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| Shiva | |
|---|---|
| Devanagari | शिव |
| Tamil script | சிவன் |
Shiva (also spelled Siva; Sanskrit Śiva) is considered to be the supreme deity in Shaivism, a denomination of Hinduism. Many Hindus such as those of Smarta tradition are free to accept various manifestations of the divine as their chosen deity for worship, and those who prefer Shiva are called Shaivas (Sanskrit Śaiva). Shaivism, along with Vaiṣṇava traditions that focus on Vishnu, and Śākta traditions that focus on the Goddess (Devī) are three of the most influential denominations in Hinduism.
The worship of Shiva is a pan-Hindu tradition, practiced widely across all of India. Shiva is one of the five primary forms of the Divine in Smartism, a denomination of Hinduism that puts particular emphasis on five deities, the other four being Vishnu, Devi, Ganesha, and Surya. Another way of thinking about the divinities in Hinduism identifies Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva as each representing one of the three primary aspects of the Divine in Hinduism, known collectively as the Trimurti. In the Trimurti system, Brahma is the creator, Vishnu is the maintainer or preserver, and Shiva is the destroyer or transformer.
Etymology
The Sanskrit word śiva (Devanagari शिव) is an adjective meaning kind, friendly, gracious, or auspicious. As a proper name it means "The Auspicious One", used as a euphemistic name for Rudra. In simple English transliteration it is written either as Shiva or Siva. In English it is pronounced as IPA: [ɕivə]. The adjective śiva meaning "auspicious" is used as an attributive epithet not particularly of Rudra, but of several other Vedic deities. In the Rig Veda Indra uses this word to describe himself several times. (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3)
The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism, and for a member of one of those sects. It is used as as adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism.
Introduction
Shaivites, the worshippers of Shiva consider Shiva as the Ultimate Reality (see Ishta-Deva for fuller discussion).
Shiva's consort is Parvati, who is identifed with Devi, the Divine Mother, and with Shakti (divine energy).
Shiva and Parvati are the parents of Karthikeya and Ganesha. Karttikeya is popular in South India by the names Subrahmanya and Murugan, and in North India he is more popular by the name Skanda, Kumara, or Karttikeya.
In Maharashtra a regional deity named Khandoba is a patron deity of farming and herding castes. The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri. Khandoba has been assimilated both as a name for Karttikya and also as a form of Shiva himself in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Shakti M. Gupta clarifies the possible confusion between these two identifications by explaining that one of Karttikeya's functions is as the patron deity of thieves, and it is in this capacity that the tribe called Ramoshis, who are thieves by profession, worship Khandoba. Khandoba's varied associations also include an indentification with Surya. The derivation of the name Khandoba has been variously interpreted, and M. S. Mate says that the most commonly-held belief is that it was a distorted form of Skanda, but also notes alternate theories.
Historical development
- For the early history see Rudra
Over the course of time, many regional cults were amalgamated into the figure of Shiva as we know him today. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well-documented. Axel Michaels explains the composite nature of Shaivism as follows:
Like Vişņu, Śiva is also a high god, who gives his name to a collection of theistic trends and sects: Śaivism. Like Vaişņavism, the term also implies a unity which cannot be clearly found either in religious practice or in philosophical and esoteric doctrine. Furthermore, practice and doctrine must be kept separate.
Pashupati seal
A seal discovered during excavation of the Mohenjo-daro archaeological site in the Indus Valley has drawn attention as a possible representation of a "proto-Shiva" figure. This "Pashupati" (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati) seal shows a seated figure, possibly ithyphallic, surrounded by animals. Sir John Marshall and others have claimed that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, and have described the figure as having three faces, seated in a "yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined.
This claim has not fared well with some modern academics. Gavin Flood characterizes these views as "speculative", saying that while it is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure, it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull. Historian John Keay is more specifically dismissive, saying:
...there is little evidence for the currency of this myth. Rudra, a Vedic deity later identified with Shiva, is indeed referred to as pasupati because of his association with cattle; but asceticism and meditation were not Rudra's specialties, nor is he usually credited with an empathy for animals other than kine. More plausibly, it has been suggested that the Harappan figure's heavily horned headgear bespeaks a bull cult, to which numerous other representations of bulls lend substance.
Rudra
Main article: RudraShiva as we know him today has taken on features of the Vedic god Rudra. Rudra, the god of the roaring storm, is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity.
The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rig Veda, which is dated to between 1700–1100 BCE based on linguistic and philological evidence. A god named Rudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda. The name Rudra is still used as a name for Shiva. In RV 2.33 he is described as the "Father of the Maruts", a group of storm gods.
The identification of Shiva with the older god Rudra is not universally accepted, as Axel Michaels explains:
To what extent Śiva's origins are in fact to be sought in Rudra is extremely unclear. The tendency to consider Śiva an ancient god is based on this identification, even though the facts that justify such a far-reaching assumption are meager.
Rudra is called "The Archer" (Sanskrit: Śarva) and the arrow is an essential attribute of Rudra. This name appears in the Shiva Sahasranama, and R. K. Sharma notes that it is used as a name of Shiva often in later languages. The word is derived from the Sanskrit root śarv- which means "to injure" or "to kill" and Sharma uses that general sense in his interpretive translation of the name Śarva as "One who can kill the forces of darkness". The names Dhanvin ("Bowman") and Bāṇahasta ("Archer", literally "Armed with arrows in his hands") also refer to archery.
Attributes of Shiva
- Third Eye: Shiva is often depicted with a third eye with which he burned Desire (Kāma) to ashes.
- Serpents: Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake.
- Crescent: Shiva bears on his head the crescent of the moon. Thus Shiva is known by the names of Somasundara and Chandrashekara.
- Sacred Ganga: Ganga, the holiest of the holy rivers, flows from the matted hair of Shiva. Shiva allowed an outlet to the great river to traverse the earth and bring purifying water to human beings (See: Origin of Ganga). The flowing water is one of the five elements which compose the whole Universe and from which earth arises. Ganga also denotes fertility one of the creative aspect of Shiva.
- Drum: A small drum shaped like an hourglass is known as a "damaru" (Sanskrit: ḍamaru). This is one of the attributes of Shiva in his famous dancing representation known as Nataraja. A specific hand gesture (mudra) called ḍamaru-hasta (Sanskrit for "ḍamaru-hand") is used to hold the drum. This drum is particularly used as an emblem by members of the Kāpālika sect.
- Vibhuti: Vibhuti is three lines of ashes drawn on the forehead that represents the essence of our Being, which remains after all the malas (impurities of ignorance, ego and action) and vasanas (likes and dislikes, attachments to one's body, world, worldly fame, worldly enjoyments, etc.) have been burnt in the fire of knowledge. Hence vibhuti is revered as the very form of Shiva and signifies the Immortality of the soul and manifested glory of the Lord.
- Ashes: Shiva smears his body with ashes (bhasma). Some forms of Shiva, such as Bhairava, are associated with a very old Indian tradition of cremation-ground asceticism that was practiced by some groups who were outside the fold of brahmanic orthodoxy. These practices associated with cremation grounds are also menteioned in the Pali canon of Theravada Buddhism. One epithet for Shiva is "Inhabitant of the cremation ground" (Sanskrit: śmaśānavāsin, also spelled Shmashanavasin) referring to this connection.
- Tiger skin: He is often shown seated upon a tiger skin.
- Elephant and Deer Skin: Shiva also wears elephant skins. Similarly deer represent the jumping of minds (flickering mind). Shiva wears deer skin which indicates that he has controlled the mind perfectly.
- Trident: (Sanskrit: Trishula) Shiva's particular weapon is the trident.
- Lingam:Shiva is often worshipped in the form of a lingam. These are depicted in various forms. Also see: Jyotirlinga
- Varanasi (Benares) is considered as the city specially-loved by Shiva, and is the holiest place of pilgrimage in northern India.
- Mount Kailasha in the Himalayas is his traditional abode.
- He is often represented as immersed in deep meditation.
- He is said to eradicate Kama (sexual desire), Moha (material desire) and Maya (mundane thoughts) from his devotees' minds.
The five mantras
Five is a sacred number for Shiva. One of his most important mantras has five syllables (namaḥ śivāya).
Shiva's body is said to consist of five mantras, called the pañcabrahmans: As forms of god, each of these have their own names and distinct iconography:
These are represented as the five faces of Shiva, and are associated in various texts with the five elements, the five senses, the five organs of perception, and the five organs of action. Doctrinal differences and possibly errors in transmission have resulted in some differences between texts in details of how these five forms are linked with various attributes. But the overall meaning of these associations is summarized by Stella Kramrisch:
Through these transcendent categories, Śiva, the ultimate reality, becomes the efficient and material cause of all that exists.
According to the Pañcabrahma Upanishad:
One should know all things of the phenomenal world as of a fivefold character, for the reason that the eternal verity of Śiva is of the character of the fivefold Brahman. (Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31)
Forms and depictions
According to Gavin Flood, "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox", whose attributes include opposing themes. The ambivalent nature of this deity is apparent in some of his names and the stories told about him.
The Fivefold Manifestation or Expression of Siva
Sadashiva means: "Ever-auspicious." A name of the Primal Soul, Siva, a synonym for Parameshvara, which is expressed in the physical being of the satguru. Sadashiva especially denotes the power of revealing grace, anugraha shakti, the third tattva, after which emerge Siva's other four divine powers. This fivefold manifestation or expression of God's activity in the cosmos is depicted in Hindu mantras, literature and art as the five-faced Sadashivamurti. Looking upward is Ishana, "ruler" (the power of revealment). This fifth face will not be depicted in any form, but will exist in subtle form only. Facing east is Tatpurusha, "supreme soul" (the power of obscuration). Westward-looking is Sadyojata, "quickly birthing" (the power of creation). Northward is Vamadeva, "lovely, pleasing" (the power of preservation). Southward is Aghora, "nonterrifying" (the power of reabsorption).
Destroyer versus benefactor
In the Yajurveda two contrary sets of attributes for both malignant or terriffic (Sanskrit: rudra) and benign or auspicious (Sanskrit: śiva) forms can be found, leading Chakravarti to conclude that "all the basic elements which created the complex Rudra-Śiva cult of later ages are to be found here." The duality of Shiva's fearful and auspicious attributes appears in contrasted names. Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव, "Terrible" or "Frightful") is a fierce form associated with annihilation. In contrast, the name Śaṇkara (Sanskrit शङ्कर), "Beneficent" or "Conferring Happiness") reflects his benign form. This name was adopted by the great Vedanta philosopher Śaṇkara (c. 788-820 CE), who is also known as Shankaracharya.
Ascetic versus householder
He is depicted as both an ascetic yogin and as a householder, roles which are mutually exclusive in Hindu society. As a family man and householder he has a wife, Parvati, and two sons, Ganesha and Skanda. Another popular depiction of Shiva is as a yogi sitting and meditating. While Vedic religion was conceived mainly in terms of sacrifice, it was during the Epic period that concepts of tapas, yoga, and asceticism, became more important, and the depiction of Shiva as an ascetic sitting in philosophical isolation reflects these later concepts.
Ardhanarishvara
Main article: Ardhanari
An iconographic representation of Shiva called Ardhanarishvara shows him with one half of the body as male, and the other half as female. According to Ellen Goldberg, the traditional Sanskrit name for this form, (Ardhanārīśvara) is best translated as "the lord who is half woman", and not as "half-man, half-woman".
Nataraja
Main article: NatarajaThe depiction of Shiva as Nataraja (Sanskrit: naṭarāja, "Lord of Dance") is popular. His association with dance and also with music is prominent in the Puranic period. In addition to the specific iconographic form known as Nataraja, various other types of dancing forms (Sanskrit: nṛtyamūrti) are found in all parts of India, with many well-defined varieties in Southern India in particular.
Lingam
Main article: Lingam
Apart from antropomorphic images of Shiva, the worship of Shiva as a lingam is very important. The lingam is the shape of a vertical rounded column.
Relationships in the pantheon
Shiva's rise to a major position in the pantheon was facilitated by his identification with a host of Vedic deities, including Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others.
Agni
Lord Shiva is further known as Lohita meaning 'red' and Lord Agni is too depicted red. Lord Agni is said to be a bull and Lord Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi. The horns of Agni, who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned.
He, like Lord Shiva (and Kali/Durga) is symbolized with the symbol of a torch.
The Agni Purana is a Shaivite text. Lord Agni is also important in Tantric Yoga like Lord Shiva.
Furthermore, Lord Shiva's son Murugan is also associated with Agni and Agni's vehicle. Murugan is said in sometime to be a child of Agni and of Swaha, a daughter of Daksha.
Indra
In the Rig Veda, Indra uses the term śiva to refer to himself (2:20:3, 6:45:17, 8:93:3).
Both gods are associated with the soma plant.
Indra is likened to a bull who will repel all peoples.
Shiva and Indra share many names such as Puruhut meaning "Lord of the Purus."
Indra is also connected with tiger skin (e.g. in RV 5:4:1:11), which is what Lord Shiva meditates sitting on.
Vishnu
In Vaishnava traditions Shiva is respected as a manifestation of Vishnu.
Avatars
Shiva, like some other Hindu deities, is said to have several incarnations (See: Avatars).
Adi Shankara
Adi Shankara, the 8th-century philosopher of non-dualist Vedanta was named "Shankara" after Lord Shiva and is considered to have been an incarnation of Shiva.
Hanuman
Hanuman is considered to be the eleventh Rudra avatar of Lord Shiva.
Śarabha
Śarabha (also spelled "Sharabha") is the name of Shiva's incarnation in the composite form of man, bird, and beast, for chastisement of Vishnu in his hybrid form as Narasimha, the man-lion, who killed Hiranyakashipu, an ardent devotee of Shiva.
Names of Shiva
In Hinduism, deities are called by many names, which describe them in different ways. These names often refer to specific stories about the deities, functions they perform, or ways of thinking about them. Study of these names is helpful to understanding deities from multiple points of view. Some names are used by more than one deity, so looking for names that uniquely describe a deity is one way to pinpoint their functions.
Sahasranamas
There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva sahasranama, devotional hymns (stotras) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 (Anuśāsanaparvan) of the Mahabharata is considered the kernel of this tradion.
The eight versions analyzed by Ram Karan Sharma are:
- 1. Mahabharata 13.17.30-150 (Anuśāsanaparvan Version)
- 2. Linga Purana (version 1, LP 1.65.54-168) is close to the Mahabharata Anushasanaparvan version.
- 3. Linga Purana (version 2, LP 1.98.27-159) has some passages in common with LP version 1, but also with other sources
- 4. Shivapurana 4.35.1-131.
- 5. Mahabharata (Śāntiparvan version). The critical edition of the Mahabharata does not include this version, relegating it to Appendix 28 to Śāntiparvan. It does appear in the text of the Gita Press edition as 12.284.68-180.
- 6. Vayu Purana (1.30.179-284) is almost the same as the Mahabharata Śāntiparvan version.
- 7. Brahmanda Purana (38.1.1-100) is almost the same as the Vayu Purana version.
- 8. Mahābhāgavata Upapurana (67.1-125) appears to be of comparatively recent origin.
Selected sahasranama names
The following names appear in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama:
- Hara (Sanskrit हर) - This important name occurs three times in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama, where it is translated in different ways each time it occurs, following a commentorial tradition of not repeating an interpretation. Sharma translates the three as "One who captivates", "One who consolidates", and "One who destroys." Kramrisch translates it as "The Ravisher".
- Jaṭin - The One with matted hair.
- Kailāsagirivāsī (Sanskrit कैलासगिरिवासी)- "With his abode on Mount Kailāsa"
- Kapardin - "Endowed with matted hair" or wearing his hair wound in a braid in a shell-like (kaparda) fashion. A kaparda is a cowrie shell, or a braid of hair in the form of a shell, or more generally hair that is shaggy or curly.
- Mahādeva (Sanskrit महादेव) - Literally, "Great God" (Sanskrit: mahā = great + deva = God), or as Sharma translates it, "God par excellance" .
- Maheśvara (Sanskrit महेश्वर) - Literally, "Great Lord" (Sanskrit: mahā = great + īśvara = lord), or as Sharma translates it, "Lord par excellance" .
- Nartaka (Sanskrit नर्तक) - (Supreme) Dancer. The name Nityanarta (Sanskrit नित्यनर्त) - "Eternal Dancer" also appears in the sahasranama. This association with dance is well-known in the more popular name Nataraja "King of Dance", which does not appear in the Anushasanaparvan version of the Shiva sahasranama.
- Nīlakaṇtha (Sanskrit नीलकण्ठ) - "(Endowed with a) blue throat." (nīla = blue, kaṇtha = throat). Shiva drank the poison churned up from the world ocean. (see: Halāhala)
- Paśupati (Sanskrit पशुपति) or Pashupati - Translated by Sharma as "Lord of cattle" and by Kramrisch as "Lord of Animals", who notes that it is particularly used as an epithet of Rudra.
- Rudra (Sanskrit रुद्र) - "Terrible". According to traditional etymologies, the Sanskrit name Rudra is derived from the root rud- which means "to cry, howl." Stella Kramrisch notes a different etymology connected with the adjectival form raudra, which means wild, of rudra nature, and translates the name Rudra as "the Wild One" or "the Fierce God". R. K. Sharma follows this alternate etymology and translates the name as "Terrible".
- Umāpati (Sanskrit उमापति) - "The husband of Umā". Sharma notes that two other variants of this name that mean the same thing also appear in the sahasranama, Umākānta and Umādhava.
Chamakam
The Shri Rudram Chamakam is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names.
Other names
- Aghora - Non-terrifying ("Ghora" means "terrific, frightful, terrible, etc.", A-ghora means the opposite)
- Anaadi - Without beginning/birth
- Ananta - without end/death
- Ashutosh (Sanskrit आशूतोष)
- Bholenath -- the innocent God.
- Chandrashekhara (Sanskrit चन्द्रशेखर) - The master of the Moon: Chandra = Moon, Shekhara = master
- Dakhshiṇāmurthi (Sanskrit दक्षिणामूर्ति) - The Cosmic Tutor
- Devadideva - God of Gods
- Digambara (Sanskrit दिगम्बर) - One who has the skies as his clothes, i.e. The Naked One: Dik = Clothes, Ambara = Sky
- Ekambaranatha (Sanskrit एकम्बरनाथ) - The destroyer of evil (name used scarcely, mostly in temples)
- Gangādhara (Sanskrit गङ्गाधर) - He who holds the river Ganga. Some of the puranas also refer to him as the "Lord of Ganga", one of the major rivers of the country, who is said to have made her abode in Shiva's hair.
- Mahākala (Sanskrit महाकाल) - Great Time, i.e. Conqueror of Time: Maha = three, Kala = Time
- Mahābaleshwara (Sanskrit महाबलेश्वर) - God of Great Strength : Maha = great, Bal = strength, Eshwar = God
- Mahāyogi (Sanskrit महायोगी)- The Supreme Yogi: Maha = great, Yogi = one who practices Yoga
- Mallikarjuna
- Malleswara
- Nāgaraja (Sanskrit नागराज) - King of snakes (Lord/Ruler/Controller of snakes)
- Naresh (Sanskrit नरेश)- One who purifies everyone by the utterance of His name(Lord of Man/King)
- Parameshvara - Supreme Lord
- Rameshwara (Sanskrit रमेश्वर) - The one whom Ram worships: Ram, Eshwar = worships, God; Ram's God
- Sabesan (Sanskrit सबेसन्) - Lord who dances in the dais
- Sarveshvara - Lord of Everything
- Shambhu (Sanskrit शम्भु) - Abode of Joy
- Siddheshwara (Sanskrit सिद्धेश्वर) - The Perfect Lord
- Tanunpati, meaning Lord of Fire
- Trinetra (Sanskrit त्रिनेत्र) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Netra = Eye
- Triaksha (Sanskrit त्रिअक्ष) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Aksha = Eye
- Trinayana (Sanskrit त्रिनयन) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Nayana = Eye
- Tripurāntaka (Sanskrit त्रिपुरान्तक) - The destroyer of the triplet fortresses, Tripura, of the Asuras.
- Tryambakam (Sanskrit त्र्यम्बकम्) - Three-Eyed One, i.e. All-Knowing: Tri = three, Ambakam = Eye
- Tri-netra (three-eyed)
- Trishuldhari (Sanskrit त्रिशूलधारी) - He who holds the divine Trishul or Trident: Trishul = Trident, Dhari = He who holds
- Vishveshvara - Lord of the Universe
- Vyomkesha (Sanskrit व्योमकेश) - The One who has the sky as his hair: Vyom = sky, Kesha =hair
See also
- Shaivism
- History of Shaivism
- Shiva Puja
- Harihara
- Ardhanari
- Aum Namah Sivaya
- Lingayat
- Kapalika
- Shri Rudram Chamakam
- Tripura (mythology)
- Ramnathi
Notes
- Tattwananda, p. 45.
- Flood (1996), p. 17.
- Flood (1996), p. 17
- Keay, p.xxvii.
- Flood (1996), p. 17.
- Zimmer (1972) p. 124.
- Apte, p. 919.
- Macdonell, p. 314.
- Macdonell, p. 314.
- For use of the term śiva as an epithet for other Vedic deities, see: Chakravarti, p. 28.
- Apte, p. 927
- For the definition "Śaivism refers to the traditions which follow the teachings of Śiva (śivaśāna) and which focus on the deity Śiva... " see: Flood (1996), p. 149.
- For regional name variants of Karttikeya see: Gupta, Preface.
- Courtright, p. 205.
- For Jejuri as the foremost center of worship see: Mate, p. 162.
- For use of the name Khandoba as a name for Karttikeya in Maharashtra, see: Gupta, Preface, and p. 40.
- 'Khandoba: Ursprung, Geschiche und Umvelt von Pastoralem Gotheiten in Maharashtra, Wiesbaden 1976 (German with English Synopsis) pp. 180-98, "Khandoba is a local deity in Maharashtra and been Sanskritised as an incarnation of Shiva."
- Courtright, p. 205.
- For worship of Khandoba in the form of a lingam and possible identification with Shiva based on that, see: Mate, p. 176.
- For association of Kartikkeya as patron of thieves and worship by the Ramoshis as Khandoba, see: Gupta, p. 40.
- Courtright, p. 205.
- Mate, p. 176.
- Keay, p. xxvii.
- For Shiva as a composite deity whose history is not well-documented, see: Keay, p. 147.
- Michaels, p. 215.
- Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
- For translation of paśupati as "Lord of Animals" see: Michaels, p. 312.
- For a drawing of the seal see Figure 1 in: Flood (1996), p. 29.
- Flood (1996), pp. 28-29.
- Flood (2003), pp. 204-205.
- Keay, p. 14.
- Michaels, p. 216.
- For dating based on "cumulative evidence" see: Oberlies, p. 158.
- Doniger, pp. 221-223.
- Michaels, p. 217.
- For Śarva as a name of Shiva see: Apte, p. 910.
- For archer and arrow associations see Kramrisch, Chapter 2, and for the arrow as an "essential attribute" see: Kramrisch, p. 32.
- Sharma, p. 306.
- For root śarv- see: Apte, p. 910.
- Sharma, p. 306.
- Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
- Chidbhavananda, p. 33.
- For translation of Bāṇahasta as "Armed with arrows in his hands") see: Sharma, p. 294.
- For Shiva as depicted with a third eye, and mention of the story of the destruction of Kama with it, see: Flood (1996), p. 151.
- Flood (1996), p. 151
- Michaels, p. 218.
- For definition and shape, see: Apte, p. 461.
- Jansen, p. 44.
- Jansen, p. 25.
- For use by Kāpālikas, see: Apte, p. 461.
- Flood (1996), p. 151.
- Flood (1996), pp. 92, 161.
- Flood (1996), p. 161.
- Chidbhavananda, p. 23.
- Flood (1996), p. 151.
- Flood (1996), p. 151.
- Michaels, p. 216.
- Flood (1996), p. 29.
- Tattwananda, pp. 49-52.
- Keay, p. 33.
- Flood (1996), p. 151.
- For five as a sacred number, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- For the five syllable mantra see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- For discussion of these five forms and a table summarizing the associations of these five mantras see: Kramrisch, pp. 182-189.
- For distinct iconography, see Kramrisch, p. 185.
- For association with the five faces and other groups of five, see: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- For variation in attributions among texts, see: Kramrisch, p. 187.
- Kramrisch, p. 184.
- Quotation from Pañcabrahma Upanishad 31 is from: Kramrisch, p. 182.
- For quotation "Śiva is a god of ambiguity and paradox" and overview of conflicting attributes see: Flood (1996), p. 150.
- For quotation regarding Yajur Veda as containing contrary sets of attributes, and marking point for emergence of all basic elements of later cult forms, see: Chakravarti, p. 7.
- For भैरव as one of the eight forms of Shiva, and translation of the adjectival form as "terrible" or "frightful" see: Apte, p. 727, left column.
- For Bhairava form as associated with terror see: Kramrisch, p. 471.
- Sharma, p. 306.
- Kramrisch, p. 481.
- For adoption of the name Śaṇkara by Shankaracarya see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
- For dating Shankaracarya as 788-820 CE see: Flood (1996), p. 92.
- For the contrast beteween ascetic and householder depictions, see: Flood (1996), pp. 150-151.
- For Shiva's representation as a yogin, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
- For the ascetic yogin form as reflecting Epic period influences, see: Chakravarti, p. 32.
- Goldberg, p. 1.
- Goldberg specifically rejects the translation by Frederique Marglin (1989) as "half-man, half-woman", and instead adopts the translation by Marglin as "the lord who is half woman" as given in Marglin (1989, 216). Goldberg, p. 1.
- For description of the nataraja form see: Jansen, pp. 110-111.
- For interpretation of the naṭarāja form see: Zimmer, pp. 151-157.
- For prominence of these associations in puranic times, see: Chakravarti, p. 62.
- For popularity of the nṛtyamūrti and prevalence in South India, see: Chakravarti, p. 63.
- For Shiva being identified with Agni, Indra, Prajāpati, Vāyu, and others see: Chakravarti, p. 70.
- For the parallel between the horns of Agni as bull, and Rudra, see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
- RV 8.49; 10.155.
- For the bull parallel between Indra and Rudra see: Chakravarti, p. 89.
- RV 7.19.
- For identification of Shiva as a manifestation of Vishnu see: Bhagavata Purana 4.30.23, 5.17.22-23, 10.14.19
- Padma Purana 6.236.7-11
- Sri Ramakrishna Math (1985) "Hanuman Chalisa" p. 5
- For Śarabha as an "animal symplegma" form of Shiva, see: Kramrisch, p. 481.
- For incarnation in composite form as man, bird, and beast to chastise Narasimha, see: Chakravarti, p. 49.
- Sharma, pp. viii-ix.
- This is the source for the version presented in Chidbhavananda, who refers to it being from the Mahabharata but does not explicitly clairify which of the two Mahabharata versions he is using. See Chidbhavananda, p.5.
- Sharma, pp. viii-xxviii.
- Sharma, p. 314.
- Kramrisch, p. 473.
- Chidbhavananda, p. 22.
- Sharma, p. 281.
- For translation of Kapardin as "Endowed with matted hair" see: Sharma, p. 279.
- Kramrisch, p. 475.
- For Kapardin as a name of Shiva, and description of the kaparda hair style, see, Macdonell, p. 62.
- Kramrisch, p. 476.
- Sharma, p. 297.
- Kramrisch, p. 477.
- Sharma, p. 299.
- Sharma, p. 289.
- Sharma, p. 289.
- Sharma, p. 290.
- See: name #93 in Chidbhavananda, p. 31.
- For Shiva drinking the poison churned from the world ocean see: Flood (1996), p. 78.
- Kramrisch, p. 473.
- Sharma, p. 291.
- Kramrisch, p. 479.
- Sharma, p. 301.
- For rud- meaning "cry, howl" as a traditional etymology see: Kramrisch, p. 5.
- Citation to M. Mayrhofer, Concise Etymological Sanskrit Dictionary, s.v. "rudra", is provided in: Kramrisch, p. 5.
- Sharma, p. 301.
- Sharma, p. 278.
- For an overview of the Śatarudriya see: Kramrisch, pp. 71-74.
References
- Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) (Fourth revised and enlarged edition). - Chakravarti, Mahadev (1994). The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0053-2.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) (Second Revised Edition; Reprint, Delhi, 2002). - Chidbhavananda, Swami (1997). Siva Sahasranama Stotram: With Navavali, Introduction, and English Rendering. Sri Ramakrishna Tapovanam. ISBN 81-208-0567-4.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) (Third editon). The version provided by Chidbhavananda is from chapter 17 of the Anuśāsana Parva of the Mahābharata. - Courtright, Paul B. (1985). Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN ISBN 0-19-505742-2.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.
{{cite book}}:|first=has generic name (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Goldberg, Ellen (2002). The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-5326-X.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Gupta, Shakti M. (1988). Karttikeya: The Son of Shiva. Bombay: Somaiya Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 81-7039-186-5.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Jansen, Eva Rudy (1993). The Book of Hindu Imagery. Havelte, Holland: Binkey Kok Publications BV. ISBN 90-74597-07-6.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Keay, John (2000). India: A History. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Kramrisch, Stella (1981). The Presence of Śiva. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01930-4.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1996). A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ISBN 81-215-0715-4.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Mate, M. S. (1988). Temples and Legends of Maharashtra. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-08953-1.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - Sharma, Ram Karan (1996). Śivasahasranāmāṣṭakam: Eight Collections of Hymns Containing One Thousand and Eight Names of Śiva. With Introduction and Śivasahasranāmākoṣa (A Dictionary of Names). Delhi: Nag Publishers. ISBN 81-7081-350-6.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) This work compares eight versions of the Śivasahasranāmāstotra. The Preface and Introduction (in English) by Ram Karan Sharma provide an analysis of how the eight versions compare with one another. The text of the eight versions is given in Sanskrit. - Tattwananda, Swami (1984). Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship. Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) First revised edition. - Zimmer, Heinrich (1946). Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01778-6.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) First Princeton-Bollingen printing, 1972. - Hanuman Chalisa. Chennai, India: Sri Ramakrishna Math. 1985. ISBN 81-7120-086-9.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help)
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