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Genetically modified organism

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File:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg
A tobacco plant which has been genetically engineered to express a gene taken from fireflies.

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using techniques in genetics generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine DNA molecules from different sources into one molecule in a test tube. Thus, the expression of certain traits, the phenotype of the organism, or the proteins it produces, can be altered through the modification of its genes.

The term generally does not cover organisms whose genetic makeup has been altered by conventional cross breeding or by "mutagenesis" breeding, as these methods predate the discovery of the recombinant DNA techniques. Technically speaking, however, such techniques are by definition genetic modification.

History

The general principle of producing a GMO is to add genetic material into an organism's genome to generate both new and useful traits. The origins of this genetic engineering were a series of sequential scientific advances from the discovery of DNA to the production of the first recombinant bacteria (E .coli) expressing a frog gene in 1973. This led to concerns in the scientific community about the possible risks from genetic engineering and led to biologists meeting at the Asilomar Conference in Pacific Grove, California. The recommendations laid out from this conference were that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe. Herbert Boyer then founded the first company to use recombinant DNA technology, Genentech, and in 1978 the company announced that it had produced a strain of E. coli that could produce the human protein insulin.

In 1986, field tests of a bacterium genetically engineered to protect plants from frost damage (ice-minus bacteria) at a small biotechnology company called Advanced Genetic Sciences of Oakland, California, were repeatedly delayed by opponents of biotechnology. Also in 1986, a proposed field test of a microbe genetically engineered for a pest resistance protein by Monsanto was dropped.

Uses of GMOs

Examples of GMOs are diverse, and include transgenic experimental animals such as mice, several fish species, transgenic plants, or various microscopic organisms altered for the purposes of genetic research or for the production of pharmaceuticals. The term "genetically modified organism" does not necessarily imply, but does include, transgenic substitution of genes from another species, and research is actively being conducted in this field. For example, genes for fluorescent proteins can be co-expressed with complex proteins in cultured cells to facilitate study by biologists, and modified organisms are used in researching the mechanisms of cancer and other diseases.

Increasingly large numbers of pharmecuticals are produced using GMOs.

File:GloFish.jpg
GloFish: the first genetically modified animal to be sold as a pet.

Transgenic animals

Transgenic animals are animals produced with externally introduced genes. Transgenic animals can be used in many fields and as models to test the effect of certain genes on health. They can be used to produce "enhanced" versions of an animal. They can also be used as bioreactors: animals that produce an extra substance we want. Imagine having a transgenic cow that is modified to produce insulin in large quantities in its milk. This insulin can then be purified from the cows milk and used in replacement therapy for treating patients with diabetes mellitus.

An example are transgenic flies, which are flies produced with externally introduced genes. Transgenic flies can be used in many fields and as models to test the effect of certain genes on health and development, similar to the usage of transgenic animals. As the fly genome is in general simpler than that of vertebrates, the effect of introducing an external gene is usually more pronounced than in vertebrates.

GMOS ARE A LIE

In popular culture

Genetically modified characters, whether as heroes, villains, or backdrop, feature prominently in many works of fiction, in particular science fiction and cyberpunk, where it is used as a plot device to explain differences in a character or setting, such as explaining increased longevity or eradication of disease in a fictional civilization.

In the Spider-Man movie, Peter Parker was bitten by a super-spider, enhanced with the genes of many different spiders. The abilities of all these spiders were then transferred from the super-spider, into Peter, turning him into Spider-Man.

The videogame character Shadow the Hedgehog was originally a science experiment who was fused with the DNA of Black Doom, causing him to have the genes of aliens as well as hedgehogs. This however, was not revealed until the game Shadow the Hedgehog.

The plot of the 1982 movie Blade Runner revolved around a group of gentically enhanced, artificially constructed replicants, who possessed superior physical and mental capabilities and were used as slaves.

In the Maximum Ride books by James Patterson, the main characters are human/bird transgenics.

In Red Dwarf, mankind turns to GELFs, Genetically Engineered LifeForms, after the robot revolution leaves them with nothing.

Michael Crichton's novel Next is heavily based around the concept of transgenics.

The TV series Dark Angel features transgenic supersoldiers who were enhanced with animal DNA.

The computer game Deus Ex contains two transgenic species: karkians and greasels, which appear to be shark/dogs and lizard/chickens, respectively.

In the Warhammer 40,000 universe, the armies of the galaxy-spanning Imperium of Man make use of genetically-modified Space Marines.

See also

References

  1. Cohen, ricola S., Chang, A., Boyer, H. & Helling, R. (1973) Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids In Vitro. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 70, 3240-3244
  2. Berg, P., Baltimore, D., Brenner, S., Roblin, R.O. III, Singer, M.F., "Summary statement of the Asilomar Conference on recombinant DNA molecules," Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 72, pp. 1981-1984 (1975), also Science 188, p. 991 (1975).
  3. "Guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA molecules," Federal Register 41, no. 131, pp. 27911-27943 (1976).
  4. Genentech: Press Releases - News Release September 6, 1978 The insulin synthesis is the first laboratory production DNA technology.

Anderson, K. and Lee Ann Jackson. 2005. Some Implications of GM Food Technology Policies for Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of African Economies 14(3):385-410; doi:10.1093/jae/eji013

Heong, KL, YH Chen, DE Johnson, GC Jahn, M Hossain, RS Hamilton. 2005. Debate Over a GM Rice Trial in China. Letters. Science, Vol 310, Issue 5746, 231-233 , 14 October 2005.

Huang, J., Ruifa Hu, Scott Rozelle, Carl Pray. 2005. Insect-Resistant GM Rice in Farmers' Fields: Assessing Productivity and Health Effects in China. Science (29 April 2005) Vol. 308. no. 5722, pp. 688 – 690. DOI: 10.1126/science.1108972

External links

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Transgenic animals

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