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Byzantine literature

Byzantine literature concerns all Greek literature from the Middle Ages, even from foreign regions such as the Umayyad Caliphate or Norman Italy. It is considered both a successor to Ancient Greek literature and the foundation for Modern Greek literature, and although the Empire was linguistically varied, the vast majority of extant texts are in Greek. They are marked by a linguistic diglossy; traditionally, Byzantine Greek divides the literature into an learned dialect based on Attic Greek, and a vernacular based on Koine Greek. Theological literature is often separate as a third, unique tradition, but these genre divisions have been heavily criticized. The meaning of literature is similarly contentious: although most contemporary scholars consider all medieval Greek texts to be literature, others offer varying specific constraints. In general, Ancient dramas and epics became obsolete, while poetry was limited to musical hymnal forms, or the more niche epigram and gnome genres. This coincided with the flourishing of sermons, hagiography and particularly historiography, which became less individual-focused.

From c. 330–650, Byzantine literature was dominated by the competing cultures of Hellenism, Christianity and Paganism. The Greek Church Fathers—educated in an Ancient Greek, rhetoric tradition—sought to synthesize these influences. Important early writers include John Chrysostom, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Procopius, all of whom reinvented older forms to fit the new empire. Theological miracle stories, such as the Sayings of the Desert Fathers were particularly innovative. During the subsequent Byzantine Dark Ages (c. 650–800), most literature ceased, although some important theologians were active, such as Maximus the Confessor, Germanus I of Constantinople and John of Damascus.

The subsequent Encyclopedism period saw a renewed proliferation of literature and revived the earlier Hellenic-Christian synthesis. Works by Homer, Ancient Greek philosophers and tragedians were translated, while hagiography was heavily reorganized. After an early flowering of monastic literature, there was dearth until Symeon the New Theologian (949–1022). A new generation, including Symeon, Michael Psellos and Theodore Prodromos, rejected the Encyclopedist emphasis on order, and were interested in individual-focused ideals concerning mysticism, authorial voice, heroism, sexuality and humor. This coincided the Hellenistic-inspired Byzantine romance and Chivalric approaches in rhetoric, historiography and the influential Digenes Akritas epic. The empire's final centuries saw a renewal of hagiography and increased Western influence, leading to frequent Greek to Latin translations. Authors such as Gemistos Plethon and Bessarion exemplified a new focus on human vices alongside the preservation of classical traditions, which greatly influenced the Italian Renaissance.

References

Notes

Citations

1. ^ Browning 2022.
2. ^ Kazhdan 1991.
3. Papaioannou 2021a, pp. 1–2, 5–7.
4. Browning 1991.
5. Mullett 1992, p. 233.
6. Papaioannou 2021a, p. 10.
7. Kazhdan 1999, p. 1.
8. van Dieten 1980, pp. 101–105.

Sources

• Browning, Robert (1991). "Language". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. (subscription required)
• Browning, Robert (2022). "Greek literature: Byzantine literature". In Lucas, Donald William; Mackridge, Peter A. (eds.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
• van Dieten, Jan Louis (1980). "Die Byzantinische Literatur - Eine Literatur Ohne Geschichte?". Historische Zeitschrift. 231 (H 1): 101–109. JSTOR 27621785.
• Kazhdan, Alexander; Franklin, Simon (1984). Studies on Byzantine Literature of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. Past and Present Publications. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511735424. ISBN 978-0-511-73542-4.
• Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "Literature". In Kazhdan, Alexander (ed.). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. (subscription required)
• Kazhdan, Alexander (1999). A History of Byzantine Literature (650–850). Athens: Institute for Byzantine Research.
• Kazhdan, Alexander (2006). A History of Byzantine Literature (850–1000). Athens: Institute for Byzantine Research.
• Mullett, Margaret (1992). "The Madness of Genre". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 46 (Homo Byzantinus: Papers in Honor of Alexander Kazhdan): 233–243. doi:10.2307/1291656. JSTOR 1291656.
• Papaioannou, Stratis, ed. (2021). The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199351763.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-935176-3. (subscription required)
  • Papaioannou, Stratis (2021a). "What Is Byzantine Literature? An Introduction". In Papaioannou (2021).
• Nikolaos, Zagklas (2019). "Byzantine Poetry: an Introduction". A Companion to Byzantine Poetry. Brill.