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Mongols

B. Tserendorj • D. Sükhbaatar • B. Rinchen S. Damdinbazar • Zanabazar • S. Dondogdulam S. Yanjmaa • Subutai • P. Genden Ögedei Khan • Kublai Khan • Genghis Khan
Regions with significant populations
China	~5,800,000
Mongolia	~2,800,000
Russia	~1,000,000
South Korea	~34,000
United States	~15,000–18,000
Languages
Predominantly Mongolic languages, also Chinese, Russian and Turkic
Religion
Predominantly Tibetan Buddhism and Shamanism, formally Tengriism. Small Christian and Muslim groups exist.
Related ethnic groups
Khalkha, Uriankhai, Dörbed, Kalmyks, Oirats, Bayid, Dariganga, Üzemchin, Zakhchin, Daur, Buryats, Tuvans, Hazara, Chahar, Tümed, Mughals, Ordos, and other Turco-Mongol peoples

The name Mongol (Mongol script: Mongγol; Mongolian Cyrillic script: Монгол Mongol) specifies one or several ethnic groups, now mainly located in modern Mongolia, China, and in Russia. There are approximately 11 million ethnic Mongol people.

Definition

A definition includes the Mongols proper, who can be approximately divided into eastern Mongols, and western Mongols. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.

The name "Mongol", appeared first in eighth century records of the Chinese Tang dynasty; as a tribe of Shiwei, but then only resurfaced in the late eleventh century during the rule of the Khitan. After the fall of Liao Dynasty in 1125, the Mongols became a leading tribe on the steppe and also had power in Northern China. However, their wars with the Jin Dynasty and Tatars had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes united under the rule of Genghis Khan.

History

Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongol peoples can be traced back to the Donghu, a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria. The identity of the Xiongnu is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols, the fact that Chinese histories trace certain Turkic tribes from the Xiongnu complicates the issue. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace all the subsequent Mongolic tribes and kingdoms (mainly Xianbei peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim a mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan). The Donghu split into the Xianbei and Wuhuan after their defeat by Modu Chanyu. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of the proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi. In 49 AD the Mongolic Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated the Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han. The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156-181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state.

Three prominent proto-Mongol groups split from the Xianbei, as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Avars), the Khitan and the Shiwei (a sub-tribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were other Xianbei groups with Mongolic affiliation such as the Murong, Duan (tribe) and Tuoba. Their culture was nomadic, their religion Shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke a Mongolic language, although most scholars agree that they were proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings that are usually found with a parallel Chinese text (for example, nair=sun, sair=moon, tau=five, jau=hundred, m.r=horse, im.a=goat, n.q=dog, m.ng=silver, ju.un=summer, n.am.ur=autumn, u.ul=winter, heu.ur=spring, tau.l.a=rabbit, t.q.a=hen and m.g.o=snake). There is no doubt regarding the Khitan being proto-Mongol.

Geographically the Tuoba Xianbei ruled Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran (Yujiulu Shelun was the first to use the title Khagan in 402) ruled Outer Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in Southern Manchuria north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by the rise of the Gok-Turks in 555, the Uyghurs in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghizs in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Gok-Turks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan Bayan I. Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east founding the Tatar tribes, who became part of the Shiwei. The Khitan, who were independent after their separation from the proto-Mongol Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388 AD, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872-926), established the Khitan Liao Dynasty (907-1125). The Khitan fled west after their defeat by the Tungusic Jurchens (later known as Manchus) and founded the Kara-Khitan or Western Liao dynasty (1125–1218) in eastern Kazakhstan. In 1218 Genghis Khan destroyed the Kara-Khitan Kingdom after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. The modern-day minority of Mongolic-speaking Daurs in China are their direct descendants based on DNA evidence.

The Shiwei included a tribe called the Shiwei Menggu. Bodonchir Munkhag (c. 970) the founder of the House of Borjigin and the ancestor of Genghis Khan is held to be descended from the Shiwei Menggu. The early Shiwei paid tribute to the Tuoba Wei (386-534) and submitted to the Khitans. After the Khitans left Mongolia the Shiwei Mongols rose to prominence, when from the 1130s there were reciprocally hostile relations between the successive khans of the Khamag Mongol confederation (Qaidu I, Khabul Khan and Ambaghai) and the emperors of the Jin dynasty.

With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongols settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Java and from Japan to Palestine. Mongols simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia, Emperors of China, Great Khans of Mongolia and one Mongol even became Sultan of Egypt (Al-Adil Kitbugha). The Mongols of the Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, the Mongols conquered the Song Dynasty and brought all of China under control of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty. With the breakup of the Empire, the dispersed Mongols quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Tatars (not confused with a tribe in ancient Mongolia), Uzbeks, Kazakhs, Yugurs and Moghuls; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. However, most of the Mongols returned to Mongolia, retaining their language and culture. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 the Mongols established their independent regime as Northern Yuan. However, the Oirads or Western Mongols began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century.

Present-day Khalkha Mongols and Inner Mongolians are the most prominent of the remaining Eastern Mongols while the Kalmyks (formerly Oirats) in Europe are the main descendants of the Western Mongols. The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan (1464–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongols. They quickly became the dominant Mongol clan in Outer Mongolia.

Language

The specific origin of the Mongolic languages and associated tribes is unclear. Some researchers have proposed a link to languages like Tungusic and Turkic, which are often included alongside Mongolic in a group called Altaic languages, though this is controversial.

Religion

The original religion of the Mongols from the time of the Donghu was Tengriism. The Xianbei came in contact with Confucianism and Daoism but eventually adopted Buddhism. In the 5th century the Buddhist monk Dharmapriya was proclaimed State Teacher of the Rouran Khaganate and given 3000 families. In 511 the Rouran Douluofubadoufa Khan sent Hong Xuan to the Tuoba court with a pearl-encrusted statue of the Buddha as a gift. The Tuoba Xianbei and Khitans were mostly Buddhists, although they still retained their original Tengriism. The Tuoba had a "sacrificial castle" to the west of their capital where ceremonies to Tengri and other spirits took place. Wooden statues of the spirits were erected on top of this sacrificial castle. One ritual involved seven princes with milk offerings who ascended the stairs with 20 female shamans and offered prayers, sprinkling the statues with the sacred milk. The Khitan had their holiest Tengriist shrine on Mount Muye where portraits of their earliest ancestor Qishou Khagan, his wife Kedun and eight sons were kept in two temples. Mongols were also exposed to Zoroastrianism, Manicheism, Nestorianism, Islam and Catholicism from the west. The Mongols, in particular the Borjigin, had their holiest Tengriist shrine on Mount Burkhan Khaldun where their ancestor Borte Chinua (Blue Wolf) and Goo Maral (Beautiful Doe) had given birth to them. Later the imperial cult of Genghis Khan (centered on the eight white gers and nine white banners in Ordos) grew into a highly organized indigenous religion with Tengriist scriptures in the Mongolian script.

In 1254 Mongke Khan organized a religious debate between Christians, Muslims and Buddhists in Karakorum, a cosmopolitan city of many religions. The Mongol Empire was known for its religious tolerance, but had a special leaning towards Buddhism and was sympathetic towards Christianity. The western Khanates, however, eventually adopted Islam and the Turkic languages, although allegiance to the Great Khan and limited use of the Mongolian language can be seen even in 1330's. The Mongol nobility during the Yuan dynasty studied Confucianism but mainly followed the Sakya school of Tibetan Buddhism. The general populace still practised Tengriism. Dongxiang and Bonan Mongols adopted Islam, as did Mongol-speaking peoples in Afghanistan. In the 16th century the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism became the state religion of the Mongols. The Red Hat sect of Tibetan Buddhism coexisted with the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Tengriism was absorbed into the newly formed state religion while being marginalized in its purer forms, later only surviving in far northern Mongolia. Monks were some of the leading intellectuals in Mongolia, responsible for much of the literature and art of the pre-modern period. Many Buryat Mongols also became Christians due to the Russian expansion. During the socialist period religion was officially banned, although it was practiced in clandestine circles. Today, a small proportion of Mongols are atheist or agnostic. Many are cultural Buddhists while others are trying out new religions.

Physical characteristics

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In terms of physical characteristics, Mongols exhibit a variety of features, with typical Mongoloid features being most noticeable. Epicanthic folds of the eyes exist on almost all Mongols along with high and pronounced cheekbones. The vast majority of Mongols have black hair and brown eyes, although a certain number of Mongols, particularly in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair. This trend is more prevalent into the Uyghur population. The majority of Mongols today whom have Caucasoid features most likely stem from historical intermixing with Iranian and Tocharian peoples, as opposed to recent intermixing with Russian.

Geographic distribution

Today, people of Mongol origin live in modern state of Mongolia, China (mainly Inner Mongolia), Russia, and a few other central Asian countries.

The differentiation between tribes and peoples (nationalities) is handled differently depending on the country. The Tumed, Chahar, Ordos, Bargut (or Barga), Altai Uriankhai, Buryats, Dörböd (Dörvöd, Dörbed), Torguud, Dariganga, Üzemchin (or Üzümchin), Bayid, Khoton, Myangad (Mingad), Zakhchin (Zakchin), Darkhad, and Oirats (or Öölds or Ölöts) are all counted as tribes of the Mongols.

Mongolia

The population of modern Mongolia consists of 92.6% Mongols, numbering approximately 2.8 million. From the middle ages to early modern period the Khalkha, Uriankhai and Buryats were counted as eastern Mongols while the Oirats, living mainly in the Altay region, belonged to the western Mongols.

China

The 2000 census of People's Republic of China counted 5.8 million Mongols, according to the narrow definition above. It should be noted that 1992 census of China counted only 3.6 million Mongols. Most of them live in the Inner Mongolia autonomous region, followed by Liaoning province. Small numbers can also be found in provinces near those two.

Other peoples speaking Mongolic languages are the Daur, Monguor, Dongxiang, Bonan, and parts of the Yugur. Those do not officially count as part of the Mongol nationality, but are recognized as nationalities of their own.

Russia

In Russia, the Buriats belong to the eastern Mongols. The western Mongols include the Oirats in the Russian Altay and the Kalmyks at the northern side of the Caspian Sea, where they make up 53.3% of the population of Russia's autonomous province of Kalmykia. The Tuva and the Altay people are culturally close to Mongols, but speak Turkic languages. Together they amount to approximately a million people.

Elsewhere

Smaller numbers of Mongols exist in Western Europe and North America. Some of the more notable communities exist in the South Korea, the United States, the Czech Republic and the United Kingdom.

Gallery

• Arate wearing a fur cloak and a fur cap. Arate wearing a fur cloak and a fur cap.
• Arate wearing a summer-smock-flock and cap Arate wearing a summer-smock-flock and cap
• Married woman in ancient national dress. Married woman in ancient national dress.
• Girl of the Arates withsheepskin fur cloak Girl of the Arates withsheepskin fur cloak
• A Mongolian musician
• Dongxiang boys
• Genghis Khan
• Altan Khan of the Tumed
• Dagvadorj Dolgorsuren (Asashoryu)
• Mongolian girl performing Bayad dance
• Güyük Khan's Seal
• Mongolic Xianbei archer
• Khitan horseman Khitan horseman
• A 20th century Mongol Khan, Navaanneren

See also

• Mongol Empire
• History of Mongolia
• List of medieval Mongolian tribes and clans
• Altan Telgey

Footnotes

1. The Mongol script for Mongγol would be rendered ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ in Unicode text.

References

1. ^ The Mongolian Ethnic Group (China.org.cn June 21, 2005)
2. "'Korean Dream' fills Korean classrooms in Mongolia", The Chosun Ilbo, 2008-04-24, retrieved 2009-02-06
3. Bahrampour, Tara (2006-07-03). "Mongolians Meld Old, New In Making Arlington Home". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
4. China Mongolian, Mongol Ethnic Minority, Mongols History, Food
5. "Mongolia: Ethnography of Mongolia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07-22.. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
6. John Man-Attila: the barbarian king who challenged Rome, p.38
7. Frances Wood, The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia, p.48
8. Xin Tangshu 219. 6173.
9. University of California, Berkeley. Project on Linguistic Analysis-Journal of Chinese linguistics, p.154
10. Thomas Hoppe-Die ethnischen Gruppen Xinjiangs: Kulturunterschiede und interethnische, p.66
11. Frederick W. Mote-Imperial China 900–1800, p.405
12. Herbert Franke, John King FairbankProxy-Connection: keep-alive Cache-Control: max-age=0 Denis Crispin Twitchett, Roderick MacFarquhar, Denis Twitchett, Albert Feuerwerker. vol.3-The Cambridge History of China, p.364
13. Uradyn Erden Bulag-The Mongols at China's edge: history and the politics of national unity‎, p.167
14. Ruofu Du, Vincent F. Yip-Ethnic groups in China‎, p.27
15. Paul Ratchnevsky, Thomas Nivison Haining-Genghis Khan: his life and legacy, p.7
16. ^ Jerry Bentley, "Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts and Exchange in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 136.
17. Juha Janhunen-The Mongolic languages‎, p.177
18. Elizabeth E. Bacon-Obok: A Study of Social Structure in Eurasia, p.82
19. "Kalmyks". World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2005. Retrieved 2008-05-18.

External links

• Downloadable article: "Evidence that a West-East admixed population lived in the Tarim Basin as early as the early Bronze Age" Li et al. BMC Biology 2010, 8:15.
• Хойт С.К. Последние данные по локализации и численности ойрат // Проблемы этногенеза и этнической культуры тюрко-монгольских народов. Вып. 2. Элиста: Изд-во КГУ, 2008. стр. 136-157.
• Ethnic groups of Mongolia
• Ethnic map of Mongolia

• Ethnic groups in Mongolia
• Mongol peoples
• Turkic peoples