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The language of the Ulysses

Ulysses, published in 1922, was translated into multiple languages, and was called to be one of the hardest books to translate. Several translators called it an "untranslatable" book, a "horror" to translate, and wrote about its "unretranslatability".

The joke that Ulysses needs translation even into English suggests that outside of Finnegans Wake (where it's too dark to read), Ulysses is one of the toughest gigs there is for a translator.

Zlatko Gorjan, the translator of the book into Croatian, said:

I do not believe that a truly adequate translation is possible. And I fail to understand why writers and critics — and the reading public, too — argue so much about the idea of an absolutely faithful translation. Both the poet and the translator are very much aware of this fact: translators can strive to come as close to the original as possible' but they never can or will achieve complete identity in their translations.
—"On Translating Joyce's Ulysses", Zlatko Gorjan, 1971

In 1940, only four translations were made: French, German, Czech and Japanese. Joyce was always interested in translations, and "felt extremely 'delighted' to read translations of Ulysses in other languages".

Joyce's language is non-standard and multilingual; he uses words from many other languages but English, that was called by one translator "the 'fearful jumble' of dialectal versions, cant, and pidgins". Joyces English is "both defamiliarized and foreignized through the introduction of a wealth of foreign terms and idioms, its diachronic and synchronic expanse navigated". Joyce used Irish English and Hiberno English, Yiddish, and Hebrew words and phrases.

One of the most convoluted chapters of the book is "Oxen of the Sun":

One of the most notoriously untranslatable parts of Ulysses is the “Oxen” Coda that Joyce himself described as a “frightful jumble of Pidgin English, nigger English, Cockney, Irish, Bowery slang and broken doggerel” (Letters I 140). This poly-cacophony relies on a continuous switching of dialects, codes, substandards and pidgins, often within the same phrase; the sources of the entries in the Oxen Notesheet 17, identified by Chrissie van Mierlo, range from a 1902 edition of a dictionary of London cant and slangs, Suffolk and American East Coast sea slang, to the parlances of the American frontier and of diverse immigrant groups, mostly pilfered from Bret Harte’s 1902 Tales of the West, especially his parody of J.F. Cooper, the source of much caricature Native American, Black American, and Chinese American speech.

French

First French translation was published in 1929. It was made by August Morel, Stuart Gilbert, Valery Larbaud, and publisher Adrienne Monnier. Joyce himself assisted in translation; he was involved from the very start in 1922, and even "organized them into a team with a plan and a mission". Joyce chose Larbaud as the main reviser; he also "insisted on closeness to original denotation" and was anxious of possible mistranslations. It was the second published translation of Ulysses after the 1927 German one. It was noted for "its incredible rendering of French as it was spoken in the 1920s, to the point of being praised as an 'incredible anatomy of the French language' by André Topia". Because of that, the translation became "difficult to understand without a dictionary or without notes", as Morel used too many "contemporary idioms, idiosyncrasies and slang".

The second French translation, done by a team led by Jacques Aubert, was published by Gallimard in 2004. Aubert's team had eight people: Jacques Aubert, Marie-Danièle Vors, Michel Cusin, Pascal Bataillard (academics); Tiphaine Samoyault, Patrick Drevet, Sylvie Doizelet (writers); and Bernard Hœpffner [fr] (translator). Their way of working on the book was different from Morel's:

The first team of translators had been organized along a hierarchical pattern: Auguste Morel had translated the whole book, then his work had been reviewed by Stuart Gilbert, and then by Valery Larbaud who had the final say. Joyce answered questions and solved conflicts between the translators. This hierarchical organization implied a horizontal approach to the translation of the novel, as the translators worked on the episodes in chronological order and those were then successively revised, by Morel and Gilbert, and then Larbaud. In 2004, Jacques Aubert insisted on a more democratic organization, which was also linked to a more vertical approach to the text: each translator was in charge of one episode or more.

One of the translators, Tiphaine Samoyault, noted that such organization "facilitated the process of renouncing all linguistic normativity", Bernard Hœpffner called it an "eight-person schizophrenia". The team translated all the book's chapters except "Oxen of the Sun", that was taken from 1929 Morel's edition; according to translators, "this inscribed the history of the French translation of Ulysses within the work, making for a parallel with the particular style of the fourteenth episode, as the history of translation mirrored the history of the English language".

April 8, 2003 – Which Bible should we use? “House of bondage” could be translated by “Maison de l’esclavage” (Sacy), “Maison de la servitude” (Segond), or “Maison d’asservis” (Bayard); “wilderness” by “solitude” (Sacy) or “désert” (Segond). No decision is made, but we have to respect the echoes. - from Bernard Hœpffner's diary about many challenges in translation.

p37 +table per translator

German

The first German translation by Georg Goyert [de] was published as a three-volume edition in 1927. Though Goyert had access to Joyce for consultation, he apparently made limited use of this opportunity. A revised version of his translation appeared in 1930 in two volumes, though both editions remained expensive.

In the mid-1960s, Suhrkamp Verlag acquired the rights and commissioned Hans Wollschläger to translate Ulysses as part of their complete Joyce works edition, under Klaus Reichert's editorship. The book was published in 1976 and became known as the "translation of the century" and "instant classic". Wollschläger was known as a "recluse genius" who never worked in a team.

After Wollschläger's death, the project to revise the translation was started. In a decade, it "effectively overhauled, mainly with the aim of factual accuracy and internal consistency". It was led by Harald Beck together with Ruth Frehner and Ursula Zeller. Though the work was completed, the publisher failed to secure right for publication, and when the revised edition was announced in 2017, the Wollschläger Estate blocked its publication, arguing that the changes had "desecrated" Wollschläger's artistic work. The 2018 Suhrkamp edition exists only in a limited run of 200 copies for libraries and scholars.

Japanese

First Japanese translation was made by Sei Ito, Sadamu Nagamatsu and Hisanori Tsuji, and published in two parts by Daiichi-Shobo, Tokyo in 1931 and 1934. Ito published another translation of the first volume in 1938. The full version of the first translation was finally published in two volumes in 1955.

Second translation was made by Sohei Morita, Nahara Hirosaburo, Naotaro Tatsuguchi, Takehito Ono, Ichiro Ando and Eitaro Murayama and published "in five small paperbound volumes" from 1932 to 1935, in Tokyo. Full version of the second translation, without deletions, was published in 1952.

Both early translations were done without Joyce's authorization; nevertheless, Joyce was very interested in it and claimed that "20,000 copies of U in Japanese sold in Japan in 6 months" in 1933.

The third translation by Saiichi Maruya, Reiji Nagakawa and Yuichi Takamatsu was published in 1964; revised edition was published in 1996-1997.

Czech

The first Czech translation of Ulysses appeared in 1930, as a collaborative effort between Ladislav Vymětal and Jarmila Fastrová [cs]. Vymětal worked on the opening sections through "Sirens" and the final portion, starting from "Circe", while Fastrová translated the middle sections beginning with "Wandering Rocks."

The next translation came from Aloys Skoumal [cz], published by Odeon in 1976 as Odysseus. Skoumal worked on the book for "five decades". Despite its substantial initial printing of 7,000 copies, the Communist regime censored it and restricted its circulation to Party members and psychiatrists. Skoumal had a personal connection to Joyce's Dublin, having visited the city in 1926. In a letter to writer Jaroslav Durych, he described Dublin as "a city of beggars, a city of poverty, dirt, dust, a city of ruined houses, a city of people who despite their humiliation have something noble (dare I say royal) about them".

Skoumal's translation is notable for its "artificial" language, though it differs from Joyce's original by employing more archaic vocabulary. This choice was partially driven by the challenges of representing regional diversity in Czech, a relatively uniform language. Instead of attempting to capture locality, Skoumal opted for temporal distance through archaic language to achieve poetic effects.

Skoumal's "highly criticised" translation was rereleased in 2012.

Spanish

First Spanish translation was by José Salas Subirat, who was "an employee in an insurance agency" who did not speak English, published in Buenos Aires in 1945. Criticized at first, his translation got more attention later. Revised version was published in 1952,

Juan José Saer used to tell a funny story about this: when he was young, Saer and some friends met Borges, who was very dissatisfied with that translation: "It is really bad," Borges said, but someone – probably Saer himself – disagreed: "It might be, but if it is, Mr Salas Subirat is the greatest writer in the Spanish language."

The second translation, made by philosophy professor José María Valverde, was published in Barcelona in 1976. The third Spanish translation was made by Francisco García Tortosa and María Luisa Venegas Lagüéns, both literature scholars, and published in 1999. Translators said in a later interview that they "don’t want a translation of Ulysses in colloquial Spanish, we want it like Joyce wrote it". Other translations were made by Marcelo Zabaloy in 2015, and Rolando Costa Picazo in 2018.

Catalan

Catalan translation by Joaquim Mallafre was published in 1981. It was described as the "most significant event in Catalan intellectual circles" and received the Prize of the Generalitat and the Serra d'Or Prize. Earlier translation by writer and translator J. F. Vidal Jové, made in 1966, was never published. The translation is kept in the General Spanish Archive (Archivo General de la Administración) in Alcalá de Henares, Madrid. It was commissioned by the Editorial AHR; the translation was done in seven months from the Morel's French translation. The cencorship office allowed the book to be published; the reason it wasn't published is unknown.

Danish

"I am James Joyce. I understand that you are to translate Ulysses, and I have come from Paris to tell you not to alter a single word."

Danish translator Mogens Boisen [da] spend 18 years translating Ulysses. He said about the task "One is not the same. One has been Ulyssified." His particular obsession was with Ulysses’s many “leitmotifs.” He created an elaborate filing system to make sure that he could keep track of a motif that appeared near the beginning 700 pages later. When he was done with his Danish version, he went on to correct the leitmotifs of the German translation and offered to do the same for the French and Swedish ones.

Polish

First Polish translation was published in 1969 by Maciej Słomczyński, and was called "a literary sensation" that "became a bestseller with 40,000 copies disappearing from bookshops immediately". Słomczyński, who was also a detective fiction writer published under pen name Joe Alex, spent 13 years translating Ulysses.

The second translation was done by Maciej Świerkocki in seven years, and published in 2021.

Hebrew

Yael Renan of the Department of Hebrew Literature, Tel Aviv University translated Ulyssess in 1985; it was published by Hotsaat Mahbarot Le-Sifrut. The work was done in twelve years. According to David Shulman, the translation is "vastly superior to the original". Renan noted the difficulties in translation of slang into Hebrew. She wrote about 'the relative poverty of Hebrew in both vocabulary and stylistic differentiation": there was almost no slang is Hebrew and no "colloquial style" different from the formal rules prescribed by the Academy of the Hebrew Language. The largest issue, per Renan, was "the lack of a continuous history of Hebrew literature", that made it hard to adequately translate historical styles in "Oxen of the Sun".

Arabic

First translation into Arabic was made by Egyptian professor Taha Mahmoud Taha and published in 1982. Iraqi poet Salah Niazi criticized it, and started to work on his own tranlation in 1984. It was published in three volumes in 2001, 2010 and 2014.

Chinese

+ quote

In 1990, Yilin Press commissioned writer and translator Xiao Qian and his wife, translator Wen Jieruo, to translate Ulysses into Chinese. Xiao's early interest in Joyce dated back to his postgraduate studies at Cambridge. The translation, in two volumes, was published in April and October 1994. It completed around the same time as another full Chinese translation by Jin. Both translations were awarded the national prize for foreign literature by China's Press and Publication Bureau - Xiao's version in 1995 and Jin's in 1998. In 1946, Xiao visited Joyce's grave in Zurich, and remarked: "Here lies the corpse of someone who wasted his great talents writing something very unreadable." After the translation work was done, Xiao called it "quite monumental". In 1994, 85,000 copies were sold in China; the second and third editions followed in 1995. Xiao viewed it as China's re-opening, writing "I feel that this translation of Ulysses signifies that China at last has opened herself not only in technology and science but also in literature".

Translation to the Chinese was challenging due to the rules of the language: Mandarin allows "only 404 possible phonetic combinations"; wordplay is hard to translate because of ideographic nature of Chinese; Chinese is a tonal language; and proper names are rarely translated "syllable for syllable". The husband and wife team started to work on their translation in October 1990. They used multiple sources for the translation: "Don Gifford's annotated Ulysses ... consulted the Chinese Catholic Church, foreign-language specialists, geologists, doctors, and others for specialized knowledge. The Irish Embassy helped with specifically Irish references." "Joycean quirks" were explained in 5,991 footnotes.

---

Another example: Stephen recalls that he has borrowed a pound from the poet and writer George Russell, who styles himself "A.E." Thinking of his debt, Stephen puns "A.E.I.O.U." In the German, Italian, Czech, and Latvian translations, the expression is simply left as it is, which must be rather baffling to readers. Most others include a native-language gloss. In the 1929 French translation the passage reads "A.E. Je vous dois. I.O.U." In Spanish it is "A.E. Te debo. I.O.U." In Hungarian the vowels are changed, killing the joke: "A.E.K.P." The same is true in Croatian, where an explanation is also added: "A.E.J.V.D (Ja vam dugujem)." "You can only do your best," says Fritz Senn, of the Zürich James Joyce Foundation. Senn is an authority on Joyce translation. "But of course, if a joke is explained, it is no longer funny." Right.

Russian

Soviet authorities considered Ulysses unsuitable for Soviet readers, making translation attempts dangerous, particularly in the 1930s; multiple fragments were translated and published despite this. Karl Radek harshly criticized Joyce during the first All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers in 1934: "A pile of dung teeming with worms, photographed with a cinema apparatus through a microscope — that’s Joyce."

Vladimir Nabokov send a letter to Joyce, proposing to work on translation, but did not receive an answer. Several early translators met tragic ends. Valentin Stenich [ru], who published his translation of episodes four to six in 1935-1936, was arrested and executed in 1938. Ivan Kashkin's First Translators' Collective of the Union of Soviet Writers published their translation of the first ten episodes in 1935-1936. The most significant contribution was by Igor Romanovich; he was arrested and died in Gulag in 1942. Victor Khinkis [ru] started to translate the book in 1972; he died in 1981 from illness and alcoholism before completing his work.

The first complete Russian translation finally appeared in 1989 in the journal "Foreign Literature" (Inostrannaya Literatura); Khinkis's translation was completed by his friend Sergey Khoruzhiy. A debate emerged over how much of the final translation should be attributed to each translator. It was published in a book form in 1993, and included over a hundred pages of commentaries.

Belarusian

Jan Maksymiuk [pl], an ethnic Belarusian born and raised in northeastern Poland and educated in Warsaw, undertook the sisyphean task of translating Joyce's Ulysses into Belarusian of literary norm. In Poland he received a state grant to publish 1,000 copies of the book, which he did in 1993, and managed to sell 700 copies across the border in Minsk, while the remaining 300 copies were still kept under his bed in 1998.71 Asked during a conference in Krakow why so few copies were sold in Minsk, Maksymiuk responded: 'You see, one has to take a proportional view, that is, to take into account how many people at the moment indeed routinely use Belarusian in Belarus ... Nominally, there are 10 million Belarusians, yes? As for those who speak Belarusian, use this language for the most part and are able to read on the level on which Ulysses is written, with all its phraseology and vocabulary, I think that they account for some 0.1% It's some 10,000 people

Maksymiuk, Jan. "O 'bialoruskim' Ulissesie." Wokol Jamesa Joyce'a: szkice monograficzne. Ed. Bazarnik, Katarzyny; Fordhama, Finna. Kraków: Universitas, 1998. 184-94. ISBN 83-7052-847-3

Kurdish

Kurdish translation was published in 2023, by the poet and translator Kawa Nemir, who worked in it since 2012. Nemir started to translate Ulysses in order "to draw attention to a language that had been the victim of nationalist politics in Turkey", and to show that Kurdish is not an "inferior language". Translation required him to coin some words that he couldn't found in the existing dictionaries. Nemir states that Kurdish is "close to Old English" in syntaxes. English words related to sea were especially hard to translate - Kurdistan has no access to the sea, and Kurdish lack words for multiple "sea creatures".

Documentary film about the project, Translating Ulysses, was refused to be shown in Turkey. As of 2023, Nemir worked on a "Kurdish readers' guide to Ulysses".

In 1994, Nemir had scribbled the word “whale-path” in a notebook while studying Beowulf in college. He knew that Kurds called whales neheng, so he wrote in his notebook: “whale-path: rêka nehengan.”

Another notebook was just a dictionary of words Nemir had gathered from conversations with Kurdish convicts, words describing details about drinking alcohol, playing card games and having sex. For example, bûye pilot, an expression Nemir had heard from a convict while staying at a prison in Mardin, describes “someone ready for action in all hours of the day.” But the word, which has a double meaning, can suggest both courage and drink. When describing Bob Doran, a character who suffers from a bad marriage in Ulysses and attempts to escape it through an extravagant alcoholic binge, he wrote, “Hê di sa‘et pênca da bûye pilot”: “Boozed at five o’clock.”

Finnish and Swedish

Erik Andersson [sv], who also translated Tolkien's books Hobbit and LOTR. cc-by 4.0

In 2004, the prestigious publisher Gallimard released a new French translation; a polyphonic version where different individuals had translated the 18 episodes (Hoepffner 2011). In 2012, Dutch readers received a second retranslation, and, in the same year, Finnish fans of Joyce finally had an alternative to the original translation, which contained many errors. ... the first Swedish version of Ulysses, entitled Odysseus (Sw.) (Joyce 1946), was published in 1946 by Bonniers publishing house. The translator, Thomas Warburton (1918–2016), was a relatively young Finland-Swedish editor, translator, and writer at the time. In 1993, a revised version was released where Warburton had made more than 4000 changes. ... There is, however, consensus that Andersson’s translation is rawer, filthier, and more physical than the previous translation.

Leevi Lehto published his translation into Finnish in 2012.

The only previous Finnish version of the 1922 book was hurriedly done in about six months by poet Pentti Saarikoski in 1964, an attempt that many Joyce aficionados have considered somewhat lacking.

The publication of Pentti Saarikoski’s translation of Ulysses in 1964 was hailed as one of the most memorable events in Finnish translated literature. Many had considered Joyce’s masterpiece an impossible work to translate. In the translator’s afterword, Saarikoski himself points to the unusual difficulties involved in the translation task and makes a special mention of the problems caused by the differences between the English and Finnish languages and between Irish and Finnish culture.

Irish

Ulysses wasn translated into Irish in 1991-1992, seventy years after its original publication. The translation was titled Uiliséas, was primarily done by James Henry (Séamas Ó hInnéirghe), a retired medical doctor and former Royal Air Force officer. Henry used Irish at home and in school in his childhood, though later rarely used the language.

The translation was an eight-year project (1984-1991) that Henry worked on from his Belfast home, despite suffering from an autoimmune disease. He was assisted by his brother-in-law Basil Wilson (Breasail Uilsean) and childhood friend James Mangan (Séamus Ó Mongáin), both of whom had expertise in old and middle Irish. Henry's son Basil (Breasail Ó hInnéirghe) also contributed to one booklet, and Mangan completed another booklet independently.

Italian

How Italy holds the world record for the number of Ulysses’ translations

When I was asked to do a new translation of Ulysses, I accepted for the sole reason that the publisher wanted to include the original as parallel text.

Ulysses was first translated into Hungarian by Endre Gáspár [hu]. The book was published in 1,000 copies in 1947. This translation was both praised and heavily criticised - Miklós Szentkuthy, who translated the book in 1974, wrote of Gaspar's translation that it "'normalises', 'consolidates', 'flattens', 'dilutes', 'irons out', 'sobers up', 'tames', 'greys', 'kills' Joyce's sentences, depriving them of their poetry, playfulness, word-music and rhythm".

Szentkuthy's translation of 1974 became canonical in Hungary, and was described as "the crowning achievement of Hungarian translation culture". In 2012, it was revised by a team of scholars, András Kappanyos [hu], Marianna Gula [hu], Dávid Szolláth [hu] and Gábor Zoltán Kiss. It is said to be "re-editing and partial retranslation based on Szentkuthy’s work which occasionally refers to Gáspár’s text ... the Revised text is a scholarly palimpsest written across the two previous texts".

Erika Mihálycsa noted that "is particularly ill-suited to convey the Coda’s centrifugal diversity of idiolects: a landlocked language, it lacks historical dialects, having merely regional accents".

"Her wavyavyeavyheavyeavyevyevyhair un comb:’d" (U 11.809)
"Hullámosálmosalámoshalálosshampootlanloncsos haja mosatla (N, álzár-lat)" (wavy sleepy wash under deadly shampooless dishevelled hair unwash ) (Hu/Szentkuthy 344)
"Hul-lámosámosámosúlyosúlyosúlyos haja fé sület: len" (Hu/Revised 269)

Dutch

Ulysses has three Dutch translations. First one, done by John Vandenbergh, was published in 1969; Vandenbergh called the translation "a daring act". Paul Claes's and Mon Nys's translation followed in 1994. In 2012, Robbert Jan Henkes and Erik Bindervoet published their translation, which they call "badly needed". They summarized their criticism of the previous translations in a subsequent article:

The main objection is one of tone and music. Ulysses, "a gobelin depicting the world in a day" was, in their words, "made into a doormat with the message “welcome”" in the previous Dutch translations. Lacking is the richness, the uncompromising unicity of the Joycean style. Both translations flatten and dumb and dim down to a large extent. They may be Dutch, but they are not Joycean.

Belgians writers and translators Claes and Nys translated the book into Flemish Dutch, and, according to the James Geary's 1996 review, "ignited a linguistic civil war between the northern Dutch and the southern Belgian speakers of Dutch". According to the translators, they used "standard Dutch", but it contained unfamiliar words for Dutch speakers from Holland and was criticized for that. On the other hand, Belgian reviewer criticised it for being not Flemish enough. Geary noted that "the translation's greatest achievement is that it has sparked a lively debate between the Dutch and the Flemish about the common language that separates them."

Romanian

Portuguese

Portuguese has five translations of Ulysses - three Brazilian and two European Portuguese versions, though the linguistic differences between Brazilian and European Portuguese make it difficult for Brazilians to fully evaluate the European translations.

Brazil

The first Brazilian-Portuguese translation was completed by Antônio Houaiss in 1966. Houaiss, a diplomat who later created a major Portuguese dictionary, was "forced into early retirement" by Brazil's military dictatorship before undertaking the translation.

The second Brazilian translation came from Bernardina da Silveira Pinheiro in 2005. Pinheiro, who had studied with Joyce scholar Richard Ellmann, had previously translated Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (1992), though she translated just two books before Ulysses.

The third Brazilian translation was published in 2012 by Caetano Galindo [pt], who began work in 2002 as part of a doctoral thesis. He also translated other Joyce's works, such as A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, Dubliners, Giacomo Joyce and Finn’s Hotel; he also published "the first companion to Ulysses in Portuguese". He took a notably different approach to the "Oxen of the Sun" episode, creating Portuguese-Brazilian equivalents for Joyce's "literary pastiches":

I thought I had to create a full-blown list of Portuguese-Brazilian equivalents to the authors, styles, genres and periods that Joyce had emulated, with all the limitations that come from a much shorter literary history. Then I had to translate the original trying to create pastiches of true historical Portuguese texts, from the trovadores of the 13th century, through Camões and Brazilian Romanticism, to end with a collage of all types of jargons.

https://www.redalyc.org/journal/4783/478362701012/html/

https://stars.library.ucf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1062&context=jjls

https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/80/article/941497/pdf

Portugal

translation of Ulysses by Jorge Vaz de Carvalho [pt] was published at the end of 2013. This is the second translation of Ulysses into European Portuguese, following João Palma-Ferreira [pt]'s (Livros do Brasil, 1984).

https://xdata.bookmarc.pt/gulbenkian/cl/pdfs/187/PT.FCG.RCL.9765.pdf

Korean

The first Korean translation of Ulysses was published in 1968, after seven years of translation work that began following Chong-Keon Kim's master's degree in 1962. The translation faced significant linguistic challenges due to fundamental differences between Korean (Hangul) and English. Hangul has 8 vowels and 16 consonants; the sentence structure in Korean is nearly opposite to English. Particular difficulties arose in translating the varying styles of episodes like "Oxen of the Sun." While Chinese characters incorporated into Hangul could sometimes help convey meaning through their visual effect, finding equivalent Korean dialects and slang proved challenging. The translator aimed for word-for-word translation of approximately 3,000 words from the original text, the challenge that he described as "almost an impossibility".

Ukrainian

Fragments of Ulysses first appeared in Ukrainian in 1966, when Oleksandr Terekh published translations of Episodes 4, 6, and part of Episode 18 in the journal Vsesvit. A complete translation was prevented during the Soviet period, "due to the lack of thorough research, poor international contacts and, ultimately, inaccessibility of the major precedent text – the Bible – which was strictly prohibited". Terekh worked on the translation for nearly fifty years before it was completed by Oleksandr Mokrovolskyi after Ukraine gained independence. The first complete Ukrainian Ulysses was published by Vydavnytstvo Zhupanskoho in 2015.

Georgian

Greek

Third Greek translation was done by the film director and poet Socrates Kapsaskis [de], and published in 1990. Peter Constantine praised it, writing that Kapsaskis

had recreated a work of Homeric proportions, with lexical combinations ranging from the very modern colloquial language to Byzantine, New Testament, and Ancient Greek. As the Greek press pointed out when it appeared, there was nothing in the translation to indicate that the original Irish author, Τζαίημς Τζόυς, had not written the greatest book of the twentieth century originally in Greek, "a language with more depth and range than any other tongue with such an illustrious ancient heritage."

Kapsaskis was awarded the European Union Translation Prize for it in 1992.

Turkish

Ulysses was translated into Turkish twice, first by Nevzat Erkmen [tr] in 1996, and then by Armağan Ekici [tr] in 2012. Ekici found the first translation to be "cold and unreadable", and stated that his goal for the new translation was "to make the Turkish readers realise the richness, humanity and humour of the book."

According to Ekici, Erkmen "approaches Ulysses as a dictionary-and-puzzle man: he used to be the captain of the Turkish team that competed in the World Puzzle Championships, and he also wrote puzzle books; he is the author of the only rhyming dictionary of Turkish"; he also frequently used words from Ottoman Turkish, that were natural to the translator born in 1931, but are unknown for modern audience.

In his translation Ekici used multiple sources to deal with Joycean wordplay: "I looked for analogous registers in Turkish (a pompous newspaper article, sports reporting, bad puns, bad novels in the vein of Sweets of Sin, nationalistic propaganda, legal text, political speech, soldiers swearing, occult writing, masonic ritual, girls’ magazine, anti-Semitic language, blackface jokes, Gypsy slang, folk idioms…) and I used the colours and phrases of such texts in rendering such parodies."

Ekici also used well-known existing translations for Joyce's references to the Bible, Shakespeare, and Homer: the 1941 edition of the Turkish Bible; Sabahattin Eyüboğlu's Shakespeare, and Azra Erhat's Homer. Instead of Ottoman Turkish of the first translation, new one employed "modern, colloquial Turkish and slang". Ekici also noted that while "the original texts are timeless ... translations grow old".

Serbo-Croatian

There are three translations of James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922) into Serbo-Croatian: Zlatko Gorjan Uliks (1957), Luko Paljetak Uliks (1991) and Zoran Paunović Uliks (2001). The first two translations are in the Croatian dialect, whereas the third is in the Serbian dialect. Additionally, Gorjan’s translation is important as it is among the first ten translations of Ulysses. ... many of the translations preceding the Serbo-Croatian translations show evidence of censorship and (self)censorship when it comes to sexuality-related topics.

Svetozar Koljević, “The Reception and Translation of James Joyce in Serbo-Croat,” in Literary Interrelations (Ireland, England and the World). Volume 1, Reception and Translation, eds.

Wolfgang Zach and Heinz Kosok (Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1987): 91-99; Jerneja Petrič, “How Adequately Can Joyce Be Translated? Ulysses and its Slovene Translation,” in Literary Interrelations (Ireland, England and the World). Volume 1: 101-107; Aleš Pogačnik, “Letter,” James Joyce Quarterly 30, 2 (1993): 361-362;

Aleš Pogačnik and Tomo Virk, “The Reception of James Joyce in Slovenia,” in The Reception of James Joyce in Europe. Volume I: Germany, Northern and East Central Europe, eds. Geert Lernout and Wim Van Mierlo (London, New York: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004): 162-177;

Sonja Bašić, “The Reception of James Joyce in Croatia,” in The Reception of James Joyce in Europe. Vol. I: 178-186;

Kalina Filipova, “The Re-ception of James Joyce in Bulgaria,” in The Reception of James Joyce in Europe. Vol. I: 236-243; Irena Grubica, “Ulysses in Croatian,” in Joyce and/in Translation, eds. Rosa Maria Bollettieri Bosinelli and Ira Torresi (Roma: Bulzoni, 2007): 107-117;

Sandra Josipović, “The Reception of James Joyce’s Work in Twentieth-Century Serbia,” in Censorship across Borders: The Reception of English Literature in Twentieth-Century Europe, eds. Catherine O’Leary and Alberto Lázaro (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2011): 93-104.

Persian

Icelandic

Sigurður A. Magnússon's translation was published in 1992-93 in two volumes. It was titled Ódysseifur to connect it with famous Icelandic translation of the Odyssey, Odysseusðan by Sveinbjörn Egilsson, "whose renderings of the Homeric epics are among the most important translations in the Icelandic language". The translation of Ulysses was called to be "late", and thus done from the revised edition of the original, where multiple errors and typos were corrected.

Armenian

Armenian translation was done by Samvel Mkrtchyan. His widow, Naira Zohrabyan, commented that "this work received complete indifference".

Malayalam

Basque

Macedonian

Albanian

Lithuanian

Tomas Venclova translated three episods of the book in 1968; he said that it was "very difficult". According to him, Lithuanian language is well-suited for the translation, but also had almost no slang:

The Lithuanian language is very rich, sonorous, and archaic. It is one of the "classical" Indo-European languages and in some ways is close to the Celtic languages, including Gaelic, which of course is very pleasant for a translator of Joyce. In principle, therefore, it is possible to recreate Joyce's alliterations, his rhythms, and his whole complex verbal fabric in Lithuanian. But this language also has its shortcomings. It has an ancient folkloric tradition, but its literary tradition is not as extensive. Slang and the "urban" lexicon in general are relatively undeveloped; many stylistic registers which Joyce uses are almost completely lacking and have to be created.

Latvian

Dzintars Sodums [lv]'s translation was published in Sweden in 1960.

Other languages

Eastern Europe

Bibliography2008

“Music hath jaws: Translating Music and Silence in Joyce’s Ulysses,” in James Joyce’s Silences, eds. Jolanta Wawrzycka and Serenella Zanotti (London – New York: Bloomsbury, 2018), 209-29. James Joyce's silences. London New York Oxford New Delhi Syndey: Bloomsbury Academic. 2018. ISBN 978-1-350-03671-0.

Enrico Terrinoni, “Translating Ulysses in the Era of Public Joyce: A Return to Interpre-tation,” in Bridging Cultures: Intercultural Mediation in Literature, Linguistics and the Arts, eds. Ciara Hogan, Nadine Rentel and Stephanie Schwerter (Stuttgart: Ibidem-Verlag, 2012), 113-124

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