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Republic of IndonesiaRepublik Indonesia
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika"  (Old Javanese) "Unity in Diversity" National ideology: Pancasila
Anthem: Indonesia Raya
Capitaland largest city	Jakarta
Official languages	Indonesian
Government	Presidential Republic
• President	Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono
• Vice President	Jusuf Kalla
Independence from the Netherlands
• Declared	17 August 1945
• Recognized	27 December 1949
• Water (%)	4.85
Population
• 2005 estimate	222,781,000 (4th)
• 2000 census	206,264,595
GDP (PPP)	2005 estimate
• Total	US$977.4 billion (15th)
• Per capita	US$4,458 (110th)
Gini (2002)	34.3 medium inequality
HDI (2004)	0.711 Error: Invalid HDI value (108th)
Currency	Rupiah (IDR)
Time zone	UTC+7 to +9 (various)
• Summer (DST)	not observed
Calling code	62
ISO 3166 code	ID
Internet TLD	.id

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia), is a nation in South East Asia. Made up of 17,500 islands it is the world's largest archipelagic state. With a population of over 200 million, it is the world's fourth most populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority nation. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected parliament and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia, and sea borders with Singapore, the Philippines and Australia.

The Indonesian archipelago, home of the Spice Islands, has been an important trade region since at least the seventh century, when the Srivijaya Kingdom traded with China. Indonesian history has been influenced by the numerous foreign powers drawn to its wealth of natural resources; these include Indians, under whose influence Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished from the early centuries CE, Muslim traders who brought Islam, and European powers who fought one another to monopolize the spice trade during the Age of Exploration. Following over three centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's post-independence history has been turbulent, with elements of separatism and corruption, periods of rapid economic growth and decline, natural disasters, and a democratization process since 1998.

Indonesia consists of many distinct ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups across numerous islands, with the Javanese being the largest and most politically dominant ethnic group. Helping to define Indonesia as both a unitary state and a nation are a shared history of colonialism and rebellion, a national language, and a majority Muslim population. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka tunggal ika" (literally "many, yet one") articulates the diversity that shapes every aspect of the country. Sectarian tensions and separatism, however, have undermined political stability in some regions, often leading to violent confrontations. With a massive population, Indonesia contains some of the most densely populated regions in the world, yet it also has vast areas of wilderness that support the world's second highest level of biodiversity. The country is richly endowed with natural resources, yet poverty is a defining feature of contemporary Indonesia.

Etymology

The name Indonesia was derived from the Latin Indus, meaning "India", and Greek nesos, meaning "island". The name has its origins in the eighteenth century, thus far predating the 1940's formation of the independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed either the term "Indunesians"—or his preference "Malayunesians"—for the inhabitants of "Indian Archipelago or Malayan Archipelago". In the same publication, a student of Earl's, James Richardson Logan, used "Indonesia" as a synonym for "Indian Archipelago". However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use "Indonesia". Instead, they used the terms: "Malay Archipelago" (Maleische Archipel); the "Netherlands East Indies" (Nederlandsch Oost Indïes), popularly Indïe, "the East" (de Oost); or even Insulinde.

From 1900, the name "Indonesia" became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and Indonesian nationalist groups began to use it for political expression. Adolf Bastian, of the University of Berlin, then popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayichen Archipels, 1884-1894. The first Indonesian scholar to use the name was Suwardi Suryaningrat (Ki Hajar Dewantara) when he established a press bureau in the Netherlands with the name Indonesisch Pers-bureau in 1913.

History

Fossilized remains found in Central Java and popularly known as the "Java Man", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited by Homo erectus 500,000 to two million years ago. Austronesian people, who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to South East Asia from Taiwan and first arrived in Indonesia around 2,000 BCE, confining an existing population of Melanesian people to the far eastern regions as they expanded. Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and eventually small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. Inter-island and international trade was fostered by Indonesia's strategic sea-lane position. Trade with both India and China, for example, was established several centuries BCE, and trade has remained one of the most important influences on the country's history.

From the seventh century CE, the powerful Sriwijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it. Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in East Java in the late thirteenth century and, under Gajah Mada, its influence stretched over much of Indonesia; this period is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history.

Islam is thought to have been introduced to Indonesia by Muslim traders; Islamised populations existed in northern Sumatra by the thirteenth century. Islam was gradually adopted by other Indonesian areas, becoming the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the sixteenth century. Rather than being imposed by conquest, it was, for the most part, overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, shaping what is still the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in Indonesia in 1512 when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão, sought to monopolize the sources of nutmeg, cloves, and cubeb pepper in the Moluccas. They were followed by Dutch and British traders. In 1602 the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and became the dominant European power. Following bankruptcy, the VOC was formally dissolved in 1800 and the government of the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony.

Dutch colonial rule expanded and reached its fullest extent in the early twentieth century, but ended with the Japanese occupation during World War II. Sukarno, an influential nationalist leader, cooperated with the occupying Japanese, seeing it as an opportunity for the independence movement. On 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese surrender, Sukarno unilaterally declared Indonesian independence. He was declared the first president and Muhammad Hatta the vice-president. Over the next four years, a bitter struggle was fought against the Netherlands until, in 1949, and in the face of international pressure, they recognised Indonesian independence.

Sukarno's presidency moved from democracy towards authoritarianism, relying for its power on maintain a balance between the opposing forces of the Military, Islam and Communism. However, rising tensions between the military and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) culminated in an attempted coup on 30 September 1965, in which six top-ranking generals were murdered under contentious circumstances. The army, led by Major General Suharto, countered with a violent anti-communist purge during which the PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Hundreds of thousands were killed; the most widely accepted estimates are in the range of 500,000 to 1 million. Politically, Suharto capitalized on Sukarno's gravely weakened position; by March 1967, following a drawn-out power play between the two, he had maneuvered himself into the presidency. Suharto's "New Order" administration encouraged foreign investment in Indonesia, a major factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.

In 1997-1998, however, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis aggravating popular discontent with the now weakened "New Order". Following popular protests, Suharto resigned on 21 May 1998. In 1999 East Timor voted to secede from Indonesia, after a twenty-five-year occupation following the 1975 invasion, a period which was marked by international condemnation of repression and human rights abuses. The Reformasi era following Suharto's resignation has seen a strengthening of democratic processes including a regional autonomy program and the first direct presidential election in 2004. Progress has been slowed by political and economic instability, social unrest, corruption and terrorism. Although relations among different religious and ethnic groups are largely harmonious, acute sectarian discontent, and even violence, remains a problem in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.

Government and politics

Structure and affiliations

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. As a unitary state, power is concentrated in the national government. Following the resignation of President Suharto in 1998, Indonesian political and governmental structures have undergone major reforms, which required four amendments to the 1945 Constitution of Indonesia. Executive, judicial and legislative branches were revamped, creating a newly liberal democratic political system.

Executive

The President of Indonesia is the head of state, commander-in-chief of the Indonesian armed forces, and responsible for domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president appoints a council of ministers, who are not required to be elected members of the legislature. The 2004 presidential election was the first in which the people voted directly for President and Vice President. Presidential terms are for five years and limited to a maximum of two consecutive terms.

Parliament

The highest representative body at national level is the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR). Its main functions include supporting and amending the Constitution, inauguration of the President and the fomalization of broad outlines of state policy, and the power to impeach the President. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council (DPR) with 550 members and the Regional Representatives Council (DPD) with 168 members. The DPR passes legislation and monitors the executive branch; party-aligned members are elected for five-year terms by proportional representation. Following significant reforms since 1998, the DPR's role in national governance has increased markedly. The DPD is a new chamber whose specific role is matters of regional management.

Judicial system

Most civil disputes appear first before a State Court; from which appeals can be heard before the High Court. The Supreme Court, the country's highest, can hear a final cassation appeal or conduct a case review if there is new evidence. In addition to civil courts, Indonesia has a Commercial Court to handle bankruptcy and insolvency; a State Administrative Court to hear administrative law cases against the government; a Constitutional Court to hear disputes concerning legality of law products, general elections, dissolution of political parties, and the scope of authority of a state institution; and a Religious Court to deal with specific religious cases.

Military

Indonesia's armed forces (TNI) total about 300,000 members, including the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL, includes marines), and Air Force (TNI-AU). The army has about 233,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 4% of GDP in 2006 and is controversially supplemented by revenue from military commercial interests and foundations. In the post-Suharto period since 1998, formal TNI representation in parliament has been removed, and although now curtailed, its political influence remains extensive.

Foreign relations

In contrast to Sukarno's antipathy to western powers and hostility to Malaysia, Indonesia's foreign relations since the Suharto 'New Order' administration have been characterized by international cooperation and accommodation in order to gain external support for Indonesia's political stability and economic development. Indonesian maintains close relationships with its neighbors in Asia, and is a founding member of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit. Relations with China were restored in 1990 after being frozen during anti-communist purges early in the Suharto era. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, and was one of the founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). Indonesia is signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, and a member of OPEC, the Cairns Group and the WTO. Indonesia has been the recipient of significant amounts of humanitarian and development aid since 1966, in particular from the United States, western Europe, Australia, and Japan.

Contemporary issues

As of 2006, an estimated 17.8% of the population live below the poverty line and 49.0% of the population live on less than US$2 per day. The East Asian financial crisis of 1998 severely increased levels of poverty. The average annual growth rate of 5% in recent years is not enough, however, to make a significant impact on unemployment. Stagnant wages growth and increases in fuel and rice prices, have worsened poverty levels. Another stated Government priority is to reduce corruption and the lack of judicial independence, which significantly raises producers' costs and business uncertainty, and deters vital domestic and foreign investment. Despite a significant degree of economic stability returning, economic watchers and most significantly investors, remain sceptical about the government's reform measures.

Significant separatist movements in the provinces of Aceh and Papua have led to armed conflict and allegations of human rights abuses. Following a long standing guerrilla war between the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) and the Indonesian military, a ceasefire agreement was reached in 2005. In Papua, there has been a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws, and a reported decline in the levels of violence and human rights abuses since the presidency of Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono.

Terrorist bombings linked to militant Islamism and Al-Qaeda have occurred in Bali and Jakarta; the most deadly attack killed 202 people (including 164 international tourists) in the Bali resort town of Kuta in 2002. The attacks and subsequent travel warnings issued by other countries, have severely damaged Indonesia's important tourist industry and the economy's foreign investment prospects. In cooperation with other countries, the Government has achieved substantial, but so far incomplete, success in apprehending and prosecuting the perpetrators, and fracturing their organizations.

Administrative divisions

Administratively, Indonesia consists of thirty-three provinces, four of which have special status. Each has its own political legislature and is headed by a governor. The provinces are subdivided into regencies (kabupaten) and (kotamadya), which are further subdivided into subdistricts (kecamatan), and again into village groupings (kelurahan). Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, the 440 districts or regencies have become the key administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is one of the most influential on a citizen's daily life, and handles matters of a village or neighbourhood through an elected lurah or kepala desa (village chief).

The provinces with special status, Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta and Papua, have greater legislative privileges and a higher degree of autonomy from the central government in comparison to other provinces. The Acehnese government, for example, has the right to create an independent legal system; in 2003, it instituted a form of Sharia (Islamic law). Yogyakarta was granted the status of 'Special Region' as recognition for is pivotal role in supporting Indonesian Republicans during the Indonesian National Revolution. Papua, formerly known as Irian Jaya, has had special autonomy status since 2001. Jakarta is the country's special capital region.

Indonesian provinces and their capitals

(Indonesian name in brackets where different from English)
† indicates provinces with Special Status

Geography

Indonesia's 17,508 islands, about 6,000 of which are inhabited, are scattered over both sides of the equator. The five largest islands are Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan (the Indonesian part of Borneo), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea) and Sulawesi. Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on the island of Borneo, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, and East Timor on the island of Timor. The capital, Jakarta, is on Java and is the nation's largest city, followed by Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, and Semarang.

At 1,919,440 km² (741,050 mi²), Indonesia is the world's sixteenth-largest country in terms of land area. Its average population density is 134.39 people per square kilometer, 79th in the world, although Java, the world's most populous island, has a population density of 940 people per km². At 4,884 meters (12,405 feet), Puncak Jaya in Papua is Indonesia's highest peak and Lake Toba in Sumatra its largest lake with an area of 1,145 km² (442 mi²). The country's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and include the Mahakam and Barito; such rivers are communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.

Indonesia's location on the edges of three tectonic plates—the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian plates—makes it the site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. Indonesia has at least 150 active volcanoes, including Krakatoa and Tambora, both famous for their devastating eruptions in the nineteenth century. The eruption of the Toba supervolcano approximately 70,000 years ago was one of the largest eruptions known and a global catastrophe. Recent disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 tsunami which killed an estimated 167,736 in northern Sumatra and the Yogyakarta earthquake in 2006. Volcanic ash, however, is a major contributor to the high agricultural fertility that has historically sustained the high population densities of Java and Bali.

Equatorial Indonesia has a tropical climate with two distinct monsoonal wet and dry seasons. Average annual rainfall in the lowlands varies from 1,780 to 3,175 millimetres (70 to 125 inches), and up to 6,100 millimetres (240 inches) in mountainous regions. Mountainous areas—particularly in the west coast of Sumatra, West Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Papua—receive the highest rainfall. Humidity is generally high, averaging about 80%. Temperatures vary little over the year; the average daily temperature range of Jakarta is 26° to 30° Celsius (79° to 86° Fahrenheit).

Ecology

Due to its size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography, Indonesia supports the world's second highest level of biodiversity (after Brazil) and its flora and fauna is a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. Once linked to the Asian mainland, the Greater Sunda Islands (Sumatra, Kalimantan, Java and Bali) have a wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the tiger, rhinoceros, orangutan, elephant, and leopard, were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically.

Approximately 60% of the country is covered by forests; and in Sumatra and Kalimantan they are predominantly of Asian species. The forests of smaller but densely populated Java, however, have largely been removed for human habitation and agriculture. Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara and Maluku—having been long separated from the continental landmasses—have developed their own unique flora and fauna. Originally part of the Australian landmass, the highlands of Papua have a number of unique environments, including over six hundred bird species, with fauna closely related to that of Australia.

Surrounding thousands of islands with over 80,000 kilometers of coastline, the warm, tropical seas of Indonesia also boast a high level of biodiversity, with a diverse range of ecosystems, including beaches, sand dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems.

The British naturalist Alfred Wallace described a dividing line between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. Known as the "Wallace Line", it runs roughly north-south along the edge of the Sunda shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait, between Lombok and Bali. West of the line the flora and fauna are more Asian; moving east from Lombok, they are increasingly Australian. Wallace also described numerous species unique to the surrounding area, now termed "Wallacea".

As a highly populous country part-way through a rapid industrialization process, Indonesia faces serious ecological issues, which are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Issues include: large-scale deforestation (much of it illegal) and related wildfires causing heavy smog over parts of western Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; over-exploitation of marine resources; and environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization and economic development, including air pollution, traffic congestion, garbage management, and reliable water and waste water services. Habitat destruction threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species, including 140 species of mammals identified by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as threatened and fifteen identified as critically endangered including the Sumatran Orangutan.

Economy

Indonesian Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for 2005 was US$287 billion, with a per capita GDP (PPP) of US$4,458, ranking Indonesia 110th in the world. The services sector is the economy's largest accounting for 45.3% of GDP (2005), followed by industry (40.7%) and agriculture (14.0%). Agriculture, however, is the country's largest employer, employing 44.3% of the 95 million-strong workforce, followed by the services sector (36.9%) and industry (18.8%). Major industries include petroleum and natural gas, textiles, apparel, and mining. Major agricultural products include palm oil, rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber.

Indonesia's main export markets are Japan (22.3% of Indonesian exports in 2005), the United States (13.9%), China (9.1%), and Singapore (8.9%). The major suppliers of imports to Indonesia are Japan (18.0%), China (16.1%), and Singapore (12.8%). In 2005, Indonesia ran a trade surplus with export revenues of US$83.64 billion and import expenditure of US$62.02 billion. The country has extensive natural resources, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper, and gold. Indonesia's major imports include machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, and foodstuffs.

Despite its immense natural resources and agricultural productivity, prosperity has often failed to be equitable. Following independence, the economy deteriorated drastically as a result of political instability, a young and inexperienced government, and ill-disciplined economic nationalism. Following President Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the New Order administration brought a degree of discipline to economic policy that quickly brought inflation down, stabilized the currency, managed foreign debt, and attracted foreign aid and investment.

Indonesia is Southeast Asia's only member of OPEC and the 1970s oil price rises provided an export revenue windfall that contributed to economic growth rates averaging over 7% from 1968 to 1981. Following a slowing of growth in the 1980s due to over regulation and dependence on declining oil prices, a range economic reforms were introduced in the late 1980s. Foreign investment flowed into Indonesia, particularly into the rapidly developing export-orientated manufacturing sector, and from 1989 to 1997, the Indonesian economy grew by an average of over 7%.

The East Asian financial crisis of 1997-98, however, hit Indonesia hard. Against the US dollar, the currency dropped from about Rp. 2,000 to Rp. 18,000 and the economy shrunk by a devastating 13.7%, causing much hardship. The rupiah has since stabilized at around Rp. 10,000 and there has been a slow but significant recovery. GDP growth exceeded 5% in both 2004 and 2005 and is forecasted to increase. The patchy nature of the recovery has been exacerbated by political instability since 1998, perceptions of corruption at all levels of government and business, and a perceived slow pace of economic reform. Real per capita income has reached pre-1997 crisis levels but annual inflation in 2006 is estimated at 17%.

Demographics

The national population from the 2000 national census is 206 million, and the Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau and Statistics Indonesia estimate 222 million as the population for 2006. 130 million people live on the island of Java, the world's most populous island. Despite a considerably successful family planning program over the last four decades, the population is expected to grow to around 315 million in 2035 based on the current estimated annual growth rate of 1.25%.

Ethnic groups

Most Indonesians are ethnically Austronesian, particularly in more populous western and central Indonesia, and much of eastern Indonesia is Melanesian. There are, however, around 300 distinct native ethnicities in Indonesia and 742 different languages and dialects. The largest ethnic group is the Javanese, who, comprising 42 percent of the population, have a political and cultural dominance in the country. The next largest groups are the Sundanese, Malays and Madurese. An almost universally shared sense of Indonesian nationhood overlays this diversity of strongly maintained regional identities. Although a largely harmonious society, Indonesia is not, however, without social, religious and ethnic tensions, that sometimes trigger horrendous violence; domestic migration (including official transmigration) is often a factor.

Chinese Indonesians are an influential ethnic minority comprising less than two percent of the population. Much of the country's privately-owned commerce and wealth is Chinese-controlled, which has contributed to considerable resentment and even anti-Chinese violence.

Languages

The official national language, Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia), is universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. It is the language of business, politics, national media, education and academia. It was originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia and is thus closely related to Malay. It was first promoted as a national language in 1928 by the Indonesian National Party (PNI), accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony, and then declared the official language after independence. Most Indonesians speak at least one of the several hundred local languages (bahasa daerah), often as their first language. Of these, Javanese is the most widely-spoken language, as it is the language of the largest ethnic group. Papua, on the other hand, has as many as five hundred or more indigenous Papuan or Austronesian languages in a region of just 2.7 million people.

Religion

Although the Indonesian constitution guarantees religious freedom for all citizens, the government officially only recognizes six religions, namely Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Indonesia is the world's most populous Muslim-majority nation with almost 86% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 census. 11% of the population is Christian (of which roughly two-thirds are Protestant), 2% are Hindu, and 1% Buddhist. The vast majority of Hindus are Balinese who follow a version of Hinduism fused with existing cultural and religious beliefs and markedly distinct from orthodox Hinduism. Most Buddhists in modern-day Indonesia are ethnic Chinese. Though now minority religions, the influence of Hinduism, Buddhism and classical India remain defining traits of Indonesian culture.

Islam was first adopted by Indonesians in northern Sumatra in thirteenth century through the influence of traders, and became the country's dominant religion by the sixteenth century. Many Indonesian Muslims, such as the Javanese abangan, follow a syncretic form of Islam, which draws on a local customs and beliefs, which are often favored over more orthodox Islamic law. Catholicism was first brought to Indonesia by early Portuguese colonialists and missionaries, and the Protestant denominations are largely a result of Dutch Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during its colonial time. As with Islam and Hinduism, Christian beliefs in Indonesia are sometimes combined with other traditional beliefs or faiths by a small percentage of Indonesians.

Culture

Indonesia has around three hundred ethnic groups, each with cultural differences developed over centuries and, in part, imported from Arabic, Chinese, Malay and European sources. Traditional Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology as do wayang kulit ('shadow puppet') performances. Textiles such as batik, ikat and songket are created across Indonesia with different areas producing variations in styles. The most dominant influences on Indonesian architecture have traditionally been Indian; however, Chinese, Arab, and European architectural influences have been significant. The most popular sports in Indonesia include badminton and soccer. Pencak Silat is an Indonesian martial art.

Indonesian cuisine varies across its regions and is based on Chinese, European, Middle Eastern and Indian influences. Rice is the main staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and/or vegetables. Spices (notably chili) and coconut milk are fundamental ingredients, as are fish and chicken. Only the relatively well-off regularly eat larger quantities of meat.

Examples of Indonesian traditional music are Gamelan and Keroncong. Dangdut is a popular contemporary genre of pop music that draws influence from Arabic, Indian, and Malay folk music. The Indonesian film industry's popularity peaked in the 1980s and dominated cinemas in Indonesia, although it declined significantly in the early 1990s. Since 2000, the industry has rebounded somewhat, with several successful releases.

The oldest evidence of writing in Indonesia is a series of Sanskrit inscriptions dated to the 5th century CE. Important figures in modern Indonesian literature include Dutch author Multatuli, who criticized treatment of the Indonesians under Dutch colonial rule; Sumatrans Muhammad Yamin and Hamka, who were influential pre-independence nationalist writers and politicians; and proletarian writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesia's most famous novelist. Indonesia also has a strongly-rooted oral tradition.

Media freedom in Indonesia increased considerably after the end of President Suharto's rule, during which the now-defunct Ministry of Information monitored and controlled domestic media and restricted foreign media. The TV market includes ten national commercial networks and provincial networks that compete with public TVRI. Private radio stations carry their own news bulletins and foreign broadcasters can supply programs. At a reported eighteen million users in 2005, Internet usage is still limited to a minority of the population.

See also

Template:Indonesia-related topics

References

General

• Friend, T Indonesian Destinies, Harvard University Press, 2003, hardcover, 544 pages, ISBN 0-674-01137-6
• Ricklefs, M.C. (1991). A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300, Second Edition. MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Schwarz, A. 1994, A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s, Westview Press, ISBN 1-86373-635-2
• Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10518-5.
• Vickers, Adrian (2005). A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54262-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

Further reading

Notes

1. ^ Estimate "World Economic Outlook Database" (Press release). International Monetary Fund. April 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite press release}}: Check |url= value (help)
2. ^ "Country Profile: Indonesia" (PDF). U.S Library of Congress. December 2004. Retrieved 2006-12-09.
3. Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. pp.22-26. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
4. Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14.
5. ^ Indonesia's physical boundaries were established by the Dutch, who, over several centuries, took over the many islands and established a single colony: the Netherlands East Indies. For most of the colonial period, Dutch rule over these territories was tenuous and it was only in the early twentieth century that Dutch dominance extended to the current boundaries. Dutch troops were constantly engaged in quelling one rebellions both on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in Central Java, Imam Bonjol in West Sumatra and Pattimura in Maluku, and a bloody thirty-year war in Aceh weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces.(Schwartz 1999, pages 3-4) Despite major internal political, social and sectarian divisions during the National Revolution, Indonesians, on the whole, found unity in their fight for independence against the Dutch.
6. ^ Ricklefs (1991), page 256
7. ^ Calder, Joshua (3 May 2006). "Most Populous Islands". World Island Information. Retrieved 2006-09-26.
8. ^ Lester, Brown, R (1997). State of the World 1997: A Worldwatch Institute Report on Progress Toward a Sustainable Society (14th edition). New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. page 7. ISBN-0393040089. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
9. "Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them". The Economist. Sep fourteenth 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) and (subsequent correction)
10. ^ Tomascik, T (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas - Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 962-593-078-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
11. ^ Template:Id icon Anshory, Irfan (2004-08-16). "Asal Usul Nama Indonesia". Pikiran Rakyat. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
12. Earl, George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): p.119. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
13. (Logan, James Richardson (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): pp. 4:252-347. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)); Earl, George S. W. (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): pp. 254, 277–278. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help).
14. (This term was introduced in 1860 in the influential novel Max Havelaar (1859), written by Multatuli, critical of Dutch colonialism). Jusuf M. van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (3): 166–171.
15. Jusuf M. van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonesia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (3): 166–171.
16. Pope (1988). "Recent advances in far eastern paleoanthropology". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17. Annual Review: 43–77. cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 309–312. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Pope, G (August 15, 1983). "Evidence on the Age of the Asian Hominidae". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 80 (16). National Academy of Sciences: 4, 988–4992. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); de Vos, J.P. (9 December 1994). "Dating hominid sites in Indonesia" (PDF). Science Magazine. 266 (16). The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 4, 988–4992. doi:10.1126/science.7992059. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) cited in Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. p. 309. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
17. Taylor (2003), pages 5-7
18. Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. pp.8-9. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
19. Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. pp.15-18. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
20. Taylor (2003), pages 3, 9, 10-11, 13, 14-15, 18-20, 22-23; Vickers (2005), pages 18-20, 60, 133-134
21. Taylor (2003), pages 23-26; Ricklefs (1991), page 3
22. Peter Lewis (1982). "The next great empire". Futures. 14 (1): 47–61.
23. Ricklefs (1991), pages 3 to 14
24. Ricklefs (1991), pages 12-14
25. ^ Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan. pp. p.22-24. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Cite error: The named reference "RICKLEFSp24" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
26. Gert Oostindie and Bert Paasman (1998). "Dutch Attitudes towards Colonial Empires, Indigenous Cultures, and Slaves". Eighteenth-Century Studies. 31 (3): 349–355.; Angus Maddison (1989). "Dutch Income in and from Indonesia 1700-1938". Modern Asian Studies. 23 (4): 645–670.; Ricklefs, M.C. (1993). History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300, second edition. London: MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-57689-6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
27. Ricklefs (1991), pages 203-211, 215; Reid, Anthony (1974). The Indonesian National Revolution 1945-1950. Melbourne: Longman. pp. pp.16, 33, 73, 85–86, 91–92, 101, 125, 141, 162. ISBN 0-582-71046-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
28. H. J. Van Mook (1949). "Indonesia". Royal Institute of International Affairs. 25 (3): 274–285.; Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey. 14 (24): 345–348.
29. Ricklefs (1991), page 213; Taylor, Jean Gelman (2003). Indonesia: Peoples and History. Yale University Press. p. 325. ISBN 0-300-10518-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Reid (1973), page 30
30. Charles Bidien (5 December 1945). "Independence the Issue". Far Eastern Survey. 14 (24): 345–348.; "Indonesian War of Independence"". Military. GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved 2006-12-11.
31. Ricklefs (1991), pages 237 - 280
32. Friend (2003), pages 107-109; Chris Hilton (writer and director) (2001). Shadowplay (Television documentary). Vagabond Films and Hilton Cordell Productions.; Ricklefs (1991), pages 280-283, 284, 287-290}}
33. John Roosa and Joseph Nevins (5 November 2005). "40 Years Later: The Mass Killings in Indonesia". Counterpunch. Retrieved 2006-11-12.; Robert Cribb (2002). "Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965-1966". Asian Survey. 42 (4): 550–563.
34. John D. Legge (1968). "General Suharto's New Order". Royal Institute of International Affairs. 44 (1): 40–47.
35. Delhaise, Philippe F. (1998). Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems. Willey. pp. p.123. ISBN 0-471-83450-5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
36. Jonathan Pincus and Rizal Ramli (1998). "Indonesia: from showcase to basket case". Cambridge Journal of Economics. 22 (6): 723–734. doi:10.1093/cje/22.6.723.
37. "President Suharto resigns". BBC. 21 May 1998. Retrieved 2006-11-12.
38. Burr, W. (6 Dec 2001). "Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonesia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto". National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62. National Security Archive, The George Washington University, Washington, DC. Retrieved 2006-09-17. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); "International Religious Freedom Report". Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. U.S. Department of State. 2002-10-17. Retrieved 2006-09-29.
39. Robert W. Hefner (2000). "Religious Ironies in East Timor". Religion in the News. 3 (1). Retrieved 2006-12-12.
40. "Aceh rebels sign peace agreement". BBC. 15 August 2005. Retrieved 2006-12-12.
41. 1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002.
42. ^ Susi Dwi Harijanti and Tim Lindsey (2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055.
43. "The Carter Center 2004 Indonesia Election Report" (PDF) (Press release). The Carter Center. 2004. Retrieved 2006-12-13.; Andrew Ellis (16 July 2003). "Countdown to 2004 Indonesia's New General Election Law". USINDO Brief. USINDO. Retrieved 2006-12-13.
44. _ (2002), The fourth Amendment of 1945 Indonesia Constitution, Chapter III – The Executive Power, Art. 7.
45. Template:Id icon People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI). Ketetapan MPR-RI Nomor II/MPR/2000 tentang Perubahan Kedua Peraturan Tata Tertib Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat Republik Indonesia (PDF). Retrieved 2006-11-07.
46. Reforms include total control of statutes production without executive branch interventions; all members are now elected (reserved seats for military representatives have now been removed); and the introduction of some fundamental rights exclusive to the DPR.Susi Dwi Harijanti and Tim Lindsey (2006). "Indonesia: General elections test the amended Constitution and the new Constitutional Court". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 4 (1): 138–150. doi:10.1093/icon/moi055.; "Indonesia:Factsheet". Country Briefings. The Economist. 3 Oct 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-13.
47. Based on the 2001 constitution amendment, the DPD comprises four popularly elected non-partisan members from each of the thirty-three provinces for national political representation. People's Consultative Assembly (MPR-RI). Third Amendment to the 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-13.
48. Chew, Amy (2002-07-07). "Indonesia military regains ground". CNN Asia. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
49. Witular, Rendi A. (2005-05-19). "Susilo Approves Additional Military Funding". The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
50. Friend (2003), pages 473-475, 484
51. "Indonesia - Foreign Policy". U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2007-05-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
52. ^ "Background Note: Indonesia". U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 2007-05-05. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
53. Indonesia temporarily withdrew from the UN on 20 January 1965 in response to the fact that Malaysia was elected as a non-permanent member of the Security Council. It announced its intention to "resume full cooperation with the United Nations and to resume participation in its activities" on 19 September 1966, and was invited to re-join the UN on 28 September 1966.
54. "Making the New Indonesia Work for the Poor - Overview" (PDF) (Press release). World Bank. 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
55. "Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them". The Economist. Sep fourteenth 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) (subsequent correction); Ridwan Max Sijabat (23 March 2007). "Unemployment still blighting the Indonesian landscape". The Jakarta Post. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
56. In 2005, the Government was forced to reduce its large subsidies on fuel prices drastically as international oil prices climbed, which was a major contributor to inflation and hardship. "Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them". The Economist. Sep fourteenth 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
57. "Indonesia:Factsheet". Country Briefings. The Economist. 3 Oct 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-13.
58. "Poverty in Indonesia: Always with them". The Economist. Sep fourteenth 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-26. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); (subsequent correction)
59. Lateline TV Current Affairs (20 April 2006). "Sidney Jones on South East Asian conflicts". TV PROGRAM TRANSCRIPT, Interview with South East Asia director of the International Crisis Group. Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC). {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
60. International Crisis Group (5 September 2006). "Papua: Answer to Frequently Asked Questions" (PDF). Update Briefing (No. 53). International Crisis Group: 1. Retrieved 2006-09-17. {{cite journal}}: |issue= has extra text (help); Check date values in: |date= (help)
61. Chris Wilson (11 October 2001). "Indonesia and Transnational Terrorism". Foreign Affairs, Defense and Trade Group. Parliament of Australia. Retrieved 2006-10-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
62. "Commemoration of 3rd anniversary of bombings". AAP. The Age Newspaper. 10 December 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
63. "Travel Warning: Indonesia" (Press release). US Embassy, Jakarta. 10 May 2005. Retrieved 2006-12-26. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
64. Reyko Huang (23 May 2002). "Priority Dilemmas: U.S. - Indonesia Military Relations in the Anti Terror War". Terrorism Project. Center for Defense Information. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
65. Michelle Ann Miller (2004). "The Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?". Asian Ethnicity. 5 (3): 333–351. doi:10.1080/1463136042000259789.
66. The positions of governor and its vice governor are prioritized for descendants of the Sultan of Yogyakarta and Paku Alam, respectively, much like a sultanate. (Elucidation on the Indonesia Law No. 22/1999 Regarding Regional Governance. People's Representative Council (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; Indonesia Law No. 5/1974 Concerning Basic Principles on Administration in the Region (translated version). The President of Republic of Indonesia (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91
67. As part of the autonomy package was the introduction of the Papuan People's Council tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs, however, the implementation of the autonomy measures has been criticised as half-hearted and incomplete. Dursin, Richel (2004-11-18). "Another Fine Mess in Papua". Editorial. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); "Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta". The Jakarta Post. 2004-11-18. Retrieved 2006-10-05. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
68. "Indonesia Regions". Indonesia Business Directory. Retrieved 2007-04-24. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help)
69. Central Intelligence Agency (2006-10-17). "Rank Order Area". The World Factbook. US CIA, Washington, DC. Retrieved 2006-11-03.
70. "Population density - Persons per km² 2006". CIA world factbook. Photius Coutsoukis. 2006. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
71. "Republic of Indonesia". Encarta. Microsoft. 2006. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
72. "Volcanoes of Indonesia". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institute. Retrieved 2007-03-25.
73. "The Human Toll". UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery. United Nations. Retrieved 2007-03-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
74. Whitten, T (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. pp. 95–97. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
75. "About Jakarta And Depok". University of Indonesia. University of Indonesia. Retrieved 2007-04-24. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
76. "Indonesia's Natural Wealth: The Right of a Nation and Her People". Islam Online. 2003-05-22. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
77. "Globalis-Indonesia". Globalis, an interactive world map. Global Virtual University. Retrieved 2007-05-14.
78. Whitten, T. (1996). The Ecology of Sulawesi. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 962-593-075-2. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Monk,, K.A. (1996). The Ecology of Nusa Tenggara and Maluku. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions Ltd. ISBN 962-593-076-0. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
79. "Indonesia". InterKnowledge Corp. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
80. ^ Severin, Tim (1997). The Spice Island Voyage: In Search of Wallace. Great Britain: Abacus Travel. ISBN 0-349-11040-9.
81. Wallace, A.R. (2000 (originally 1869)). The Malay Archipelago. Periplus Editions. ISBN 962-593-645-9. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help),
82. ^ Jason R. Miller (1997-01-30). "Deforestation in Indonesia and the Orangutan Population". TED Case Studies. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
83. Massicot, Paul. "Animal Info - Indonesia". Animal Info - Information on Endangered Mammals.
84. "Indonesia Data Profile". World Development Indicators database. The World Bank. 2007. Retrieved 2007-05-14.
85. "Official Statistics and its Development in Indonesia" (PDF). Sub Committee on Statistics: First Session 18-20 February, 2004. Economic and Social Commission for Asia & the Pacific. p. p.19. {{cite web}}: |page= has extra text (help)
86. "Indonesia at a Glance" (PDF). Indonsia Development Indicators and Data. World Bank. 13 August 2006.
87. ^ Indonesia - The World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/id.html Cite error: The named reference "indoCIA" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
88. By the time of Sukarno's downfall in the mid-1960s, the economy was in chaos with 1,000% annual inflation, shrinking export revenues, crumbling infrastructure, factories operating at minimal capacity, and negligible investment, resulting in severe poverty and hunger. Schwarz (1994), pages 52-57
89. ^ Schwarz (1994), pages 52-57
90. Growth slowed to an average of 4.3% per annum between 1981 and 1988
91. Reforms included a managed devaluation of the Rupiah to improve export competitiveness, and de-regulation of the financial sector (Schwarz (1994), pages 52-57).
92. Schwarz (1994), pages 52-57; "Indonesia: Country Brief". Indonesia:Key Development Data & Statistics. The World Bank. September 2006. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
93. "Indonesia: Country Brief". Indonesia:Key Development Data & Statistics. The World Bank. September 2006. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
94. "IMF Executive Board Concludes 2006 Article IV Consultation and Fifth Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with Indonesia". Public Information Notice (PIN) No. 06/91. International Monetary Fund, Washington, DC. 7 August 2006. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
95. "Indonesia: Forecast". Country Briefings. The Economist. 3 October 2006. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
96. Guerin, G. (23 May 2006). "Don't count on a Suharto accounting". Asia Tims Online. Asia Times Online Ltd, Hong Kong. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
97. "2000 Population Statistics" (Press release). Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau. 30 June 2000. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
98. "Tingkat Kemiskinan di Indonesia Tahun 2005-2006" (PDF) (Press release) (in Indonesian). Indonesian Central Statistics Bureau. 1 September 2006. Retrieved 2006-09-26.{{cite press release}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
99. Calder, Joshua (3 May 2006). "Most Populous Islands". World Island Information. Retrieved 2006-09-26.
100. "An Overview of Indonesia". Living in Indonesia, A Site for Expatriates. Expat Web Site Association. Retrieved 2006-10-05.; Merdekawaty, E. (2006-07-06). ""Bahasa Indonesia" and languages of Indonesia" (PDF). UNIBZ - Introduction to Linguistics. Free University of Bozen. Retrieved 2006-07-17. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
101. Kingsbury, Damien. Autonomy and Disintegration in Indonesia. Routledge. p. 131. ISBN 0-415-29737-0.
102. Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
103. Such as the massacre of hundreds of Madurese by a local Dayak community in West Kalimantan, and conflicts in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, and parts of Papua and West Papua T.N. Pudjiastuti (2002). "Migration & Conflict in Indonesia" (PDF). International Union for the Scientific Study of Population (IUSSP), Paris. Retrieved 2006-09-17. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); "Kalimantan The Conflict". Program on Humanitarian Policy and Conflict Research. Conflict Prevention Initiative, Harvard University. Retrieved 2007-01-07.; J.W. Ajawaila; M.J. Papilaya; Tonny D. Pariela; F. Nahusona; G. Leasa; T. Soumokil; James Lalaun and W. R. Sihasale (1999). "Proposal Pemecahan Masalah Kerusuhan di Ambon". Report on Church and Human Rights Persecution in Indonesia. Ambon, Indonesia: Fica-Net. Retrieved 2006-09-29. {{cite conference}}: Unknown parameter |booktitle= ignored (|book-title= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link); Kyoto University: Sulawesi Kaken Team & Center for Southeast Asian Studies Bugis Sailors
104. Schwarz (1994), pages 53, 80-81; Friend (2003), pages 85-87, 164-165, 233-237
105. M. F. Swasono (1997). "Indigenous Cultures in the Development of Indonesia". INTEGRATION OF ENDOGENOUS CULTURAL DIMENSION INTO DEVELOPMENT. Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, New Delhi. Retrieved 2006-09-17.; "The Overseas Chinese". Prospect Magazine. 9 April 1998. Retrieved 2006-09-17. {{cite web}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Check date values in: |date= (help) The riots in Jakarta in 1998—much of which were aimed at the Chinese—were, in part, expressions of this resentment.M. Ocorandi (28 May 1998). "An Analysis of the Implication of Suharto's resignation for Chinese Indonesians". Worldwide HuaRen Peace Mission. Retrieved 2006-09-26. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); F.H. Winarta (August 2004). "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Belum Menjadi Kenyataan Menjelang HUT Kemerdekaan RI Ke-59" (in Indonesian). Komisi Hukum Nasional Republik Indonesia (National Law Commission, Republic of Indonesia), Jakarta.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
106. "The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia". US-ASEAN. Retrieved 2006-10-02.
107. Yang, Heriyanto (August 2005). "The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia" (PDF). Religion. 10 (1): 8. Retrieved 2006-10-02.
108. Oey, Eric (1997), Bali (3rd ed.), Singapore: Periplus Editions, ISBN 962-593-028-0
109. "Indonesia - Buddhism". U.S. Library of Congress. U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2006-10-15. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
110. "Indonesia - Islam". U.S. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2006-10-15. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
111. Magnis-Suseno, F. 1981, Javanese Ethics and World-View: The Javanese Idea of the Good Life, PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta, 1997, pp.15-18, ISBN 979-605-406-X.
112. Ricklefs (1991), pp. 25, 26, 28 ; "1500 to 1670: Great Kings and Trade Empires". Retrieved 2007-04-25. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
113. Ricklefs (1991), pp.28,62; Vickers (2005), p.22; Goh, Robbie B.H. Christianity in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 80. 9812302972.
114. "Indonesia Annual International Religious Freedom Report 2003" (Press release). Jakarta, Indonesia: Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, Embassy of the United States. 2003-12-18. Retrieved 2007-04-25.
115. Witton, Patrick (2002). World Food: Indonesia. Melbourne: Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-009-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
116. Compared to the infused flavors of Vietnamese and Thai food, flavors in Indonesia are kept relatively separate, simple and substantial.Brissendon, Rosemary (2003). South East Asian Food. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books. ISBN 1-74066-013-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
117. Brissendon, Rosemary (2003). South East Asian Food. Melbourne: Hardie Grant Books. pp. p.71-72. ISBN 1-74066-013-7. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); {{cite book |last=Owen|first=Sri|title=Classic Asian Cookbook|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|date=1998 |location=|pages=p.15 |url= |doi= |id=ISBN 0-7513-0439-5}
118. ^ Kristianto, JB (2005-07-02). "Sepuluh Tahun Terakhir Perfilman Indonesia" (in Indonesian). Kompas. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
119. Template:Id icon "Kondisi Perfilman di Indonesia (The State of The Film Industry in Indonesia)". Panton. Retrieved 2006-10-05.
120. Taylor (2003), pages 299 - 301
121. Vickers (2005) pages 3 to 7; Friend (2003), pages 74, 180
122. Shannon L., Smith (2001). Indonesia Today: Challenges of History. Melbourne, Australia: Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 0-7425-1761-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
123. "Internet World Stats". Asia Internet Usage, Population Statistics and Information. Miniwatts Marketing Group. 2005. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)

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