Misplaced Pages

Anti-Americanism

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 68.203.115.117 (talk) at 02:57, 15 April 2007 (→Political policies and hypocrisy). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Revision as of 02:57, 15 April 2007 by 68.203.115.117 (talk) (→Political policies and hypocrisy)(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)
File:Flagonfireimage2.jpg
Flag burning is widely used internationally as a symbolic form of protest against the U.S.

Anti-Americanism, often Anti-American sentiment, is opposition or hostility toward the government, culture, or people of the United States. In practice, a broad range of attitudes and actions critical of or opposed to the United States have been labelled anti-Americanism and the applicability of the term is often disputed. Contemporary examples typically focus on international opposition to United States policy, though historically the term has been applied to a variety of concepts. Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarised. Anti-Americanism has been described as a belief that configures the United States and the "American way of life" as threatening at their core. However, it has also been suggested that Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon and that the term merely signifies a rough composite of stereotypes, prejudices and criticisms towards Americans or the United States. Paul Hollander defined the prejudice thusly:

Anti—Americanism is a predisposition to hostility toward the United States and American society, a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values; it entails an aversion to American culture in particular and its influence abroad, often also contempt for the American national character (or what is presumed to he such a character) and dislike of American people, manners, behavior; dress, and so on; rejection of American foreign policy and a firm belief in the malignity of American influence and presence anywhere in the world.

Whether sentiment hostile to the United States reflects reasoned evaluation of specific policies and administrations, rather than a prejudiced belief system, is often invoked to cloud the issue. Globally, some claim that all increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies, such as the Vietnam and Iraq wars. For this reason, such critics often argue the label is a propaganda item that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. However, they fall into the fallacy of failing to distinguish between disagreement with American policies, however vehement that disagreement, and expressed contempt for American culture, society, people, and/or history. Such a dismissive attitude is a rhetorical device, and often a rationalization for the one prejudice, Anti-Americanism, that has been called "the only face of xenophobia still broadly accepted in Europe" by another critic of American policy.

File:Anti-US Tehran.jpg
Mural: Tehran, Iran. 2004
Graffiti: Stockholm, Sweden. 1980s

Use of the term

Template:Discrimination2 The use of the term anti-Americanism has been catalogued from 1948, entering wide political language in the 1950s. The related term "Americanisation" (to which anti-Americanism is at least partly a response) has been dated to a French source as early as 1867. Labeling earlier attitudes and commentary "anti-American" is thus partly a retroactive exercise, though there are numerous examples of hostility directed at the country from at least the late 18th century onwards.

Contemporary usage is often controversial. The term itself does not imply a critical attitude based on rational objections but rather a prejudiced system of thought and it is therefore rarely employed as a self-identifier (i.e. "I am anti-American...") as this implies bias, though some have been honest enough to do so, Margaret Drabble writing that "My anti-Americanism has become almost uncontrollable. It has possessed me, like a disease. It rises up in my throat like acid reflux, that fashionable American sickness...I detest Disneyfication, I detest Coca-Cola, I detest burgers, I detest sentimental and violent Hollywood movies that tell lies about history. I detest American imperialism, American infantilism, and American triumphalism about victories it didn't even win." But despite occasional candor on the part of isolated individuals acknowledging the prejudice, the term is more frequently used by those who object to another individual or group's stance toward the United States or its policies. Advocates of the significance of the term argue, for instance, that Anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current, comparable to anti-Semitism. Anti-Americanism has also been described as theory that seeks to frame the consequences of difficult US policy choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with superpower status. Lee Harris has distinguished criticism of American policies from anti-American prejudice, saying:

Its goal is not to advise, but to condemn; not to fix, but to destroy. It repudiates every thought of reform in any normal sense; it sees no difference between American liberals and American conservatives; it views every American action, both present and past, as an act of deliberate oppression and systemic exploitation. It is not that America went wrong here or there; it is that it is wrong root and branch.

Its status as an "-ism" is a contentious aspect and it is often called a propaganda term by critics who feel it is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. American academic Noam Chomsky, a incessant critic of U.S. policy who has called America a "rogue nation" and a "terrorist state", asserts that the use of the term within the U.S. has parallels with methods employed by totalitarian states or military dictatorships; he compares the term to "anti-Sovietism", a label used by the Kremlin to suppress dissident or critical thought, for instance. This is a rhetorical device, as revealed by the fact that he does not compare it to the term anti-Europeanism, nor do critics of the term "anti-American" disparage anti-Europeanism or other descriptions of prejudice (Francophobia) in such a manner. Arguably, the attempt to delegitimize the term "anti-Americanism" is itself a propaganda device. Another prolific critic of American policy, Todd Gitlin, has not followed Chomsky's lead in dismissing this form of prejudice, saying instead that "Anti-Americanism is an emotion masquerading as an analysis, a morality, an ideal, even an idea about what to do. When hatred of foreign policies ignites into hatred of an entire people and their civilization, then thinking is dead and demonology lives.".

Other scholars have also suggested that a plural of Anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization. The widely used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system.

History

Since the founding of the United States of America, anti-Americanism has existed in different forms and for different reasons. Some anti-American views derive from ideological resistance to American values and culture. Other views are expressions of group identity, racism, and xenophobia. Still other anti-American sentiments are reactions to the policies of the United States government.

The degeneracy thesis

Anti-American sentiment in Europe originated with the discovery of America, the study of the Native Americans, and the examination of its flora, fauna, and climate. The first anti-American theory, the "degeneracy thesis," portrayed America as a regressive and culturally bankrupt continent. The theory that the humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America physically and morally weakened both men and animals was commonly argued in Europe and debated by early American thinkers such as Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson.

In 1768 Cornelius de Pauw, court philosopher to Frederick II of Prussia and chief proponent of this thesis, described America as "degenerate or monstrous" colonies and argued that, "the weakest European could crush them with ease."

The theory was extended to argue that the natural environment of the United States would prevent it from ever producing true culture. Paraphrasing Pauw, the French Encyclopedist Abbé Raynal wrote, "America has not yet produced a good poet, an able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science." (So virulent was Raynal's antipathy that his book was suppressed by the French monarchy.)

Anti-technology and Romantic hostility

Nazi propaganda poster addressing the Dutch public in 1944 with the words: "The USA are supposed to save European culture". The image utilizes a number of themes, some of which (racism, use of excessive force, American culture and the influence of Judaism) are still in use within some varieties of modern anti-Americanism.

The French Revolution created a new type of anti-American political thought, hostile to the political institutions of the United States and their impact upon Europe. Furthermore, the Romantic strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of reason and obsessed with history and national character, disdained the American project.

The German poet Nikolaus Lenau encapsulated the Romantic view, "With the expression Bodenlosigkeit (rootlessness), I think I am able to indicate the general character of all American institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme."

With the rise of American industry in the late nineteenth century, intellectual anti-American discourse entered a new form. Mass production, the Taylor system, and the speed of American life and work became a major threat to some intellectuals' view of European life and tradition.

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote, "The breathless haste with which they (the Americans) work - the distinctive vice of the new world - is already beginning ferociously to infect old Europe and is spreading a spiritual emptiness over the continent."

It has been argued that this thesis transformed into a Heideggerian critique of technologism. Heidegger wrote in 1935: "Europe lies today in a great pincer, squeezed between Russia on the one side and America on the other. From a metaphysical point of view, Russia and America are the same, with the same dreary technological frenzy and the same unrestricted organization of the average man."

A derivative of the thesis regarding the soullessness of America and its inherent threat to Europe was also used in Fascist rhetoric and in German and Japanese propaganda during World War II. It has been argued that the Heideggerian critique, incorporated into existentialist (Sartre) and leftist thought after the war, played a central role in the political rhetoric of many Western European Communist parties.

Nationalism, xenophobia and ethnic discrimination

Some critics argue that anti-Americanism ideology often correlates with other forms of perceived extremism, such as virulent nationalist movements, radical Islam, or communism.

Self-proclaimed French anti-anti-American, Bernard-Henri Levy, described this view, "Anti-Americanism is a horror… It is a magnet of the worst. In the entire world and in France in particular, everything that is the worst in people's heads comes together around anti-Americanism: racism, nationalism, chauvinism, anti-semitism."

Racialism

In the middle of the nineteenth century, the racialist theories of Arthur de Gobineau and others spread through Europe. The presence of blacks and "lower quality" immigrant groups made racialist thinkers discount the potential of the United States. The infinite mixing of America would lead to the ultimate degeneracy. Gobineau said that America was creating "greatest mediocrity in all fields: mediocrity of physical strength, mediocrity of beauty, mediocrity of intellectual capacities - we could almost say nothingness."

Anti-globalism

See also: Anti-globalisation, Anti-globalisation and antisemitism

According to its opponents, globalisation has magnified the visibility of trade conflicts and decreased job security, and is often attributed to either US or Anglo-American influence "Globalization is the result of powerful governments, especially that of the United States, pushing trade deals and other accords." Anti-globalist resentments stem from perceptions that the United States was the inspiration for globalisation and neoliberal free trade policy, which those opposed to it claim is exploitive, and that thus America in particular has gotten rich by making others poor. This globalization also supposedly exposed previously isolated countries to the spread of the English language and American popular culture, a process that some have labelled cultural imperialism despite the role played by consumer choice (see American Cultural Imperialism). Though cosmopolitianism and exposure of communities to new cultures and ideas is widely considered a benefit (Multiculturalism and diversity), that the spread of American culture is deemed pernicious is one sign of anti-Americanism. The 'Anglo-American' corporate business model is the subject of much hostility ("the EU constitution on offer, had argued, was too low on social protection and too high on shameful Anglo-Saxon economic liberalism") American businesses in particular are more frequently criticised for their perceived lack of attention to environmental issues than multinationals of other countries.

National Identity

Anti-US banner in a demonstration in Brazil, stating: USA It is necessary to resist. Long live Brazil!!!

Just as the United States has defined itself against Monarchical and Communist countries during its history and is now defending itself against terrorism and radical Islam, the use of anti-American ideologies may represent a way for nations to unify the country and bridge political divisions and/or to cover up evident flaws in their political or economic system. Certain forms of social identity theory argue that the existence of "an other" is crucial to the development of group identity. In the case of a European strand of anti-Americanism, some authors, like A.S. Markowitz in Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America, argue it would be linked to the creation of a coalescing European identity.

Snobbery

A popular, non-political form of anti-Americanism is an attitude that regards American culture as inherently inferior, and lacking in the fine manners, traditions and depth of older societies. It is often accompanied by an aversion to American products and ideas such as McDonalds, American English, or Hollywood movies simply because they are American, and a corresponding preference for non-American alternatives.

Political policies and hypocrisy

Samuel Johnson hit upon one theme that, in various and different forms, has long defined some forms of anti-American sentiment: the perceived hypocrisy of a supposed freedom-loving people engaged in less than admirable practices. Americans in his eyes were hypocrites in their relations with Indigenous peoples and African slaves.

"How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?" He famously stated that, "I am willing to love all mankind, except an American."

What distinguishes such attitudes from anti-slavery and anti-racism or opposition to colonialism in principle from anti-Americanism is that it roots these phenomenon almost uniquely in American culture, scapegoating it while tacitly absolving others. For example, contemporanious slavery in Brazil, or France championing Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite while running a Colonial Empire, or Johnston's own liberal Britain with it's treatment of Indians in the Raj. A rational critic would condemn all such, but anti-Americanism is seen in the willingness to love (forgive) all but Americans.

Such distinctions carry through to similar extreme forms of condemnation of American policies, separating them from principled oppositions to particular policies.

"The fundamental role of anti-Americanism in Europe in general, and particularly among those on the Left, is to absolve themselves of their own moral failings and intellectual errors by heaping them onto the monster scapegoat, the United States of America. For stupidity and bloodshed to vanish from Europe, the U.S. must be identified as the singular threat to democracy (contrary to every lesson of actual history). Thus, during the Cold War, it was dogma among Europeans from Sweden to Sicily, from Athens to Paris, that the "imperialistic" power was America, even though it was the USSR that annexed Eastern Europe, made satellites out of several African countries, and invaded Afghanistan, even though it was the People's Republic of China that marched into Tibet, attacked South Korea, and subjugated three Indochinese countries. A similar dynamic applies today in the war on terror."

Early 20th century

As European immigration to the United States continued and the country's economic potential became more obvious, anti-American stances grew a much more explicit geopolitical dimension. A new strand of anti-American sentiment started to appear as America entered the competition for influence in the Pacific, and anti-Americanism was widespread among the Central Powers after the U.S. entered the First World War. Furthermore, many of the anti-American ideological threads spread to other areas, such as Japan and Latin America, where Continental philosophy was popular and growing American power was increasingly viewed as a threat. In political terms, even among the allies of the United States, Britain and France, there was resentment at the end of the war as they found themselves massively in debt to the United States. These sentiments became even more widespread during the interbellum and Great Depression and sometimes tended toward the anti-Semitic: the belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy was common in countries ruled by fascists before and during World War II.

Cold War foreign policy

During the Cold War, anti-Americanism grew within the sphere of the Soviet Union and spread to some other parts of the world, such as Africa and Asia. The Vietnam War boosted anti-American sentiment. In addition, the United States' support for right-wing authoritarian regimes and numerous covert operations during this era had been likewise criticized. Support for military dictatorships and authoritarian governments during and after the Cold War, such as Augusto Pinochet's right-wing régime in Chile, also bred anti-American sentiments, often expressed in a romanticization of dictators deemed hostile to America, such as Fidel Castro, and his associate, Che Guevara. Anti-Americanism, as opposed to principled opposition to all dictatorship and political murder, was often expressed through such double-standards: Regimes supported by America were demonized while regimes hostile to America were rationalized and excused on the grounds of revolutionary solidarity against supposed American imperialism.

Post-Cold War policies

This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
Find sources: "Anti-Americanism" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
File:Vitrenkoposter.jpeg
Ukrainian 2004 election poster of Nataliya Vitrenko depicting a hand symbolizing USA and NATO with a Nazi swastika

The fall of the Soviet Union may have brought an increase in anti-Americanism because the U.S. was left as the world's only superpower and people who formerly saw the United States as a bastion against Communism or needed the American security umbrella no longer felt the need to support the United States. Where the governments of allied states in particular had felt disinclined to openly criticize US policy during the Cold War, they have had fewer such qualms since. In addition, criticism of American economic sanctions and embargos toward various countries, including Cuba, North Korea and Iran, while maintaining commercial relations with countries such as China generates resentment.

French author Jean Francois Revel wrote that "For skeptics of democratic capitalism, the United States is, quite simply, the enemy. For many years, and still today, a principal function of anti-Americanism has been to discredit the nation that stands as the supreme alternative to socialism. More recently, Islamists, anti-modern Greens, and others have taken to pillorying the U.S. for the same reason."

The belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy or that Israel was an American puppet state has also motivated anti-American hatred in some circles during the last third of the 20th century. Other items of concern include American military interventions and perceived imperialism, especially in connection with the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the perceived selective favor given to allies of the United States in international institutions, especially involving issues like nuclear proliferation. Also the apparent dismissal of international law, i.e. the treatment of detainees, in the War on Terror has intensified criticism.

Regional Attitudes

Anti-Americanism in some form has existed across different American presidential administrations, though its severity may wax and wane considerably depending upon particular economic or geopolitical issues. George W. Bush's presidency, for instance, is widely seen as inducing a major increase in Anti-Americanism, with the 2003 invasion of Iraq and controversies such as the Guantanamo Bay detention camp and CIA "torture flights" badly affecting global opinions of the U.S.

Australia

While not to the extent of Europe there is a rising attitude of anti-Americanism in Australia. Many Australian people see Americanism encroaching on traditional Australian values and culture such as the idealities of a "fair go" and a laid back approach to life being replaced with corporatism and bureaucracy.

Our love/hate relationship with US culture is possibly the most contradictory aspect of Australian culture and identity today. We consume vast amounts of US popular culture in an addictive manner but, as with the daily consumption of Coke or cigarettes, this consumption comes with a guilty aftertaste for many. Recent surveys show Australians to be among the most enthusiastic consumers of US culture and one of the nations most worried about the Americanisation of our society. This paradox goes some way to explaining why Australian anti-Americanism is often inarticulate and not classifiable as pathological anti-Americanism.

Europe

During the Bush administration, public opinion of America has declined dramatically in Europe. A Pew Global Attitudes Project poll shows "favourable opinions" of America between 2000 and 2006 dropping from 83% to 56% in the United Kingdom, from 62% to 39% in France, from 78% to 37% in Germany and from 50% to 23% in Spain .

Even in Britain, a traditional US ally, there is growing dissatisfaction with America. A June 2006 poll by Populus for The Times Populus poll showed that the number of Britons agreeing that "it is important for Britain’s long-term security that we have a close and special relationship with the US" had fallen to 58% (from 71% in April), and that 65% believed that "Britain’s future lies more with Europe than America". 44% agreed that "America is a force for good in the world." A later poll reported in The Guardian during the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict said that 63% of Britons felt that Britain is tied too closely to the US.

Fabbrini (2004) reports the American invasion of Iraq in the spring of 2003 brought anti-Americanism to the surface of public debate in Europe. The reaction to US unilateralism has been nourished by a complex of fears, two in particular: the presumed economic and cultural Americanization of Europe and the Americanization of the European political process. The overwhelming global power acquired by the United States in the post-Cold War era and the unilateral exercise of that power, especially after 9/11 attacks September 11, 2001 fed the anti-American sentiment contributing to its most militant manifestation. Although anti-Americanism has been deeply rooted in European political cultures and experiences, its reemergence was greatly triggered by American foreign policy strategy, Fabbrini argues.

In Europe in 2002, vandalism of American companies was reported in Venice, Athens, Berlin, Zürich, Tbilisi (Georgia), and Moscow.

However, European anti-Americanism well predates the invasion of Iraq and the Bush Administration, with criticisms of American "hegemonism", the coining of the term "hyperpussiance", and the dream of making the EU a "counterballance" to the United States all flaring up in the '90s. The usual criticisms were also levied, that America was enforcing sanctions against Iraq (when it was really UN sanctions) for oil, and attributing sinister motives to the accidental bombing of the Chinese embassy in Serbia. It has been argued that anti-Americanism is being used to create a "European" identity:

"No identity has ever emerged without an important counter-identity. Anti-Americanism thus enables the Europeans to create a hitherto missing European identity that must emerge if the European project is to succeed. This functional dimension of anti-Americanism is a key reason why among the two core proponents and protagonists of the European project - the French and Germans, though not only them - anti-Americanism has become such a central part of political discourse."

Thus it is not surprising that as European integration has become a higher priority, European media outlets have engaged in increasing levels of anti-Americanism as a form of jingoistic differentiating from Europe's ally

I watched the United States from France and Italy during the 1950s and '60s, and formed my opinion about it through the filter of the European press--which means my opinion was unfavorable. Europeans at this time saw America as the land of McCarthyism and the execution of the Rosenbergs (who we then believed innocent), of racism and the Korean War, and a stranglehold on Europe itself. Then Vietnam became the principal reason to hate America. Even during this period when Europeans completely relied on the United States to protect them against Soviet imperialism, anti-Americanism was almost as virulent as it is today. For European leftists and the majority of intellectuals--who were likely to adhere to communist ideas--anti-Americanism was rational. This crowd identified America with capitalism, and capitalism with evil. What was less rational was their wholesale swallowing of the most flagrant and stupid lies about American society and foreign policy, with a concomitant flight from accurate knowledge of the political systems that the U.S. was battling.

Criticisms extend as far as sports, with America on the one hand being held to be inferior for not participating in the world sport, Soccer, then also being vilified when it does:

When the United States was chosen as host of the World Cup for the summer of 1994, many of the European news and entertainment media were appalled. Instead of rejoicing that the last important terra incognita for soccer was about to be conquered by the "beautiful game," Europeans loudly voiced the usual objections to American crassness, vulgarity, commercialism, and ignorance. They argued that giving the tournament to the Americans was tantamount to degrading the game and its tradition.

Asia

In Japan and South Korea, much anti-Americanism has focused on the sometimes criminal behavior of American military personnel, aggravated especially by high-profile cases of sexual assaults on locals by U.S. servicemen. The on-going U.S. military presence in Okinawa remains a contentious issue in Japan.

In South Korea, two junior high school students were killed by American military personnel in a traffic accident at the final stage of a presidential election in 2002. As a result, the Korean public opinion was enraged and Roh Moo-hyun, who advocated anti-Americanism, was elected President. President Roh Moo-Hyun and his administration considerably weakened the alliance of the United States and South Korea. Also, the Iraq War and foreign policy of America was invoked as rationales for inciting negative attitudes towards America in South Korea.

Middle East

The Middle East region has been a focal point of much anti-American sentiment in the latter decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st, often blamed on specific US policies in the region, particularly its close relationship with Israel. The term Great Satan, as well as the chant "Death to America" have been in continual use in Iran since at least the Iranian revolution in 1979. The Iranian capital Tehran has many examples of anti-American murals and posters sponsored by the state; the former US Embassy in the city has been decorated with a number of such murals.

In 2002 and 2004, Zogby International polled the favorable/unfavorable ratings of the U.S. in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. In Zogby's 2002 survey, 76% of Egyptians had a negative attitude toward the United States, compared with 98% in 2004. In Morocco, 61% viewed the country unfavorably in 2002, but in two years, that number has jumped to 88 percent. In Saudi Arabia, such responses rose from 87% in 2002 to 94% in June. Attitudes were virtually unchanged in Lebanon but improved slightly in the UAE, from 87 % who said in 2002 that they disliked the United States to 73% in 2004. However most of these countries showed a marked distinction between negative perceptions of the United States, and much less negative of Americans.

The Pew Research Institute probed more deeply the stereotypes of westerners in the Middle East. While more than 70% of middle easterners identified more than 3 negative characteristics of the Westerner stereotype, the three strongest were selfish, violent and greedy. Few had positive opinions of Westerners, but the strongest positive stereotypes were devout and respectful of women. The report also demonstrates strong unfavorable views of Jews and weakly favorable views of Christians predominate in the Middle East. In Jordan, 61%, Pakistan 27%, and Turkey 16% have favorable views of Christians while in Jordan 1%, Pakistan 6%, and Turkey 15% have favorable views of Jews.

The Americas

In Latin America, anti-American sentiment has deep roots dating back to the 1830s and the Texas Revolution. Other significant 19th century events which led to a rise in anti-American sentiment were the 1846-1848 Mexican-American War, American mercenary William Walker's 1855 intervention in Nicaragua, and the Spanish American War of 1898. US support for dictators such as Augusto Pinochet, Anastasio Somoza and Alfredo Stroessner led to more. Support for the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, as well as other economic and military interventions in the region added further to these sentiments.

The perceived failures of the neo-liberal reforms of the 1980s and the 1990s intensified opposition to the Washington consensus, leading to a resurgence in support for Pan-Americanism, support for popular movements in the region, the nationalization of key industries and centralization of government. The movement saw the rise of leaders hostile to the United States throughout the region. Most vocal has been Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, who is known for his strong opposition towards George W. Bush, driving him to address him in many ways; reffering to him as "the devil" before the United Nations, an example of demonization. He has redirected the foreign policy of Venezuela "against the toughest country in the world, the United States."

See also

Related Content

Anti-state or ethnic sentiment

Notes

  1. "anti-americanism". Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Retrieved 2006-10-18.
  2. Hollander, Paul. Anti-Americanism: Irrational and rational, Transaction Publishers, 1995
  3. Ceaser, James W. "A genealogy of Anti-Americanism", The Public Interest, Summer 2003.
  4. O'Conner, Brendan. "A Brief History of Anti-Americanism from Cultural Criticism to Terrorism", Australasian Journal of American Studies, July 2004, pp. 77-92
  5. Rodman, Peter W. The world’s resentment, The National Interest, Washington D.C., vol. 601, Summer 2001
  6. Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism By Nicole Speulda, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005
  7. O'Connor, Brendan, op. cit., p 78: "... Cold War (1945-1989) ... In this period the false and disingenuous labeling of objections to American policies as ‘anti-Americanism’ became more prominent."
  8. Fitsgerald, Mary, The New Statesman, Love to hate you, 12 February 2007
  9. Roger, Phillipe. The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism, introductory excerpt, University of Chicago Press, 2005.
  10. Rubin, Barry. "Understanding Anti-Americanism", Foreign Policy Research Institute, August 2004
  11. Drabble, Margaret I Loathe America, and what it has done to the rest of the world, The Telegraph, 8 May 2003
  12. Foot, Rob. "The New Anti-Semitism?", Quadrant Magazine, vol, XLVIII n 4, April 2004.
  13. Kagan, Robert. Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order (2003)
  14. Harris, Lee "The Intellectual Origins of America-Bashing, Policy Review, Dec/Jan 2002/3, Hoover Institution.
  15. Barsamian, David The United States is a Leading Terrorist State, Monthly Review, Vol. 53 N.6, 2001
  16. Interviewing Chomsky Preparatory to Porto : Alegre Zmagazine
  17. Anti-Anti Americanism, Dissent Magazine, Winter 2003
  18. Katzenstein, Peter and Robert Keohane. "Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America", in Anti-Americanisms in World Politics, Katzenstein and Keohane, eds., Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006 (forthcoming).
  19. de Pauw, Cornelius. Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains ou Mémoires interessants pour servir à l'histoire de l'espèce humaine. London, 1768.
  20. Raynal, Abbé Guillaume-Thomas. Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes. Amsterdam, 1770.
  21. Alexander, Beth R. (2004). "Commentary: Bernard Henri-Levy takes heat". UNITED PRESS INTERNATIONAL. Retrieved 2006-03-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  22. Moore, Michael, Downsize This, 1997
  23. "Globalization and Resistance An Interview with Noam Chomsky by Husayn Al-Kurdi". 1995. Retrieved 2007-02-24. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 29 (help)
  24. McChesney, Robert W. (1999). "Noam Chomsky and the Struggle Against Neoliberalism". Monthly Review. Retrieved 2007-02-24.
  25. "A triumph of the right". New Statesman. 2005. Retrieved 2007-02-24. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  26. Speulda, Nicole.Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005
  27. CNN: Anti-Americanism in Europe deepens, February 14, 2003
  28. Nicole Risse, Yonsei University: ;
  29. Asia Times: Korea-US: Swan song for an alliance, September 16, 2006
  30. ^ Linzer, Dafna (2004). "Poll Shows Growing Arab Rancor at U.S." The Washington Post: A26. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  31. ^ "The Great Divide: How Westerners and Muslims View Each Other: Europe's Muslims More Moderate". Pew Global Attitudes Project. 2006. Retrieved 2006-09-12. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  33. BBC News. How the US 'lost' Latin America. Online accessed 10 January 2007
  34. Foreign Affairs. Latin America's Left Turn. Online accessed 10 January 2007
  35. James, Ian At U.N., Chavez Calls Bush 'The Devil', AP, 20 Sep 2006,
  36. Blum, Justin (Washington Post, 22 November 2005). "Chavez Pushes Petro-Diplomacy". Retrieved 29 November 2005.

References

  • Gerrit-Jan Berendse; "German Anti-Americanism in Context" Journal of European Studies, Vol. 33, 2003
  • Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit, Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies (2005)
  • Richard Z. Chesnoff, The Arrogance of the French : Why They Can't Stand Us--and Why the Feeling Is Mutual, Sentinel, April, 2005 ISBN 1-59523-010-6
  • John Dean and Jean-Paul Gabilliet; European Readings of American Popular Culture Greenwood Press, 1996
  • Fabbrini, Sergio. "Layers of Anti-Americanism: Americanization, American Unilateralism and Anti-Americanism in a European Perspective." European Journal of American Culture (2004) 23(2): 79-94. Issn: 1466-0407 Fulltext online at Swetswise and Ebsco
  • J. L. Granatstein, Yankee Go Home? Canadians and Anti-Americanism. (1996)
  • Hodgson, Godfrey. "Anti-Americanism and American Exceptionalism." Journal of Transatlantic Studies (2004) 2(1): 27-38. Issn: 1479-4012 Fulltext in Ebsco
  • Paul Hollander, Understanding Anti-Americanism : Its Origins and Impact at Home and Abroad (2004)
  • Ickstadt, Heinz. "Uniting a Divided Nation: Americanism and Anti-americanism in Post-war Germany." European Journal of American Culture (2004) 23(2): 157-170. Issn: 1466-0407 Fulltext online at Swetswise and Ebsco
  • Josef Joffe, Überpower: The Imperial Temptation (2006, reviewed).
  • Chalmers Johnson, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire
  • Eric V. Larson, Norman D. Levin, Seonhae Baik, & Bogdan Savych, Ambivalent Allies? A Study of South Korean Attitudes toward the U.S (Rand, 2004).
  • Andrei S. Markovits, Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America, Princeton UP, 2007.
  • Andrea C. Nakaya (ed.), Does the World Hate the United States? (Greenhaven Press, 2005).
  • Brendon O’Connor, "A Brief History Of Anti-Americanism: From Cultural Criticism to Terrorism", Australasian Journal of American Studies, Vol. 23, No. 1, July 2004, p. 82.
  • Brendon O'Connor and Martin Griffiths, (eds.) The Rise of anti-Americanism, Routledge, (2005)
  • Brendon O'Connor, ed. Anti-Americanism: History, Causes, Themes (Four Volumes), Greenwood Press, (2007)
  • Richard Pells, Not like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (Basic Books, 1997)
  • Jean-Francois Revel, Anti-Americanism, (2002)
  • Philipe Roger, The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism (2005)
  • Barry Rubin and Judith Colp Rubin. Hating America: A History Oxford University Press, 2004; ISBN 0-19-516773-2,0-19-530649-X. online review
  • Fabrice Serodes, L'anglophobie est morte! Vive l'antiaméricanisme? (2005)
  • David Strauss; Menace in the West: The Rise of French Anti-Americanism in Modern Times Greenwood Press, 1978
  • Julia Sweig, Friendly Fire: Losing Friends and Making Enemies in the Anti-American Century, PublicAffairs, 2006 ISBN 1-58648-300-5
  • Charles J. Swindells; "Anti-Americanism and Its Discontents" New Zealand International Review. Volume: 30. Issue: 1. 2005. pp 8+.
  • Frank Trommler and Joseph McVeigh; America and the Germans: An Assessment of a Three-Hundred-Year History - Vol. 2 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990).

External links

Peer-Reviewed Articles

Government Documents

Magazine & Newspaper Articles

Categories: