German: Thorenburg) salt mine, located "ultra silvam" (Source: Diplomata Hungariae Antiquissima, vol. I. Budapest 1992, Nr. 73, S. 217f.)

The province of Transylvania later was referred to as "Ultra Silvania" or "Ultra Silvanus", alternating with "Transsilvania". Finally, the "Transylvania" form was unanimously accepted in Latin language documents. (Latin was the official language of Hungary until late 18 century.)

The German name Siebenbürgen means "seven cities", after the Transylvanian Saxons' cities in this region. The Hungarian name Erdély (old Hungarian: Erdőelve, spelled Erdoelue in Latin documents) means the region beyond the forest (Erdő is forest, elve is the ancient form of "elő", meaning "in front of" something). In Latin documents, it was either left in its original (Hungarian) form or translated.

The Romanian name Ardeal may come from the Hungarian name "Erdély". It first appeared in a Slavonic language document dated 1432, under the form of "Ardeliu". (At that time, Slavonic was the language of Orthodox liturgy.)

History

Ancient History: The heartland of the Dacian state

Main article: The Ancient History of Transylvania

Part of the area now constituting Transylvania was the political center of Dacia. The Dacians are often mentioned under Augustus, according to whom they were compelled to recognize Roman supremacy. However they were by no means subdued, and in later times seized every opportunity of crossing the frozen Danube during winter and ravaging the Roman cities in the recently acquired Roman province Moesia. The Roman Empire expansion in the Balkans brought the Dacians into open conflict with Rome. During the reign of Decebalus, the Dacians were engaged in several wars with the Romans (from 85 to 89).

In 101-102 Trajan began a military campaign (Dacian Wars) against the Dacians which included the siege of the Dacian capital Sarmizegetusa and the occupation of part of the country. Decebalus was left as a client king under a Roman protectorate. Three years later, the Dacians rebelled and destroyed the Roman troops in Dacia. The second campaign (105-106) ended with the suicide of Decebalus and the conversion of parts of Dacia into the Roman province Dacia Trajana. The history of the Dacian Wars is given in Dio Cassius, but the best commentary upon it is the famous Column of Trajan in Rome.

Early Middle Ages: From Dacia to the Great Migrations

Main article: The Ancient History of Transylvania

The Romans exploited the gold mines in the province extensively, building access roads and forts to protect them, like Abrud. The region developed a atrong infrastructure and economy, based on agriculture, cattle farming and mining. Colonists from Thracia, Moesia, Macedonia, Gaul, Syria, and other Roman provinces were brought in to settle the land, developing cities like Apulum (now Alba Iulia) and Napoca (now Cluj Napoca) into municipiums and colonias.

The Dacians rebelled frequently, with the biggest rebellion occurring at the death of Trajan. Sarmatians and Burs were allowed to settle inside Dacia Trajana after repeated clashes with the roman administration. During the 3rd century increasing pressure from the free Dacians (Carpians) and Visigoths forced the Romans to abandon exposed Dacia Trajana.

In 271, the Roman emperor Aurelian abandoned Dacia Trajana and reorganised a new Dacia Aureliana inside former Moesia Superior.

In 380 a new power reached Transylvania, the Huns. They drove back every Germanic people from the Carpathian Basin exept the Gepids. The Alans, Vandals, Quads left the region toward the Roman Empire. The Huns extended their rule over Transylvania after 420. By 568, the Avars under the capable leadership of their Kagan, Bayan, established in the Carpathian Basin an empire that lasted for 250 years. During this 250 years the Slavs were allowed to settle inside Transylvania and they started to clear the Carpathian's virgin forests. The Transylvanian Avars were, subjugated by the Bulgars under Khan Krum at the beginning of the 9th century and Transylvania, along with eastern Pannonia, was incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire.

In 862, Moravian Prince Ratislav rebelled against his lord, hired Magyar troops to help him, and with their aid he won his independence. this is the first time when Magyar expedition troops entered the Carpathians Basin. After a devastating Bulgar and Pecheneg attack the Magyar tribes crossed the Carpathians and occupied the entire basin without significant resistance. Although the defeat in the Battle of Lech in 955 stopped the Magyar raids against western Europe, the raids on the Balkan Peninsula continued for one more decade.

According to Gesta Hungarorum, a chronicle dating from the 12th century, the states of Gelou - ruler of the Vlachs (Romanians) in Ardeal (Transylvania proper), Glad in Banat, and Menumorut in Byhor (Bihor), were defeated by the Magyars in Transylvania during the 10th century. Gesta Hungarorum and De Administrando Imperio also speak of three rulers called Geula/Gyyla/Gylas in Transylvania. (see Gyula article). The existence of these leaders is a subject of debate between various historians since the 19th century.

Late Middle Ages: Transylvania as part of the Kingdom of Hungary

Main article: The Medieval History of Transylvania

In 1000 Stephen, prince of Hungary, swore allegiance to Rome, and became King Stephen I of Hungary, adopting Catholicism and bringing about the Christianization of the Magyars.

The Szeklers, a Hungarian-speaking community of uncertain origin, were established in eastern and southeastern Transylvania as border guards by the 12th century. Later, the areas in the south and northeast were settled by German colonists called (then and now) Saxons.

In 1241 three great Mongol armies invaded Hungary, two of which attacked Transylvania. Estimates of population decline in Transylvania owing to the Mongol invasion range from 15-20% to 50%.

The Western and Eastern Cumans converted to Roman Catholicism, and, after they were defeated by the Mongols, looked for refuge in central Hungary; Erzsebet, a Cumanian princess, married Stephen V of Hungary in 1254.

The administration of Transylvania was in the hands of a voivod appointed by the King. The word voivod or voievod first appeared in historical documents in 1193. Prior to that, the term ispán was used for the chief official of the County of Alba. The whole historical territory of Transylvania came under the rule of the voievod after 1263.

After the suppression of the Budai Nagy Antal-revolt in 1437, the political system was based on Unio Trium Natiorum (The Unity of the Three Nations). Society was divided into three privileged nations, the nobility (mostly Magyars), the Szeklers, and the Saxon burghers. These nations, however, corresponded more to social and religious rather than ethnic divisions. The Romanians were Orthodox Christians and as such, had the right to own land, but they could not access the nobility unless they converted to Roman Catholicism. Some Romanian families did became nobles, and some of them even reached the highest ranks of the society (Nicolaus Olahus became Archishop of Esztergom, while half Romanian Governor John Hunyadi's son - Mathias Corvinus - became king of Hungary).

A key figure to emerge in Transylvania in the first half of the 15th century was John Hunyadi, son of a Magyarized Romanian or Serbian noble, who married Erzsébet Szilágyi (cca. 1410-1483), a Hungarian noblewoman. Hunyadi was awarded numerous estates and a seat in the royal council for his services to Sigismund, King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor. After supporting the candidature of Ladislaus III of Poland to the throne of Hungary, he was rewarded in 1440 with the captaincy of the fortress of Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) and the voivodship of Transylvania. His subsequent military exploits against the Ottoman Empire brought him further status as the governor of Hungary in 1446 and papal recognition as the Prince of Transylvania in 1448.

Transylvania as an independent principality

Main article: History of Principality of Transylvania

When the main Hungarian army and King Louis II Jagiello were slain by the Ottomans in the Battle of Mohács (1526), John Zapolya, governor of Transylvania, took advantage of his military strength and put himself at the head of the nationalist Hungarian party, which opposed the succession of Ferdinand of Austria (later Emperor Ferdinand I) to the Hungarian throne. Hungary was now divided into three sections including the autonomous principality of Transylvania, where Austrian and Turkish influences vied for supremacy for nearly two centuries.

The Báthory family, which came to power on the death of John II in 1571, ruled Transylvania as princes under the Ottomans, and briefly under Habsburg suzerainty, until 1602. The younger Stephen Báthory, a Hungarian Catholic who later became King Stephen Bathory of Poland, undertook to maintain the religious liberty granted by the Edict of Turda, but interpreted this obligation in an increasingly restricted sense. The latter period of Báthory rule saw a four-sided conflict in Transylvania involving the Transylvanians, the Austrians, the Ottomans, and the Romanian voivod of Wallachia, Prince Michael the Brave.

Michael gained control of Transylvania in 1599 after the Battle of Şelimbăr in which he defeated Andrew Báthory's army. In May 1600 Michael also gained control of Moldavia, uniting Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania (the territory roughly corresponding to present-day Romania). The one year during which Michael, the Prince of Wallachia, controlled the three principalities is proudly remembered by most Romanians as a successful attempt to create a Romanian state in the Middle Ages. Nevretheless, Michael was never made a prince by the Transylvanian nobility, and the governments of the principalities remained separate. After the defeat of Michael by the Habsburg general Giorgio Basta at the Battle of Mirăslău in 1600, the Transylvanian Estates swore allegiance to Emperor Rudolf II. Michael was assassinated by Walloon mercenaries under the command of general Basta in August 1601. Basta finally subdued Transylvania in 1604 and initiated a reign of terror in which he was authorised to appropriate the land for noblemen, Germanize the population, and reclaim the principality for Catholicism through the Counter Reformation.

From 1604-1606, the Calvinist magnate of Bihar county Stephen Bocskai led a successful rebellion against Austrian rule. Bocskai was elected Prince of Transylvania on 5 April 1603 and prince of Hungary two months later. The two main achievements of Bocskai's brief reign (he died 29 December, 1606) were the Treaty of Vienna (June 23, 1606), and the Treaty of Zsitvatorok (November 1606). By the Peace of Vienna, Bocskai obtained religious liberty, and political autonomy of an enlarged principality.

Under Bocskai's successors Transylvania achieved a high degree of European reputation, especially under the reigns of Gabriel Bethlen and George I Rákóczi. Gabriel Bethlen, who reigned from 1613 to 1629, perpetually thwarted all efforts of the emperor to oppress or circumvent his subjects, and won reputation abroad by championing the Protestant cause. Gabriel Bethlen and George I Rákóczi also did much for education and culture, and their era has justly been called the golden era of Transylvania. They lavished money on the embellishment of their capital Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Weißenburg), which became the main bulwark of Protestantism in Eastern Europe. During their reign Transylvania was also one of the few European countries where Roman Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans, and Unitarians lived in mutual tolerance (See: Edict of Turda). Orthodox Romanians, however, were denied equal rights. Despite the efforts of Inochentie Micu-Klein, a Romanian Greek Catholic bishop, the nation status promised to those Romanians who converted to Catholicism was also not granted. On the basis of historical work of Stefan Zamosius (Analecta lapidum vetustorum et nonnularum in Dacia antiquitatum, Padua 1593), Romanian scholars and politicians of the 18th century (Dimitrie Cantemir, Inocenţiu Micu-Klein) espoused the theory (disputed by Hungarian scholars from the 19th century) that only the Roman administration and military force retreated. The Latin-speaking colonists remained and the Vulgar Latin as a common language mentained a very strong influence. According to this theory, took place the formation of the Romanian language and people in Transylvania . In this process, the new influences were assimilated and integrated in the existing Daco-Roman substrate.

Under Austrian Rule (1711-1867)

Main article: Transylvania under Austro-Hungarian rule

After the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Habsburgs gradually began to impose their rule on the formerly autonomous Transylvania. Apart from strengthening the central government and administration, the Habsburgs also promoted the Roman Catholic Church, both as a uniting force and also as an instrument to reduce the influence of the Protestant nobility.

After the independence war of Francis II Rákóczi failed in Hungary in 1711, Austrian control over Transylvania had been consolidated, and the princes of Transylvania were replaced with Austrian governors. The proclamation (1765) of Transylvania as a grand principality was a mere formality. The pressure of Austrian bureaucratic rule gradually eroded the traditional independence of Transylvania.

During the whole 18th century the Habsburgs brought into Translyvania (especially in Banat and Satu Mare regions) many thousands of German settlers.

In 1712, after the signing of the Peace of Szatmár, Count Károlyi started the settling of Germans from Upper Swabia (area between Lake Boden and Danube). The German settlers arrived in Satu Mare county's 31 villages (2 072 families, i.e. 10 000-11 000 persons).

In 1718, when Banat was eliberated from the Turkish rule, it was not integrated into the Hungarian Kingdom (as it was before 1541), but organized as a separate region, and directly subordinated to Vienna until 1778. Its first governor was Count Mercy. The latter started to implement from 1719 the so-named Mercy Plan: the colonization of Banat with German settlers. The plan was financed by the state, and the first real results were to be seen around 1722: creation of new villages, following accurate area planning. A standard farm was comprised of 24 cadastral acres (CA), 6 CA meadow, 3 CA pasture-land, 1 CA real estate with garden, and many other benefits.

The legal base for colonizations was established in 1723 by a resolution of the Pozsony (now Bratislava) Hungarian National Assembly. In accordance with Act 103 of 1723, the settled farmers were granted 6 years tax exemption, while craftsmen were given 15 years tax exemption.

During the 18th century cca. 100,000 Hungarian peasans left Transylvania and moved to the Great Hungarian Plains, an area devastated during the Turkish rule and sparsely populated at that time.

In early 1848, the Hungarian Diet took the opportunity presented by the revolution to enact a comprehensive legislative program of reforms which also included provision for the union of Transylvania and Hungary. The Romanians of Transylvania initially welcomed the revolution believing that they would benefit from the liberal reforms. However, their position changed due to the opposition of Transylvanian nobles to reforms such as emancipation of the serfs, and the failure of the Hungarian revolutionary leaders to recognise Romanian national interests. A Romanian national assembly at Blaj in the middle of May, produced its own revolutionary program calling for proportionate representation of Romanians in the Transylvanian Diet and an end to social and ethnic oppression. The Saxons were worried from the start about the idea of union with Hungary, fearing the loss of their traditional privileges. When the Transylvanian Diet met on 29 May the vote for union was pushed through despite the objection of many Saxon deputies. On June 10, the Emperor sanctioned the union vote of the Diet. Military executions, the arrest of revolutionary leaders and other activities which followed the union hardened the position of the Saxons. In September 1848, another Romanian assembly in Blaj denounced union with Hungary and called for an armed rising in Transylvania. Warfare erupted in November with both Romanian and Saxon troops, under Austrian command, battling the Hungarians led by the Polish general Józef Bem. Within four months, Bem had ousted the Austrians from Transylvania. However, in June 1849, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia responded to an appeal from Emperor Franz Joseph to send Russian troops into Transylvania. After initial successes against the Russians, Bem's army was defeated decisively at the Battle of Temesvár (Timişoara) on 9 August; the surrender of Hungary followed.

After quashing the revolution, Austria imposed a repressive regime on Hungary and ruled Transylvania directly through a military governor, with German again becoming the official language. Austria abolished the Union of Three Nations and granted citizenship to the Romanians. Although the former serfs were given land by the Austrian authorities, it was often barely sufficient for subsistence living. These poor conditions obliged many Romanian families to cross into Wallachia and Moldavia searching for better lives. However, in the compromise (Ausgleich) of 1867 which established the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the special status of Transylvania ended and it became a province under Hungarian control.

Transylvania as part of Romania

While part of Austria-Hungary, Transylvania's Romanians were oppressed by the Hungarian administration through Magyarization; the German Saxons were also subject to this policy, but not as heavily as were Romanians.

In 1916 Romania joined the Triple Entente by signing the Military Convention with the Entente, which recognised Romania's rights over Transylvania. Romania declared war against the Central Powers on 27 August 1916, and crossed the Carpathian mountains into Transylvania, thus forcing the Central Powers to fight on yet another front. A German-Bulgarian counter-offensive began the following month in Dobruja and in the Carpathians, driving the Romanian army back into Romania by mid-October and eventually leading to the capture of Bucharest. The exit of Russia from the war in March 1918 in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk left Romania alone in Eastern Europe, and a peace treaty between Romania and Germany was negotiated in May 1918. However, the resulting Treaty of Bucharest, never ratified in Romania, was denounced in October 1918 by the Romanian government, which then re-entered the war on the Allied side. The Romanian Army advanced to the Mureş river in Transylvania.

By mid-1918 the Central Powers were losing the war, and the Austro-Hungarian empire had begun to disintegrate. The nations living inside Austria-Hungary proclaimed their independence from the empire during September and October 1918. The leaders of Transylvania's National Party met and drafted a resolution invoking the right of self-determination (Woodrow Wilson's 14 points) of Transylvania's Romanian people, and proclaimed the unification of Transylvania with Romania. In November, the Romanian National Central Council, which represented all the Romanians of Transylvania, notified the Budapest government that it had assumed control of twenty-three Transylvanian counties and parts of three others. A mass assembly on 1 December in Alba Iulia passed a resolution calling for unification of all Romanians in a single state. The National Council of the Germans from Transylvania approved the Proclamation, as did the Council of the Danube Swabians from the Banat. In response, the Hungarian General Assembly of Cluj reaffirmed the loyalty of Hungarians from Transylvania to Hungary on December 22 1918.

The Prime Minister of the newly proclaimed independent Republic of Hungary resigned in March 1919, refusing to officially recognize the Treaty of Versailles which placed Transylvania under the sovereignty of Romania. When the Communist Party of Hungary, led by Béla Kun, came to power in March 1919 it proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic and promised that Hungary would regain the lands that were under its control during the Austro-Hungarian Empire. A Romanian counter-offensive led to the occupation of the Hungarian capital Budapest in August, putting an end to the Hungarian Soviet Republic. The Romanian army withdrew from Hungary between October 1919 and March 1920.

The Treaty of Versailles, formally signed in June 1919, recognised the sovereignty of Romania over Transylvania. The Treaties of St. Germain (1919) and Trianon (signed on June 1920) further defined the new border between the states of Hungary and Romania.

In August 1940, during the Second World War, Germany and Italy, as arbitrating powers, dictated that the northern half of Transylvania should be surrendered to Hungary (the second Vienna Arbitration accepted by both Romania and Hungary, although not internationally recognized). The Treaty of Paris (1947) after the end of the Second World War rendered the Vienna Arbitration, and the territory of northern Transylvania was returned to Romania. The post-WWII borders with Hungary, agreed on at the Treaty of Paris were identical with those set out in 1920.

Historical population

Historical coat of arms of Transylvania

The Transylvanian Diet of 1659 codified the representation of the privileged nations in Transylvania's coat of arms. While the Hungarians, Saxons, and Szeklers were represented, the Romanians were not, despite their proposal to include a representation of Dacia. Because the Romanian administrative divisions are not regions but counties (judeţe), the historical arms is now only used within the coat of arms of Romania. The historical Transylvanian arms depicts:

• on a blue background, a black eagle representing the medieval nobility, which was primarily Magyar
• the Sun and the Moon above the eagle represent the Szeklers
• a red dividing band
• seven red towers on a yellow background representing the seven castles of the Transylvanian Saxons

See also

• Aftermath of World War I
• Austria-Hungary
• History of Hungary
• History of Romania
• List of Transylvanian rulers
• History of the region in maps

Tourist attractions

• The medieval cities of Alba Iulia, Cluj-Napoca, Sibiu, Sighişoara and Mediaş
• The city of Braşov and the nearby Poiana Braşov ski resort
• The city of Hunedoara with the 14th century Hunyadi Castle
• The Wooden Churches of the Maramureş area
• The Dacian Fortresses of the Orăştie Mountains, including (Sarmizegetusa
• The Saxon fortified churches

Culture

• Endre Ady, Hungarian poet
• János Apáczai Csere, Hungarian writer and educator
• János Arany, Hungarian poet
• Gábor Áron, Hungarian revolutionary
• Béla Bartók, Hungarian composer
• István Báthory, Hungarian noble and governor
• Lucian Blaga, Romanian poet, playwright, and philosopher
• István Bocskai, Hungarian governor
• Farkas Bolyai, Hungarian mathematician
• János Bolyai, Hungarian mathematician
• Sándor Bölöni Farkas, Hungarian writer
• Sámuel Brassai, Hungarian teacher, musician and artist
• Emil Cioran, Romanian essayst and philosopher
• Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary
• George Cosbuc, Romanian poet
• Octavian Goga, Romanian poet
• John Hunyadi, Regent of Hungary
• Sándor Kőrösi Csoma, Hungarian explorer and researcher
• Johannes Honter, Renaissance humanist and Reformer
• Avram Iancu, Romanian revolutionary
• György Kurtág, Hungarian composer
• Károly Kós, Hungarian architect and writer
• Ferenc Kölcsey, Hungarian poet and author of the national anthem
• György Ligeti, Hungarian composer
• Béla Lugosi, Hungarian actor
• Kelemen Mikes, Hungarian composer
• Andrei Muresanu, Romanian poet and revolutionary
• Dumitru Prunariu, Romanian cosmonaut
• Hermann Oberth, German physicist
• Péter Pázmány, Hungarian theologist and writer
• Liviu Rebreanu, Romanian novelist
• Ioan Slavici, Romanian writer
• György Székely Dózsa, Hungarian peasant revolt leader
• Sándor Veress, Hungarian composer
• Aurel Vlaicu, Romanian aviation pioneer
• Traian Vuia, Romanian inventor and aviation pioneer
• Albert Wass, Hungarian writer
• Johnny Weissmuller (1904-1984), German actor ("Tarzan")
• Miklós Wesselényi, Hungarian politician and writer

• Transylvania in fiction - in the Western world, Transylvania is famously the home of Bram Stoker's Count Dracula.

References

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)

External links

• The Real Transylvania - about contemporary Transylvania
• Historical Literature about Transilvania and Neighbouring Territories, Klaus Popa, Germany
• Subjective Transylvania: A case study of post communist nationalism, Alina Mungiu Pippidi, Bucharest, Romania
• Tolerant Transylvania-Why Transylvania will not become another Kosovo, Katherine Lovatt, in Central Europe Review, Vol 1, No 14 27 September 1999.
• An Outline of Transilvanian-Saxon History, Klaus Popa, Germany
• The History Of Transylvania And The Transylvanian Saxons, Dr. Konrad Gündisch, Oldenburg, Germany
• The map of the Hungarian minority in Transylvania after the official census of 1992, László Sebők
• The Hungarian Academy Of Sciences, History of Transylvania

v t e Historical regions in Romania
Banat (1918–)	Banat
Dobruja (1878–)	Northern Dobruja Southern Dobruja (1913–16; 1919–40)
Moldavia (1859–)	Bessarabia (1918–40; 1941–44) Budjak (1918–40; 1941–44) Bukovina (Southern Bukovina (1918–); Northern Bukovina (1918–40; 1941–44)) Hertsa (1859–1940; 1941–44) Western Moldavia
Transylvania (1918–)	Crișana Maramureș Székely Land
Wallachia (1859–)	Muntenia Oltenia
De jure since 1920 De jure since 1862 De jure ceded to Bulgaria and the Central Powers (except for the Danube Delta) between May 1918 and November 1919 De jure ceded to Bulgaria between May 1918 and November 1919 Southern Bessarabia in Romania (1859–78) De jure since 1919 Northern Transylvania in Hungary (1940–44) Only the eastern part Only the southern part Transylvania proper

• Former countries in Europe
• Romania
• Transylvania