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Japanese nationalism is a generic title, referring to a complex series of patriotic and nationalist ideas held in Japan.

From a political point of view and in the years leading up to World War II, the particular political and ideological foundations for the actions of the Japanese military (Japanese Imperial Army and Japanese Imperial Navy forces, not always acting in concert) can be called a Japanese nationalist ideology. This ideology, too complicated for a compressed explanation, involved radical right doctrines, with certain similarities to Nazism or Fascism. It was though a unique and singular combination of philosophical, nationalistic, cultural and religious elements.

File:IJNflag.png
Kyokujitsu-ki,(the sun with rays flag) or "Japanese war banner".Ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy. Also,one of best-know Japanese nationalist signs,since the First Chinese-Japanese War (1894-95) and Pacific War times (1941-45).This flag was sometimes also used by the Imperial Japanese Army on land, and is now employed by Japanese right-nationalist groups as well as the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Forces.
File:Hiro2.jpg
The Showa Emperor (Emperor Hirohito) was considered the symbol of Japanese nationalist ideology, the center of State Shintoism,Chief of Imperial Government and object of National Emperor-worship cult.

The ideology of Japanese nationalism 1905-1945

Tradition

Bushido

The bushido (warrior way) — the samurai code — had come from the Bun-Shun code, of Korean origin. When the daimyo system was abolished the code was adopted for ideological purposes and ultranationalist doctrine.other example are the use standart of Katana Japanese samurai sword joining at Nambu Pistol how command sign of officers and commanders in Imperial Japanese Forces of Army and Navy Branches,during Pacific War.

The role of Shinto

See main article kokugaku

In developing the modern concept of State Shintoism and Emperor worship, various Japanese thinkers tried to protect national beliefs from foreign elements such as Chinese religious thinking. They returned to ancient Japanese customs, creating the "Restoration Shintoist Movement" following Norinaga Mootori of the 17th century. In researching the origins of Japanese culture, Mootori studied the Classic Shinto Chronicles, the Kojiki. These teach the superiority of the Sun Goddess Amaterasu Omikami. In this philosophy, Divine participation in natural events is rare and Divine Providence can't be predicted. Out of respect for the divine, subjects are expected to submit to Divine Providence.

One of Mootori's followers, Atsutane Hirata, expanded Norinaga's idea of purifying fundamental Shintoism from Chinese influences. Hirata proposed a mixed Christian theology, comparing the Amenomikanushi-no Kami, a central God mentioned in the Kojiki Chronicle, with the Christian God. His view was that the first god presiding over the universe had two helpers: High Productive (Takami-Misubi) and Divine Productive (Kami-Misubi), representing the Yin-Yang principle of Asian thought. Combined with sacred texts of Kojiki, Nihongi-Shoki and Yengi-Shiki, this blend produced a Monotheist Shinto for the time.

This is the religious ideology which formed the basis for emperor worship and the Shinto State religion: the Divine Emperor was descended directly from Amaterasu Omikami, the National God who protects the country. All proclamations of the emperor took on religious significance; for instance, in 1882, the Meiji Emperor made an "Imperial Rescript to Seamen and Soldiers", from this time considered sacred and obligatory.

In 1890 the educational system was adapted, taking State Shintoism as principal religion. The pre-existing other 13 Shinto sects (sect Shinto) were driven out. "The Emperor is a Revealed God among men, a Manifest Deity for us." The Imperial Rescript to Seamen and Soldiers was added to the National education system, to present the historical relation of Imperial mythical ancestors with their subjects. When these texts were read, subjects demonstrated their respect for the Emperor by saying "In Name of your Majesty and your seal."

State Shinto placed emphasis on the idea that the "center of Phenomenal World is Tenno." From that center, the doctrine dictated that subjects should spread the idea of the great spirit around the world. Thus began ideas of Japanese territorial expansion.

Hachiman

Hachiman was Japan's traditional deity of war. The military also used this cult. The families of soldiers sent to the front prayed at his shrines for the national war effort's success, and the prompt return of sons.

Kamikaze

See main article Kamikaze

The extreme use of tradition was seen in the idea of Vice Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi of Kamikaze special defensive units of the Japanese Combined Fleet in 1944-45. Admiral Soemu Toyoda at first opposed this, but had to acknowledge that they alone were able to inflict substantial damage on the Allied navies.these special pilots before at takeoff carryng special symbols how Kyokujitsu-ki Flags, writing Shinto preys,the Nambu Pistol and/or Katana Samurai sword and Hachimaki with sun with rays sign headband for remember your special mission.


This drew on the mythical version of the repulse of the 13th century Mongol invasion of Japan, already a point of reference when bad weather caused damage to the American Pacific Fleet in the Philippines.

The chrysanthemum

The chrysanthemum flower was much used as an imperial symbol. It alludes to the Chrysanthemum Throne, the traditional throne of Japanese emperors.

Education

The principal educational emphasis was on the great importance of traditional national political values, religion and morality. This prevailed from the Meiji period. The Japanese state modernized organizationally, but preserved its national idiosyncracies. Japan was to be a powerful nation, equal at least to the Western powers, an attitude reinforced from 1905. During the Showa period the educational system was used for militarist radical ideologies, supporting the militarised state and preparing future soldiers.

The government published official text books for all levels of student, and reinforced that with cultural activites, seminars, etc. These cultural courses were supplemented with military and survival courses (against invasion).

In the exterior provinces and Manchukuo the education system was distinct, for those who were not Japanese subjects. The Koreans and Manchus for example were educated as industrial workers, office workers or soldiers. Indoctrination with Japanese ideology and views of international relations was included. One Japanese top civil servant said "the Koreans and others Asian peoples should learn to obey, not to know". In Manchukuo all ancient universities and schools were closed, with the organization of new centers in which the "humanities" were eliminated (for their 'negative' consequences). A foreign reporter of the London Times visited Manchukuo and cited the words of one civil servant "Manchuria needs more workers, not white-collar workers with incomplete notions on how they abounded in Japan". Official Manchuokouan publications emphasied the 'utility' of the syllabus.

Mobilisation of the young

Apart from indoctrination in nationalism and religion, children and school students received military drills (on weapons, hand-to-hand combat, survival, first aid). These were taken further by the Imperial Japanese Young Federation (comparable to the Hitler Youth); college students were trained, and some recruited for home defense and regular military units. Young women received First Aid training. Children and young people worked in weapons factories.

Nationalist politics

Origin of nationalist structures and parties

See main article Empire of Japan

In 1882 the Japanese Government organized the Teiseito (Imperial Gubernative Party), one of first nationalist parties in the country. From the Russo-Japanese War Japan was called "Dai Nippon Teikoku", setting up a real Empire, with the inclusions of Formosa (1895), the Liaotung Peninsula and Karafuto (1905), the South Pacific Mandate islands (1918-19) and aiming at control of Chosen (Korea)(1905-10).

The wars against China and Russia were total wars, and required a nationalistic focus of patriotic sentiment. From this period the Yasukuni Jinja was converted into a center of the new patriotic sense. During the 1920s years the official establishment was conceptually organized in this form: Nobility and Aristocracy (Mombatsu); Commercial and Industrialist (Zaibatsu); and great landowners and Military (Gumbatsu).

In 1926-28 the central government organized the "Peace preservation Department" (an antisubversive police section), and prosecuted all local communists who proposed a socialist form of government. The Japanese Army organized the Kempeitai (Military police service)and the Japanese Navy an equivalent. These security groups not only had military police responsibilites, additionally they possessed special weapons (groups in Manchuria), and a political department, and were ideologically related to the KoDo Army Party,(other Political and Ideologycal branch of Japanese Army) and the colonial and security administrations.

Realities of political power

To call Japan in 1941 'Fascist' or 'totalitarian' is an error, according to some authors. The "New Structure" in Japan did not depend on one leader at the centre, a Mussolini or Hitler. Japanese citizens were rallied to the "Defensive State" or "Consensus State", in which all efforts of the nation supported collective objectives, by guidance from national myths, history and dogmas, obtaining a "national consensus".

In this state the central figure was the Tenno, the emperor, as had been the case from the Meiji constitution onwards, co-existing with the interests of the official establishment.

About who really held the political power in Japan, there are two versions. One says that real control was exerted by the Emperor over the military; the other validates the "trinity" mentioned above.

There is also the 'realist' position, denying politics as a factor: real control did lie with the military, behind a front formed by the Emperor and Government (as certainly occurred in Manchukuo with the Kangde Emperor Puyi).

The principal military figures were:

The names of Mitsui, Mitsubishi (Iwasaki), Sumitomo, Okura, Asano, Kuhara and Yasuda, amongst others, were prominent as industrialists.

Political ideas

The novel political elements were "exalted militarism" and "State Socialism". Compounded they made a distinctive Militarism-Socialism rigth ideology.

During the 1920s Right-Nationalist beliefs became a major force. The state support for Shinto encouraged a semi-religious belief in the mythological history of Japan (and thus to mysticism and cultural introversion). Some nationalist secret societies took up ultranationalism, Japan-centred radical ideas, and a new conception of State Socialism. They included: Genyosha (Black Ocean Society, 1881), Kokuryukai (Amur Society, or Black Dragon Society,1901), movements dedicated to overseas Japanese expansion to the north; Japanese Patriotic Society (Nihon Kokusui Kai, 1919), founded by Tokoname Takejiro; Anti-Red League (Sekka Boshidan) founded at the same time as the Japanese Communist Party; and the State Basis Society (Kokuhonsha) founded in 1924 by Baron Hiranuma, for the preservation of the unique national character of Japan and its special mission in Asia.

The introduction of the distinctive theory of "State Socialism" is attributed to Kita Ikki (1885-1937), an Amur Society member and Asian mainland expert, in his 1919 book "General Plan for National Reorganization of Japan" (Nihon kaizo hohan taiko). He proposed a military coup d'état to promote the supposed true aims of the Meiji restoration. This book was banned, but certain military circles read in it in the early 1930s.

Kita's plan was phrased in terms of freeing the Emperor from weak and treasonous counsellors. After suspending the Constitution, and dissolving the Diet, the Emperor and his military defenders should work for a "collectivist direct voluntarism" to unify people and leaders. Harmony with the working classes would be sought by the abolition of the aristocracy and austerity for the Imperial House. Overseas Japan would free Asia of Western influence.

Political nationalist movements

The Japanese Navy was in general terms more traditionalist, in defending ancient values and the sacrality of the Emperor; the Japanese Army was more forward-looking, in the sense of valuing primarily strong leadership, as is evidenced by the use of the coup and direct action. The Navy typically preferred political methods. The Army, ultimately, was the vehicle for the anticapitalists, hypernationalists, anticommunists, antiparliamentarians, Extreme Right-Socialists and Nationalist-Militarists ideals.

The military were considered politically "clean" in terms of political corruption, and assumed responsibility for 'restoring' the security of of the nation, too. The armed forces took up criticism of the traditional democratic parties and regular government for many reasons (low funds for the armed forces, compromised national security, weakness of the leaders). They were also, by their composition, closely aware of the effects of economic depression on the middle and lower classes, and the communist threat.

Both branches gained in power as they administered the exterior provinces and military preparations.

The nationalist right in the 1920s

Other nationalist-rightist groups in the 1920s were the Jinmmu Society (Jinmmu Kai), Heaven Spade Party (Tenketo Kai), Blood Fraternity (Ketsumeidan), and Cherry Society (Sakurai Kai). This last was founded by Dr. Shumei Okawa, professor of of the Colonization Academy, and radical defender of expansionism and military armed revolution at homme. Amongst members were Army officers implicated in the Manchuria Affair, such as Kingoro Hashimoto, and Ishikawa Kanishi. Okawa served as a conduit by which Kita Ikki's ideas reached young nationalist officers.

Violent coups took place, and the Kwantung Army made, in effect unilaterally, the decision to invade Manchuria. This was then treated as a fait accompli by Government and Emperor.

Doctrines

The Amau Doctrine (the Asian Monroe Doctrine) stated that Japan assumed the total responsibility for peace in Asia. Minister Hirota proclaimed the "a special zone, anti-communist, pro-Japanese and pro-Manchukuo" and that Northern China was a the "fundamental part" of Japanese national existence, in announcing a "holy war" against the Soviet Union and China as the "national mission".

During 1940 Prince Konoye proclaimed the New National Structure (Shintaisen), making Japan into an "advanced state of National Defense", and the creation of Imperial Authority Assistance Association (Tasei Yokusankai), for organizing a centralized "consensus state". Associated are the government creation of the "Tonarigum" (residents' committees). Other ideological creations of the time were the book "The Subject's Way", the "Imperial Way" or "War Party"(KoDo)Army party, the "Yamato Spirit"( Yamato damaishii), and the idea of "eight squares of the World" (Hakko Ishiu) and "Religion and Government Unity" (Saisei-itchi).

The official academic text was "Japan's Fundamentals of National Policy" (Kokutai no Hongi), presenting a view of Japan's history, and its mission to unite the East and West. The "moral national Bible" The Subject's Way presented an effective catechism on nation, religion, cultural, social and ideological topics. All citizens needed to have it.

Geopolitics

See main articles Japanese strategic planning for mainland Asia (1905-1940), Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere

The economic doctrines of the "Yen block" were in 1941 transformed to the "Great Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" Plan, as a basis for the Japanese national finances, and conquests plans. There was a history of perhaps two decades behind these moves.

The Japanese theorists concerned with Mainland Asia knew the geopolitical theory of Halford Mackinder, expressed in the book Democratic Ideas and Reality. He discussed why the 'World Island' of Eurasia and Africa was dominant, and why the key to this was the 'Central Land' in Central Asia. This is protected from sea attack, by deserts and mountains, and is vulnerable only on its west side, and to advanced technology from Europe.

Mackinder declared that: "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; Who rules the heartland commands the World Island; Who rules the World Island commands the World". These central Asiatic lands included: all of the Soviet Union, except the Pacific coast, west of the Volga river; all Mongolia, Sinkiang, Tibet and Iran. This zone is vast and possesses natural resources and raw materials, does not possess major farming possiblities, and has very little population. Mackinder thought in terms of land and sea power: the latter can outflank the former, and carry out distant logistical operations, but needs adequate bases.

These geopolitical ideas coincided with the theories of Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara, sent in 1928 to Manchuria to spy. The Army adopted them, in some form.the Army theorists place stay in Manchuria area.

The Navy, on the other hand, was interested in the southerly direction of expansion (see Strike South group)the ideological center of Navy theorists stay in Formosa. These differing ideas were partly rooted in the supposed ancestral origins of the Japanese Army and Navy: Chosu or Izumo for the former, Satsuma and Yamato for the latter. The zaibatsu monopolies, while not lining up with either, leant to the Yamato clan, and economic interests. An extended debate ensued, resolved in the end by the stern experience of Japan's armed conflicts with the Soviet Union in 1938-9. This tipped the balance towards the 'South' plan, and the Pearl Harbor attack that precipitated the Pacific War in 1941.

Racial views

Japanese ideologists analyzed the Racial Question, but from another perspective. According to their line on race, the Japanese people are the "Superior Race", who should direct the Great East Asian destiny. They were guided by Gods and had the sacred mission of teaching customs and lifestyle to other Asians. They should expand their lands in the Western Hemisphere, and also rule over inferior White Western persons.

Under the influence of these ideas occurred certain lamentable war crimes. The best known example, in which racial theories have been said to be implicated, is the 1937 atrocity known as "Rape of Nanking".similar if reported in same times for Swiss journalist and others foreings in Manchukuo are seeking the natural rigth why poses japanese subjects of inflict bad treates over all any inferior race subjects in country.

Other ideological lines

Fumio Goto was the head of the "Showa Studies Society", another "school" and "think tank" for teaching future leaders of a radical totalitarian Japan. Count Yoriyasu Arima was another "professor" there. He was a supporter of radical political experiments and armed revolution, and contact with farmers' associations led by the Imperial Farmers Association. He read Karl Marx and Max Stirner, and other radical philosophers. With Fumimaro Konoye and Fusanosuke Kuhara, they created a revolutionary radical-right policy.

These revolutionary groups later had the help of three important personages, in making reality some certain ideas of a lost cause: they have in common practical work on the Manchukuo Socialist-Militarist policy. They were: General Hideki Tojo, chief of secret police in this country and leader of Kwantung Army and other Northern regions; Yosuke Matsuoka, who served as president of Mantetsu (South Manchuria Railway Company) and Foreign affairs minister; and Naoki Hoshino, an army ideologist who organized the government and political structure of Manchukuo. Tojo later became War Minister and Prime minster in the Konoye cabinet, Matsuoka Foreign Minister, and Hoshino chief of Project departments charged with establishing a new economic structure for Japan. Some industrialists representive of this ideological strand were Ichizo Kobayashi, President of Tokio Gasu Denki, setting the structure for the Industry and Commerce ministry, and Shozo Murata, representing the Sumitomo Group becoming Communication Minister.

Other groups created were the Government Imperial Aid Association and Imperial Youth Federation. Involed in both was Colonel Kingoro Hashimoto, who proposed a Nationalist single party dictatorship, based on socialism. The militarists had strong industrial support, but also socialist-nationalist sentiments on the part of radical officers, aware of poor farmers and workers who wanted social justicie.

The Shintoist traditions were managed by: Leutenant General Heisuke Yanagawa, who directed the Government Imperial Aid Association; Chikao Fujisawa, official member of Diet, who proposed a law that Shinto should be reaffirmed as State religion, as in past times; General Kuniaki Koizo, an arch-nationalist, who restored the ancient sacred rites in the Sukumo river, the "Preliminary Misogi Rite"; and Prince Kanin, another nationalist and religious supporter of official Shinto. Baron Hiranuma organized the "Shintoist Rites Research Council" to research all ancient Shinto rites and practices. The "New Asia Day" celebration was to remember the sacred mission of extending influence to nearby Asian nations.

Control of communications media

The Press and other communication media were managed for the Information Department by Dr. Nobofumi Ito and official spokesman Koh Ishii. These institution were modeled on the German Propaganda Minister. Radio Tokyo was charged with disseminating all official informations around the world. The radio transmitted in English, Dutch, three Chinese dialects, French, Malayan, Thai, as well Japanese to Southwest Asia; and the Islamic world had programs broadcast in Hindustani, Burmese, Arabic, English and French. In Hawaii there were radio programs in English and Japanese. Other daily transmissions were to Europe, South and Central America, eastern areas of South America and the USA, with Australia and New Zealand receiving broadcasts too.

The official press agency DOMEI was connected with the Axis powers' press agencies such as D. N. B., Transoceanic and others. Local and Manchukoan newspapers were under the control of these institutions and only published officially approved notices and information.

Economy

See main articles Yen block, Yuan of Manchukuo

In Manchukuo a centralized economic system was set up, with a National Central Bank, and the creation of the yuan of Manchukuo, a Manchu local currency to replace the tael of Haikwan. This remodelled the economy there after the Japanese pattern of the Bank of Japan, the national central bank. Similar moves occured in the Mengjiang and Wang Chingwei regime economies.

The "Yen block" was a wider, closed financial system that included Manchuria, much of China and Japan during the 1930s years, It was the forerunner of the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" economic and commercial zone, that included all Southeast Asia and more.

Japan had the the third-largest commercial fleet in the world, and in 1936 was the fifth nation in its foreign commerce, running at $1,183,000,000, or $28.19 (US dollars) per capita.

Everyday life

Daily life in Imperial Japan became hard. An American journalist noted that ordinary citizens resorted to the black market for some necessities. Surveillance and censorship was strict, and radio receivers to listen to foreign broadcasts were banned. Native Japanese culture was highly promoted, and martial arts became pervasive. Xenophobia rose. The novel The Makioka Sisters by Junichiro Tanizaki deals on various levels with the complexities and gradual closing of personal possibility of the times.other symbols of Japanese Empire in foreing are the Dai Nippon Koku KK(Imperial Japanese Airways),Manshukoku Koku KK(Manchukuo National Airways) and Merchant and Trasatlantic vessel line N.Y.K..these all companies are managed for Japanese government.

Ideological influences in foreign areas

In Manchukuo the Japanese had their 'own' local nationalist parties. The puppet Kangde Emperor (Emperor Puyi), having told the international press he had decided to organized a local party of "Confucian Doctrine", which was in fact run by the Japanese government. Later the "Northeast Administrative Commitee" group and "Concord Association Party" were the only political movements authorized.

These parties were in the Militarist-Socialist mould, with uniforms and symbols modelled on the Japanese Militarist-Socialist Right doctrines. Tolerance of Confucian Chinese religious observance gave way to implantation of Shinto and Japanese customs. The treatment of farmers and workers was rigorously exploitative, and became harsh.

Political administration was supposedly are managed by the "native" Manchu authorities, but Japanese advisers dominated, including Kanji Ishiwara, Kenji Doihara (the "Lawrence of Manchuria"), Takayoshi Tanaka (who served in China too), Masaiko Amakazu(also head of the Manchu film industry), Seichiro Itagaki,Yasunori Yoshioka, Konoto Daisaku, Hisao Watari, Tomoyuki Yamashita (the "Malaysian Tiger"), and others. The "National Foundation" cultural entity and the "Central Shintoist Manchoukoan Temple" in Hsinking were under the adminstration of ex-marshal and First Shinto Priest Toranosuke Hashimoto. Real power in Manchukuo lay with the "General Affairs State Council", and chief of the Manchoukouan industrial zaibatsu groups was Yoshisuke Aikawa, an important industrialist with links to the Army. He guided the factory centers on theMukden-Dairen industrial axis; Ryojun, Anshan and Harbin manufactured iron, coal, chemical and soy bean products, railway equipments, etc. Manchukuo was the 'Ruhr' for Japan.

The Mengjiang Mongol puppet state had a "Central Academy" in Kalgan under the direction of Colonel Kanji Tsuneoka. A curious wartime rumour was that the Japanese Army had found the real tomb of Genghis Khan, in theChahar area; this was used for political ends.

The goal was the "Japanization" of "allied" nations, as already largely imposed in Chosen and Formosa. The intention in occupied China, in the pro-Japanese adiminstration of Wang Chingwei, as elsewhere, was probably the same.

Summary

Under a complex mix of nationalist ideas, doctrines and pressures, the Japanese Imperial Forces found nationalist, ideological and political support for the fighting in mainland Asia and the Pacific conflict during World War II.

The Imperial House represented the head of the nation and the last word in decision-making. Different points of view of Japan's national defense were aligned with the question of Asian continental expansion, or conquest of the Pacific area.

After the Japanese surrender in August 1945, the whole structure was dismantled by the Allied occupation authorities in the whole Japanese Empire and Japanese-held territories.

After 1945

In February of 1946 General Douglas MacArthur was set the task of drafting a model constitution to serve as a guide for the Japanese people. The U.S. intention was to ensure that the sources of Japanese militarism were rooted out through fundamental reforms of the Japanese government, society, and economic structure. Perhaps the most lasting effect that came out of this constitution is article 9 that reads:

"Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on justice and order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes. In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph,land, sea, and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right to belligerency of the state will not be recognized."

With the renunciation of war and military power, Japan looked to the United States for security. As the Cold War began, the United States fostered a closer relationship with Japan due to the latter's strategic location in respect to the USSR. Japan became, as stated by the Japanese Prime Minister Yasuhiro Nakasone, an "unsinkable aircraft carrier" for the United States. Ensuing from this close relationship with the United States, Japan hoped that in time their country would become the "third leg in a triangle involving two superpowers." The seventies witnessed Japan's adoption of three fundamental tenets that would seek to define and direct Japanese internationalism, all concerning the need for Japanese initiatives in fostering a liberal internationalism.

However, Japan's hopes of becoming a "third leg" between the US and USSR were never realized. Instead, Japan adopted a subservient role to the United States. Japan also failed to become an international leader. Attempts to negotiate the return of four islands historically seen as belonging to Japan from Russia and its failed attempt to create a bridge between Beijing and Washington, all contributed. As the Cold War reached its conclusion, Japan experienced a decay in relations with North Korea at the same time as American interest in Japan began to wane.

Coupled with this apparent political failure, Japan experienced an economic downturn through the 1990s. Once a growing political player, Japan was now looked on as an economic warning. The "Japanese disease" occurred due to a sharp rise in the value of the yen caused by the export competitiveness of certain manufacturing sectors. The collapse of the enormous speculative bubble in the Japanese stock and real estate markets at the beginning of the 1990's was compounded by additional bad policy making, stagnating the Japanese economy since 1992.

Through the loss of economic clout and the failure to realize international prominence, Japanese nationalism appears to be on the rise. Growing right wing parties, namely the revisionist party, seek to revise, if not completely rewrite, the constitution to exclude article 9. These parties believe that the exclusion of article 9 would allow Japan to develop a foreign policy independent of the United States. Other examples of the rise in nationalism can be found in the popularity of books such as The Japan That Can Say No, Analects of War, and the textbooks that downplay Japan's role in WW II. Also, perceived nationalism is present in the 1998 adoption of the national anthem and flag as state symbols, both of which were symbolic of Japanese nationalism during WW II, and Prime Minister Koizumi's three visits to the Yasukuni Shrine.

The twenty-first century

Japanese foreign policy is beginning to adopt a more nationalistic stance. PM Koizumi participated in a summit with North Korea in 2002. Prior to that, in 2001 Japanese boats attacked and sank a North Korean spy ship. Following, in 2003, Japan's defense minister suggested that Japan would be willing to contemplate a preemptive attack on North Korea if it saw evidence that a "devastating attack against Japan" was being prepared.

Bibliography

Basic reference

  • Berh, Edward."The Last Emperor"(in spanish "El Ultimo Emperador"), translated and published for:
    • ISBN 84-320-4410-5 (spanish),Editorial Planeta,Fourth Edition,1988.
    • ISBN 0-7788-3439-6 (english),Mcdonald/Futura Publishers Ed.
  • Newman,Joseph. "Goodbye Japan"(in spanish "Adios al Japon")translated and published for Editorial Poseidon,Buenos Aires Arg,1943.
  • Whitney Hall,John."Japanese Empire",Vol.20(in spanish "Imperio Japones")translated and published for Ed Historia Universal XXI,1967.
  • Emmott, Bill. “Japan’s English Lessons.” Foreign Policy, 140 (2004)
  • Kase, Yuri.“Japan’s Nonnuclear Weapons Policy on the Changing Security Envirionment.” World Affairs, 165.3 (2003)
  • Lincoln, Edward. “Japan: Using Power Narrowly.” Washington Quarterly, 27.1 (Winter 2003/2004)
  • Ozawa, Terutomo. "The New Economic Nationalism and the Japanese Disease":
  • The Conundrum of Managed Economic Growth.” Journal of Economic Issues, v30 (1996)
  • Pyle, Kenneth B.The Japanese Question: Power and Purpose in a New Era, (Washington D.C.)

Others historical references

Asian and Pacific Geopolitics

  • Shaw, B. Earl, article "United States Pacific Defense" in Van Valkenburg, Samuel Book "America at War" Prentice-Hall,(1942).
  • Weigerth, W. Hans."Haushofer and the Pacific",Foreing Affairs, XX (1942),P.732-742.
  • Mackinder, J. Halford, "Democratic Ideals and Reality", New York, Holt,(1942).
  • Bowman, Isaiah. "The New World", Yonker-on-Hudson, World Book, (1928), 4th Ed.

Official Publications of the Japanese and Manchukuo Governments

  • Imperial Japanese Government Railways, Official guides to Eastern Asia, I, Manchuria and Chosen, Tokio, 1913 and later years.
  • South Manchurian Railway Company Ed,1929.- Progress in Manchuria (Report), 1907-28
  • Manchurian Year Books (various editions)
  • Far East Yearbooks (from 1941)
  • Review of Contemporary Manchuria (since 1937)
  • Review of Contemporary Manchuria, 1939. Official Publications of Manchukuo Government.
  • Manchuria Annals, Vol.,1933-39. Official Publications of Manchukuo Government.
  • Hayashide,Kenjiro, Epochal journey to Nippon. Official Publications of Manchukuo Government.
  • Japan Yearbook,Tokio,(since 1941)
  • Tokio Nichi-Nichi, Osaka Mainichi (newspapers), English language supplements (from the 1930s)
  • The newspapers Nippon Dempo and Tenshin Nichi-Nichi Shimbun, Review Bungei Shunju
  • Voice of the People of Manchukuo. Manchoukuoan Government edition.
  • Japan-Manchukuo Yearbook (1940s)
  • Governments-General of Taiwan, Chosen and Karafuto, Official Annual Reports on administration of these Provinces(1924-1926 and other years).
  • Mitsubishi Economics Research Bureau. "Japanese Trade and Industry,Present and Future", Mcmillan, London (1936)
  • Reviews and other publications of Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai (International Cultural Relations Society), Tokyo (1930s/40s).
  • Publications of Kan-Ichi Uchida, Tokyo, Kobunsha Co. (same period)

Foreign general literature on the Empire of Japan and Japanese-supported regimes in Northeast Asia

  • W. H. Auden and Christopher Isherwood, Journey to a war, Faber & Faber, 1939.
  • Bergamini, David. Japanese imperialist Conspiracy, William Morrow 1971.
  • Hibbert, Christopher, The Dragon Awakes.
  • Fleming,Peter. One's Company; News from Tartary,Ed Jonathan Cape, 1936,New York,Ed.Scribner,1936.
  • Johnston, Reginald. Twilight in the Forbidden City, Gollancz, 1934.
  • Jones,F.C.,Manchuria after 1931, R.I.I.C.,1963.
  • Koo,Wellington. Memoirs,"Oral History Series", from New York Times.
  • McAlEAVY,David. A Dream of Tartary. George Allen & Unwin, 1963.
  • Pearl,Ciryl.Morrison of Peking, Angus & Robertson,1967.
  • Pu-Yi, From Emperor to Citizen, Foreign languages press, Peking, 1964.
  • Rea, George Bronson. The Case of Manchukuo.
  • Saga,Hiro. Wandering Princess.
  • Leys,Simon. The Burning forest,Ed.Holt Rhinehart Winston,1986.
  • Snow,Edgar. Battle for Asia.
  • Taylor,George E.J apanese-sponsored regimes in Northem China.
  • Vespa,Amleto. Secret Agent of Japan. Little Brown & Co.,1938.
  • Woodhead,Henry. Adventures in Far Eastern Journalism.
  • Embree, John F. "The Japanese",Smithsonian Institution War Background Studies, VII (1943).
  • Schumpeter, E.B. "The industrialization of Japan and Manchukuo,1930-1940",New York,Ed Mcmillan(1940).
  • Official Acts, from War Crime Far East International Tribunal,Tokio,1946-47.
  • Texts of Interviews to Pu-Chieh, Rong-Qui, Jui-Lon (Family Aisin Goro) and Big-li (personal servant of Pu-Yi between 1924-1957).

See also: Bibliography on Imperial Japan and its exterior provinces

See also

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