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F-22 Raptor
The F-22 Raptor
Role	Stealth air superiority fighterType of aircraft
National origin	United States
Manufacturer	Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Boeing Integrated Defense Systems
First flight	7 September 1997
Introduction	15 December 2005
Status	In service
Primary user	United States Air Force
Number built	168 as of October 2010 (187 planned)
Developed from	Lockheed YF-22
Developed into	Lockheed Martin X-44 MANTA Lockheed Martin FB-22

The Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22 Raptor is a single-seat, twin-engine fifth-generation supermaneuverable fighter aircraft that uses stealth technology. It was designed primarily as an air superiority fighter, but has additional capabilities that include ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence roles. Lockheed Martin Aeronautics is the prime contractor and is responsible for the majority of the airframe, weapon systems and final assembly of the F-22. Program partner Boeing Defense, Space & Security provides the wings, aft fuselage, avionics integration, and training systems.

The aircraft was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 during the years prior to formally entering USAF service in December 2005 as the F-22A. Despite a protracted and costly development period, the United States Air Force considers the F-22 a critical component of US tactical air power, and claims that the aircraft is unmatched by any known or projected fighter, while Lockheed Martin claims that the Raptor's combination of stealth, speed, agility, precision and situational awareness, combined with air-to-air and air-to-ground combat capabilities, makes it the best overall fighter in the world today. Air Chief Marshal Angus Houston, former Chief of the Australian Defence Force, said in 2004 that the "F-22 will be the most outstanding fighter plane ever built."

The high cost of the aircraft, a lack of clear air-to-air combat missions because of delays in the Russian and Chinese fifth generation fighter programs, a US ban on Raptor exports, and the ongoing development of the supposedly cheaper and more versatile F-35 resulted in calls to end F-22 production. In April 2009 the US Department of Defense proposed to cease placing new orders, subject to Congressional approval, for a final procurement tally of 187 Raptors. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 lacked funding for further F-22 production.

Development

Origins

In 1981, the U.S. Air Force developed a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) as a new air superiority fighter to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. This was influenced by the emerging worldwide threats, including development and proliferation of Soviet Su-27 "Flanker"- and MiG-29 "Fulcrum-class fighter aircraft. It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight-control systems, more powerful propulsion systems and stealth technology. A request for proposals (RFP) was issued in July 1986, and two contractor teams, Lockheed/Boeing/General Dynamics and Northrop/McDonnell Douglas were selected on 31 October 1986 to undertake a 50-month demonstration phase, culminating in the flight test of two prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23.

Each design team produced two prototypes featuring one of two engine options, one featuring thrust vectoring. The Pratt & Whitney F119 turbofan with vectored thrust permits a tighter turning radius, a valuable capability in dogfights. During the development process, the ATF's increasing weight and cost drove out some features. A dedicated infra-red search and track (IRST) system was downgraded from multi-color to single color then deleted, the side-looking radars were deleted and the ejection seat requirement was downgraded to the McDonnell Douglas ACES II (in place of a fresh design able to cover the full flight envelope).

On 23 April 1991, the YF-22 was announced by Secretary of the Air Force Donald Rice as the winner of the ATF competition. The YF-23 design was more stealthy and faster, but the YF-22 was more agile. The aviation press speculated that the YF-22 was also more adaptable to the Navy's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF), but the US Navy abandoned NATF by 1992. In 1991, the Air Force planned to buy 650 aircraft.

Into production

Several small design changes were made on the YF-22 for the production F-22. The swept-back angle on the wing's leading edge was decreased from 48° to 42°, while the vertical stabilizer area was decreased by 20%. To improve pilot visibility, the canopy was moved forward 7 inches (178 mm), and the engine intakes were moved rearward 14 inches (356 mm). The shape of the wing and stabilator trailing edges was refined to improve aerodynamics, strength, and stealth characteristics. Also, the vertical stabilizer was shifted rearward.

The production F-22 model was unveiled on 9 April 1997 at Lockheed Georgia Co., Marietta, Georgia. It first flew on 7 September 1997. The first production F-22 was delivered to Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, on 7 January 2003. In 2006, the Raptor's development team, composed of Lockheed Martin and over 1,000 other companies, plus the United States Air Force, won the Collier Trophy, American aviation's most prestigious award. In 2006, the USAF sought to acquire 381 F-22s, to be divided among seven active duty combat squadrons and three integrated Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard squadrons.

F-22 production was split up over many subcontractors across 46 states, in a strategy to increase Congressional support for the program. However the production split, along the use of several new technologies were likely responsible for increased costs and delays. Many capabilities were deferred to post-service upgrades, reducing the initial cost but increasing total project cost. Each aircraft required "1,000 subcontractors and suppliers and 95,000 workers" to build. The F-22 was in production for 15 years, at a rate of roughly two per month.

Procurement

The United States Air Force originally planned to order 750 ATFs at a cost of $26.2 billion, with production beginning in 1994; however, the 1990 Major Aircraft Review led by Defense Secretary Dick Cheney altered the plan to 648 aircraft beginning in 1996. The goal changed again in 1994, when it became 438 aircraft entering service in 2003 or 2004, but a 1997 Department of Defense report put the purchase at 339. In 2003, the Air Force said that the existing congressional cost cap limited the purchase to 277. By 2006, the Pentagon said it will buy 183 aircraft, which would save $15 billion but raise the cost of each aircraft, this was implemented in the form of a multi-year procurement plan, which allowed for further orders later. The total cost of the program by 2006 was $62 billion.

In April 2006, the cost of the F-22 was assessed by the Government Accountability Office to be $361 million per aircraft. By April 2006, $28 billion had been invested in F-22 development and testing; while the Unit Procurement Cost was estimated at $177.6 million in 2006, based on a production run of 181 airframes. It was estimated by the end of production, $34 billion will have been spent on procurement, resulting in a total program cost of $62 billion, around $339 million per aircraft. The incremental cost for an additional F-22 was estimated as about $138 million.

On 31 July 2007, Lockheed Martin received a multi-year contract for 60 F-22s worth a total of $7.3 billion. The contract brought the number of F-22s on order to 183 and extended production through 2011. To restart production following shut down would be at a very high cost; prior to shut down, building 75 more was estimated to cost $70 million per unit.

Ban on exports

No opportunity for export currently exists because the export sale of the F-22 is barred by American federal law. Current customers for U.S. fighters are either acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15, General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, and Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, or are waiting to acquire the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II (Joint Strike Fighter), which contains technology from the F-22 but is designed to be cheaper, more flexible, and available for export. The F-35 will not be as agile as the F-22 or fly as high or as fast, but its radar and avionics will be more advanced. On 27 September 2006, Congress upheld the ban on foreign sales of the F-22; further talks in December 2006 confirmed this decision.

The Japanese government showed interest in the F-22 for its Replacement-Fighter program. However, a sale would need approval from the Pentagon, State Department and Congress. It was stated that the F-22 would decrease the number of fighters needed by the Japan Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF), reducing engineering and staffing costs. In August 2009, it was reported that the F-22 would require increases to the military budget beyond the historic 1 percent of GDP. In June 2009, Japanese Defense Minister Yasukazu Hamada said that Japan still sought the F-22.

Some Australian politicians and defense commentators have proposed that Australia should purchase F-22s instead of the F-35. In 2006, the Australian Labor Party supported this proposal on the grounds that the F-22 is a proven, highly capable aircraft, while the F-35 is still under development. However, Australia's Howard government ruled out purchase of the F-22, on the grounds that it is unlikely to be released for export, and does not have sufficient ground/maritime strike capacity. The following year, the Australian government ordered a review of plans to procure the F-35 and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet. This review will include an evaluation of the F-22's suitability for Australia; moreover, the then Defence Minister Joel Fitzgibbon stated: "I intend to pursue American politicians for access to the Raptor". In February 2008, U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates said he had no objection to sale of the Raptor to Australia.

"The IAF would be happy to equip itself with 24 F-22s, but the problem at this time is the US refusal to sell the aircraft, and its $200 million price tag."

Thomas D. Crimmins of the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, who has written about a possible Israeli strike on Iran, stated in 2009 that the F-22 may be the only current aircraft that can evade the Russian S-300 air defense system which Russia may sell to Iran. However, Lockheed Martin has expressed confidence the F-35's ability to destroy S-300 systems and Russia has voted for United Nations sanctions that they say prevent the sale of S-300 systems to Iran.

The 2010 defense authorization bill included provisions which required the DoD to prepare a report on the costs and feasibility for an F-22 export variant and another report on the impact of F-22 export sales on the U.S. aerospace industry.

Production termination

In 2006, David M. Walker, Comptroller General of the United States at the time, found that "the DOD has not demonstrated the need or value for making further investments in the F-22A program." During the two-month grounding of nearly 700 older F-15s in 2007, some US Senators demanded Deputy Secretary of Defense Gordon England release three government reports supporting additional F-22s beyond the planned 183 jets. In December 2007, the USAF requested continued production beyond the planned 183 F-22s.

In January 2008, the Pentagon announced that it would ask Congress to fund additional F-22s to replace other aircraft lost in combat, and proposed that $497 million that would have been used to shut down the F-22 line be instead used to buy four extra F-22s, leaving the production line open beyond 2011 and allowing the next administration an option to buy more F-22s. Funds earmarked for line shutdown were redirected to repairs upon the F-15 fleet; delaying the end of F-22 production.

An August 2008 RAND study reported that the F-22 would have only a minor role in a conflict with China over Taiwan as nearby bases would be quickly shutdown by Medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs); using distant bases would rely upon vulnerable aerial refueling tankers.

On 24 September 2008, Congress passed a defense spending bill funding continued production of the F-22. On 12 November 2008, the Pentagon released $50 million of the $140 million approved by Congress to buy parts for an additional four aircraft, thus leaving the Raptor program in the hands of the incoming Obama Administration. On 6 April 2009, as part of the 2010 Pentagon budget announcement, Secretary of Defense Gates called for production of the F-22 to be phased out by fiscal year 2011, leaving the USAF with 187 fighters. F-35 acquisition would be accelerated. On 17 June 2009 the House Armed Services Committee inserted $368.8 million in the budget towards a further 12 F-22s in FY 2011.

On 9 July 2009, General James Cartwright, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, explained to the U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services his reasons for supporting termination of F-22 production. He stated that fifth-generation fighters need to be proliferated to all three services, achieved by shifting more resources to the multirole F-35. He noted that commanders had concerns regarding electronic warfare (EW) capabilities. Cartwright stated that keeping the F/A-18 production line "hot" offered a fallback option should F-35 development be problematic, and allow the purchase of further EA-18G Growler (an airborne platform for EW operations), as the Navy was purchasing for itself rather than for joint operations.

"The Pentagon cannot continue with business as usual when it comes to the F-22 or any other program in excess of our needs."

On 21 July 2009, President Obama threatened to use a presidential veto on funding for the F-22. On 21 July 2009, the Senate voted in favor of ending F-22 production. Secretary Gates said that the decision to end production of F-22s was taken in light of the capabilities of the F-35. On 29 July 2009, the director of the Air National Guard asked for "60 to 70" F-22s for air sovereignty missions, noting that these could lack capabilities such as ground attack. On 30 July 2009, the House agreed to remove funds for an additional 12 aircraft and abide by the 187 cap. In mid-2010, Gates reduced the F-22 requirement from 243 to 187 aircraft, by lowering the preparations for two major regional conflicts to one. President Obama signed the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 in October 2009, without F-22 funding.

RAND estimated the cost of restarting production to build an additional 75 Raptors to be $17 billion or $227 million per aircraft. The RAND paper was produced as part of an USAF study to determine the costs of retaining F-22 tooling for a future Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). The tooling for F-22 production will be documented in several illustrated electronic manuals, to be stored at the Sierra Army Depot.

Air Force generals have expressed concern about Russia's and China's stealth fighter development; General John Corley, the head of Air Combat Command, wrote in a 2009 letter to a senator, "In my opinion, a fleet of 187 F-22s puts execution of our current national military strategy at high risk in the near- to mid-term". But Gates commented "Nonsense". On 8 January 2011, Gates clarified that China's development of a fifth-generation fighter had been accounted for when the number of F-22s was set, and that the United States would have a considerable advantage in stealth aircraft in 2025, even with F-35 delays. On 11 January 2011, China's J-20 stealth aircraft made its first flight There was speculation that this event would create support for reactivating F-22 production; however US officials indicated that this was not a surprise and was already accounted for.

Upgrades

On 5 January 2001, Raptor 4005 flew with the Block 3.0 software, which was the first combat-capable avionics version. In June 2009, Increment 3.1 was tested at Edwards Air Force Base. This provided a basic ground-attack capability through Synthetic Aperture Radar mapping, Electronic attack and the GBU-39 Small Diameter Bomb. The Increment 3.1 Modification Team with the 412th Test Wing received the Chief of Staff Team Excellence Award for upgrading 149 Raptors. The fleet upgrade should start at the end of 2011.

"The current F-22A modernization plan will result in 34 Block 20 aircraft used for test and training, 63 combat-coded Block 30s fielded with Increment 3.1, 83 combat-coded Block 35s fielded with Increment 3.2, and 3 Edwards AFB-test coded aircraft. Consideration is also being given to upgrade the 63 Block 30s to the most capable Block 35 configuration."

Increment 3.2 was to add an improved SDB capability, automatic ground collision avoidance system (Auto GCAS) for low level operations and the ability to use the AIM-9X Sidewinder and AIM-120D AMRAAM missiles. However, the F-22 will still lack a helmet mounted cueing system, reportedly deferred over technical issues. Increment 3.2 was expected to be fielded in FY15, possibly including the Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL). In July 2009 the USAF announced the modification of three business jets with the interim Battlefield Airborne Communications Node (BACN) to allow communication between F-22s and other platforms until MADL is installed. In March 2010, the USAF accelerated software portions of the Increment 3.2 upgrades to be completed in FY 2013, other upgrades will be completed later.

Upgrading the first 183 aircraft to the 3.2 upgrade is estimated to cost $8 billion. In May 2009, Gen. Norton A. Schwartz and Air Force Secretary Michael B. Donley gave testimony to Congress that this would be paid for through the early retirement of legacy fighters. A total of 249 fourth-generation fighters were retired during Fiscal Year 2010.

Lockheed Martin is working on upgrading the AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detector (MLD) to provide situational awareness and defensive Infrared Search and Track similar to the F-35's SAIRST. On 16 September 2009, Gates said "Our commitment to this aircraft is underscored by the 6 and-a half billion dollars... to upgrade the existing F-22 fleet to be fully mission-capable."

Lockheed Martin has proposed upgrades to add capabilities of the newer F-35. Elements such as MADL are delayed until the F-35 program is completed to reduce risk. One upgrade from the F-35 is new high-durability stealth coatings to lower maintenance. By 2011, the upgrade bill for the F-22 fleet had grown to $16 billion, almost $100 million per aircraft, the Ada software language was blamed for slow progress and increased costs on the program, leading to a reorganization in 2011. Increment 3.2A in 2014 focuses on electronic warfare, communications and identification. Increment 3.2B in 2017 will support the AIM-9X and AIM-120D missiles. Increment 3.2C in 2019 may migrate some avionics to an open platform, allowing features to be added by various companies.

Design

Characteristics

The F-22 Raptor is a fifth generation fighter that is considered a fourth-generation stealth aircraft by the USAF. Its dual afterburning Pratt & Whitney F119-PW-100 turbofans incorporate pitch axis thrust vectoring, with a range of ±20 degrees. The maximum thrust is classified, though most sources place it at about 35,000 lbf (156 kN) per engine. Maximum speed, without external weapons, is estimated to be Mach 1.82 in supercruise mode, as demonstrated by General John P. Jumper, former US Air Force Chief of Staff, when his Raptor exceeded Mach 1.7 without afterburners on 13 January 2005. With afterburners, it is "greater than Mach 2.0" (1,317 mph, 2,120 km/h). Former Lockheed F-22 chief test pilot Paul Metz stated that the Raptor has a fixed inlet; the absence of variable intake ramps typically limits speeds to approximately Mach 2.0. Metz has also stated that the F-22 has a greater climb rate than the F-15 Eagle due to advances in engine technology, despite the F-15's thrust-to-weight ratio of about 1.2:1 (the F-22 has a ratio closer to 1:1). The US Air Force claims that the Raptor cannot be matched by any known or projected fighter types, and Lockheed Martin claims: "the F-22 is the only aircraft that blends supercruise speed, super-agility, stealth and sensor fusion into a single air dominance platform."

The ability of airframes to withstand both stress and heat is a major design factor, thus the F-22 makes use of many polymers; however, as some of the materials are a significant health risk to personnel, technicians require protective equipment such as eye protection, respirators and gloves to work upon the aircraft. The use of internal weapons bays allows the aircraft to maintain a comparatively higher performance while carrying a heavy payload over many other aircraft due to a lack of drag from external stores. It is one of only a few of aircraft that can supercruise, sustained supersonic flight without the use of afterburners, lowering fuel usage. The F-22 can intercept time-critical or rapidly moving targets that a subsonic aircraft would not have the speed to follow and an afterburner-dependent aircraft would lack fuel to reach.

The F-22 is highly maneuverable, at both supersonic and subsonic speeds. It is extremely departure-resistant, enabling it to remain controllable at extreme pilot inputs. The Raptor's thrust vectoring nozzles allow the aircraft to turn tightly, and perform extremely high alpha (angle of attack) maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (or J-turn), Pugachev's Cobra, and the Kulbit. The F-22 is also capable of maintaining a constant angle of attack of over 60°, yet still having some control of roll. During June 2006 exercises in Alaska, F-22 pilots demonstrated that cruise altitude has a significant effect on combat performance, and routinely attributed their altitude advantage as a major factor in achieving an unblemished kill ratio against other US fighters and 4th/4.5th generation fighters.

The F-22's ground attack capabilities are minimal. It has no forward looking infrared, Laser designator or laser spot tracker and it cannot carry an external pod to provide these capabilities. Its ability to locate ground targets with radar is still under development and it can only carry a very modest bomb and fuel load in a stealthy configuration. Time suggested part of the reason for it not being used in the 2011 military intervention in Libya may have been its high unit cost.

Avionics

The F-22's avionics include BAE Systems E&IS radar warning receiver (RWR) AN/ALR-94, AN/AAR 56 Infra-Red and Ultra-Violet MAWS (Missile Approach Warning System) and the Northrop Grumman AN/APG-77 Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar. The AN/ALR-94 is a passive receiver system to detect radar signals; composed of more than 30 antennas blended into the wings and fuselage that provide all around coverage. It was described by Tom Burbage, former F-22 program head at Lockheed Martin, as "the most technically complex piece of equipment on the aircraft." It has a greater range (250+ nmi) than the radar, allowing the F-22 to limit its own radar emissions to maximise stealth. As a target approaches, the receiver can cue the AN/APG-77 radar to track the target with a narrow beam, which can be as focused down to 2° by 2° in azimuth and elevation.

The AN/APG-77 AESA radar, designed for air superiority and strike operations, features a low-observable, active-aperture, electronically-scanned array that can track multiple targets in any weather. The AN/APG-77 changes frequencies more than 1,000 times per second to reduce the chance of being intercepted. The radar can also focus its emissions to overload enemy sensors, giving the aircraft an electronic-attack capability.

The radar's information is processed by two Raytheon Common Integrated Processor (CIP)s. Each CIP can process 10.5 billion instructions per second and has 300 megabytes of memory. Information can be gathered from the radar and other onboard and offboard systems, filtered by the CIP, and offered in easy-to-digest ways on several cockpit displays, enabling the pilot to remain on top of complicated situations. The F-22s avionics software has some 1.7 million lines of code, the majority involving processing data from the radar. The radar has an estimated range of 125–150 miles, though planned upgrades will allow a range of 250 miles (400 km) or more in narrow beams. In 2007, tests by Northrop Grumman, Lockheed Martin, and L-3 Communications enabled the AESA system of a Raptor to act like a WiFi access point, able to transmit data at 548 megabits per second and receive at gigabit speed; this is far faster than the Link 16 system used by US and allied aircraft, which transfers data at just over 1 Mbit/s.

The F-22 has a threat detection and identification capability comparative with the RC-135 Rivet Joint. The F-22's stealth allows it to safely operate far closer to the battlefield, compensating for the reduced capability. The F-22 is capable of functioning as a "mini-AWACS", however the radar is less powerful than dedicated platforms such as the E-3 Sentry. The F-22 allows its pilot to designate targets for cooperating F-15s and F-16s, and determine whether two friendly aircraft are targeting the same aircraft. It is been reported as being "sometimes many times quicker than the AWACS".

The F-22's radar is being given a high-bandwidth data transmission capability, to be used to permit relaying of data between friendly units in the operating area. The F-22 can already pass data to other F-22s, resulting in considerably reduced radio "chatter". The IEEE-1394B data bus developed for the F-22 was derived from the commercial IEEE-1394 "FireWire" bus system, often used on personal computers. The same data bus is employed by the subsequent F-35 Lightning II fighter. Sensor fusion combines data from all onboard and offboard sensors into a common view to prevent the pilot from being overwhelmed.

In a critical article former Navy Secretary John Lehman wrote "t least are safe from cyberattack. No one in China knows how to program the '83 vintage IBM software that runs them." Former Secretary of the USAF Michael Wynne blamed the use of the DoD's Ada as a reason for cost overruns and schedule slippages on many major military projects, including the F-22 Raptor. The F-22 uses the INTEGRITY-178B operating system from Green Hills Software, which is also used on the F-35, several commercial airliners and the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle.

Cockpit

The F-22 cockpit is a glass cockpit design without any traditional analog flight instruments and represents a marked improvement on the cockpit design of previous advanced aircraft. The leading features of the F-22 cockpit include simple and rapid start-up, highly developed HMI, light helmet, large anthropometric accommodation and highly integrated warning system. Other main features include the large single-piece canopy, side stick and improved life support systems.

All internal displays are designed to be used with night vision goggles because the aircraft lacks optical or IR vision devices. The Integrated Caution, Advisory, and Warning (ICAW) system combines and filters all messages so that the pilot can be a tactician rather than a housekeeper.

Armament

The Raptor has three internal weapons bays on the bottom and sides of the fuselage. It can carry six compressed carriage medium range missiles in the center bay and one short range missile in each of the two side bays. Four of the medium range missiles can be replaced with two bomb racks that can each carry one medium-size bomb or four small diameter bombs. Carrying missiles and bombs internally maintains its stealth capability and maintains lower drag resulting in higher top speeds and longer combat ranges. Launching missiles requires opening the weapons bay doors for less than a second, while the missiles are pushed clear of the airframe by hydraulic arms. This reduces the Raptor's chance of detection by enemy radar systems due to launched ordnance and also allows the F-22 to launch long range missiles while maintaining supercruise. The F-22 can also carry such air-to-surface weapons as bombs with the Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM) guidance system, and the new Small-Diameter Bomb (SDB), but cannot self-designate for laser-guided weapons. Entire air-to-surface ordnance is currently limited to 2,000 lb (compared to 17,000 lb of F/A-18). The Raptor carries an M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm rotary cannon in the right wing root. The M61A2 carries 480 rounds; enough ammunition for approximately five seconds of sustained fire. The opening for the cannon's firing barrel is covered by a door when not in use to maximise stealth. The F-22 has been able to close to gun range in training dogfights while avoiding detection.

The Raptor's very high sustained cruise speed and operational altitude add significantly to the effective range of both air-to-air and air-to-surface munitions. These factors may be the rationale behind the USAF's decision not to pursue long-range, high-energy air-to-air missiles such as the MBDA Meteor. However, the USAF plans to procure the AIM-120D AMRAAM, which is reported to have a 50% increase in range compared to the AIM-120C. While specific figures remain classified, it is expected that JDAMs employed by F-22s will have twice or more the effective range of munitions dropped by legacy platforms. In testing, a Raptor dropped a 1,000 lb (450 kg) JDAM from 50,000 feet (15,000 m), while cruising at Mach 1.5, striking a moving target 24 miles (39 km) away.

While the F-22 typically carries its weapons internally, the wings include four hardpoints, each rated to handle 5,000 lb (2,300 kg). Each hardpoint has a pylon that can carry a detachable 600 gallon fuel tank or a launcher holding two air-air missiles. However, the use of external stores has a detrimental effect on the F-22's stealth, maneuverability and speed. The two inner hardpoints are "plumbed" for external fuel tanks; the hardpoints can be jettisoned in flight so the fighter can maximise its stealth after exhausting external stores. A stealth ordnance pod and pylon is being developed, designed to carry additional weapons internally.

Stealth

The stealth of the F-22 is due to a combination of factors, including the overall shape of the aircraft, the use of radar absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return. However, reduced radar cross section is one of five facets of presence reduction addressed in the designing of the F-22. The F-22 was designed to disguise its infrared emissions, reducing the threat of infrared homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air or air-to-air missiles, including its flat thrust vectoring nozzles. The aircraft was designed to be less visible to the naked eye; radio, heat and noise emissions are equally controlled.

The F-22 apparently relies less on maintenance-intensive radar absorbent material and coatings than previous stealth designs like the F-117. These materials caused deployment problems due to their susceptibility to adverse weather conditions. Unlike the B-2, which requires climate-controlled hangars, the F-22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar. Furthermore, the F-22 has a "Signature Assessment System", which presents warning indicators when normal wear-and-tear degrades the aircraft's radar signature to the point of requiring substantial repair work. The exact radar cross section (RCS) remains classified; however, in early 2009 Lockheed Martin released information on the F-22, indicating it to have a RCS (from certain angles) of −40 dBsm – the equivalent radar reflection of a "steel marble". However, the stealth features of the F-22 require additional maintenance, decreasing their mission capable rate to approximately 62–70%.

The effectiveness of the emphasis on stealth characteristics is difficult to measure. While its radar cross-section is almost nonexistent, this is merely a static measurement of the aircraft's frontal or side area and is valid only for a radar source in a stationary location relative to the aircraft. As soon as the F-22 maneuvers, it exposes a different set of angles and a greater surface area to any radar, increasing its visibility. Furthermore, the use of stealth contouring and radar absorbent material are chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other aircraft. Low-frequency radars, employed by weather radars and ground warning stations, are alleged to be less affected by stealth characteristics and are more capable of detecting aircraft employing them. The result of these low resolution and fleeting radar contacts will mean that while the defense may know that a stealth aircraft is in the area, they will be unable to vector defenses in to shoot down the aircraft, especially a high performance airframe like the F-22.

Operational history

Designation and testing

The YF-22 was originally given the unofficial name "Lightning II", after the World War II fighter P-38, by Lockheed, which persisted until the mid-1990s when the USAF officially named the aircraft "Raptor". The aircraft was also briefly dubbed "SuperStar" and "Rapier". The F-35 later received the Lightning II name on 7 July 2006. In September 2002, Air Force leaders changed the Raptor's designation to F/A-22. The new designation, mimicking the Navy's F/A-18 Hornet, was intended to highlight plans for a ground-attack capability amid intense debate over the relevance of expensive air-superiority jets. The F-22 designation was reinstated on 12 December 2005, when the aircraft entered service.

Flight testing of the F-22 began in 1997. Raptor 4001 was retired and sent to Wright-Patterson AFB to be fired at for testing the fighter's survivability. Usable parts of 4001 would be used to make a new F-22. Another engineering and manufacturing development (EMD) F-22 was also retired and likely to be sent to be rebuilt. A testing aircraft was converted to a maintenance trainer at Tyndall AFB.

In May 2006, a released report documented a problem with a forward titanium boom on the aircraft. The problem was caused by a manufacturing defect in the heat-treating, making the boom less ductile than specified and potentially shortening the lives of roughly the first 80 F-22s. Modifications were implemented to restore full life expectancy.

Service history

On 15 December 2005 the USAF announced that the Raptor had reached its Initial Operational Capability (IOC). During Exercise Northern Edge in Alaska in June 2006, 12 F-22s of the 94th FS downed 108 adversaries with no losses in simulated combat exercises. In two weeks of exercises, the Raptor-led Blue Force amassed 241 kills against two losses in air-to-air combat, neither Blue Force loss was an F-22.

This was followed with the Raptor's first participation in a Red Flag exercise. Fourteen F-22s of the 94th FS supported attacking Blue Force strike packages as well as engaging in close air support sorties themselves in Red Flag 07-1 in February 2007. Against superior numbers of Red Force Aggressor F-15s and F-16s, the F-22 maintained air dominance using eight aircraft during day missions and six at night, reportedly defeating aggressors efficiently and with speed. Further, no sorties were missed because of maintenance or other failures, and only one Raptor was adjudged lost against the overwhelming defeat of the defending force. Following all ordnance being expended, the F-22s remained airborne to provide electronic surveillance.

While attempting its first overseas deployment to the Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, Japan, on 11 February 2007, six F-22s flying from Hickam AFB, Hawaii experienced multiple computer failures while crossing the 180th meridian of longitude (the International Date Line). The failures included navigation and communication. The fighters were able to return to Hawaii by following tanker aircraft. Within 48 hours, the error was resolved and the journey resumed.

F-22A Raptors of the 90th Fighter Squadron performed their first intercept of two Russian Tu-95MS 'Bear-H' bombers in Alaska, on 22 November 2007. This was the first time that F-22s had been called to support a NORAD mission. Raptors have also escorted Tu-160 'Blackjack' strategic bombers.

On 12 December 2007, General John D.W. Corley, USAF, Commander of Air Combat Command, officially declared the F-22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and Virginia Air National Guard 192d Fighter Wing fully operational, three years after the first Raptor arrived at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. This was followed from 13 to 19 April 2008 by an Operational Readiness Inspection (ORI) of the integrated wing in which it received an "excellent" rating in all categories while scoring a simulated kill-ratio of 221–0. The first pair of Raptors assigned to the 49th Fighter Wing became operational at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico, on 2 June 2008.

In December 2007, Secretary of the Air Force Michael Wynne requested that the F-22 be deployed to the Middle East, Secretary of Defense Gates rejected this option.

On 28 August 2008, an F-22 from the 411th Flight Test Squadron performed in the first ever air-to-air refueling of an aircraft using synthetic jet fuel. The test was a part of the wider USAF effort to qualify its aircraft to use the fuel, a 50/50 mix of JP-8 and a Fischer-Tropsch process-produced, natural gas-based fuel. No aircraft modifications were required.

On 22 July 2009, the United States Senate voted to end F-22 production at 187 fighters. The extreme economic burden of the Raptor was cited, with arguments that since it is not used in Iraq or Afghanistan, the further costs are unnecessary. Defense Secretary Robert Gates announced in April that the military would shift more funding towards intelligence and personnel, rather than hardware only suitable for fighting major wars like the F-22, specifically stating that it is too expensive and does not have sufficient multi-mission capability for current military operations.

During 2010–2011 periodic operational hazards surfaced regarding F-22 operations. In February 2010 the entire fleet was grounded due to rusting ejection seat rods. In May 2011 the entire fleet was grounded due to failures of oxygen delivery systems. The F-22 was first restricted to flying below 25,000 feet while the Honeywell oxygen generating system was investigated following the November 2010 crash near Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska. After five incidents reported by pilots suffering from hypoxia and decompression in April 2011, Air Combat Command commander General William M. Fraser III grounded the F-22 fleet indefinitely on 3 May 2011. In June 2011, the investigation broadened to cover other life support equipment; while aircraft deliveries stopped as test flying could not be performed. In July 2011 the investigators began to suspect a second scenario in which the pilots were poisoned by carbon monoxide generated in the fighter's engines, while warming the plane up inside the hangars. F-22 pilots have been tested and found to have also inhaled other chemicals from the OBOGS, including oil fumes and propane. In its 2012 budget request the USAF cut F-22 flight training hours by one-third to reduce the operating costs of flying the aircraft.

In August 2011 the grounding was temporarily waived so that fighters could be flown out of the path of a hurricane.

In September 2011 the F-22s will be returned to flight, without resolving the issue, in response to the bad press surrounding the very expensive grounded fighters.

Maintenance

In 2009, a spokesperson for Lockheed-Martin stated the mission ready rate had improved from 62% in 2004 to 68% in 2009, and was predicted to reach 85% as the fleet reached 100,000 flight hours. The Washington Post stated that between October 2008 and May 2009, 55 percent of the deployed F-22 fleet has been available. Air Force Magazine responded to the Washington Post article, stating it was incorrect and that mission capable rates were climbing; by June 2009 they stood at 62.9%, compared to approximately 70% for the F-15 and F-16 aircraft. In 2010, the Air Force Association stated the mission capable rate for the F-22 fleet was 70%, comparative with the 71.2 percent that the F/A-18 Super Hornet managed during its first wartime deployment.

In July 2009, the Air Force reported that the F-22 requires more than 30 hours of maintenance for every flight hour, with the total cost per flight hour of $44,000. The Office of the Secretary of Defense puts that figure at 34 hours of maintenance per single hour of flight at a cost of $49,808 per hour of flight. However, a Lockheed spokesman says that the variable cost per flight hour is only $19,000, with a direct maintenance man hours per flight hour of 18.10 in 2008 and 20.48 in 2009. The Pentagon requirement is for 12 hours of maintenance per flight hour. The F-22 also reportedly encountered a critical failure every 1.7 hours. The F-22 had required maintenance every 0.97 flight hours in 2004. This improved to 3.22 flight hours per maintenance event in production Lot 6 aircraft.

Each Raptor requires a month-long packaged maintenance plan (PMP) after every 300 flight hours. The aircraft's radar-absorbing metallic skin is a principal cause of maintenance, skin repairs account for more than half of all maintenance. A source of maintenance problems is that many components require custom hand-fitting and are not interchangeable. The canopy visibility degrades more rapidly than expected, refurbishments are at 331 flight hours on average, instead of the required 800 hours. Pentagon officials have responded that measuring flying costs for aircraft fleets that have not reached 100,000 flying hours is premature. Officials also stated that improvements have been made since 2008; and that the F-22 is on track to meet key performance measures by 2010.

During at least one exercise the F-22 maintained a high state of mission readiness. In January 2007, it was reported that the F-22 maintained a 97% sortie rate (flying 102 out of 105 tasked sorties) while amassing a 144-to-zero kill ratio during "Northern Edge" air-to-air exercises held in Alaska, the first large-scale exercise in which the Raptor participated. Lt. Col. Wade Tolliver, the squadron commander of the 27th FS commented: "the stealth coatings are not as fragile as they were in earlier stealth aircraft. It isn't damaged by a rain storm and it can stand the wear and tear of combat without degradation." However, rain has caused "shorts and failures in sophisticated electrical components" when the Raptors were briefly posted to Guam.

Variants

• YF-22A – pre-production version used for ATF testing and evaluation. Two were built.
• F-22A – single-seat production version. Was designated "F/A-22A" in early 2000s.
• F-22B – planned two-seat variant, but was dropped in 1996 to save development costs.
• Naval F-22 variant – a carrier-borne variant of the F-22 with swing-wings for the U.S. Navy's Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter (NATF) program to replace the F-14 Tomcat. Program was canceled in 1993.

Derivatives

The FB-22 was a proposed medium-range bomber for the USAF. The FB-22 was projected to carry up to 30 Small Diameter Bombs to about twice the range of the F-22A, while maintaining the F-22's stealth and supersonic speed. However, the FB-22 in its planned form appears to have been canceled with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments, in lieu of a larger subsonic bomber with a much greater range.

The X-44 MANTA, or multi-axis, no-tail aircraft, was a planned experimental aircraft based on the F-22 with enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic backup. The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring, without featuring any rudders, ailerons, or elevators. Funding for this program was halted in 2000.

Operators

The United States Air Force is the only operator of the F-22, with 168 aircraft in inventory as of May 2010. These are operated by the following commands:

• Air Education and Training Command
  • 325th Fighter Wing, Tyndall Air Force Base, Florida
    • 43d Fighter Squadron – The first squadron to operate the F-22 and continues to serve as the Formal Training Unit. Known as the "Hornets", the 43d was re-activated at Tyndall in 2002.

• Air Combat Command
  • 1st Fighter Wing, Langley Air Force Base, Virginia
    • 27th Fighter Squadron – The first combat F-22 squadron. Began conversion in December 2005 after and flew the first operational mission (January 2006 in support of Operation Noble Eagle).
    • 94th Fighter Squadron
  • 49th Fighter Wing, Holloman AFB, New Mexico
    • 7th Fighter Squadron
    • 8th Fighter Squadron
  • 44th Fighter Group, Holloman AFB, New Mexico; Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC)
    • 301st Fighter Squadron Associate AFRC squadron to the 49 FW.
  • 53d Wing, Eglin Air Force Base, Florida
    • 422d Test and Evaluation Squadron – The "Green Bats" are responsible for operational testing, tactics development and evaluation for the F-22 at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada.
  • 57th Wing, Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada
    • 433rd Weapons Squadron

• Air Force Materiel Command
  • 412th Test Wing, Edwards Air Force Base, California
    • 411th Flight Test Squadron – Conducted competition between YF-22 and YF-23 from 1989–1991. Continues to conduct flight test on F-22 armaments and upgrades.

• Pacific Air Forces
  • 3d Wing, Elmendorf Air Force Base, Alaska
    • 90th Fighter Squadron – Converted from F-15Es; first F-22A arrived 8 August 2007.
    • 525th Fighter Squadron
  • 15th Wing, Hickam AFB, Hawaii
    • 19th Fighter Squadron, Hickam AFB, Hawaii. Associate squadron to the 199th Fighter Squadron.
  • 477th Fighter Group, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska. Air Force Reserve Command (AFRC) unit.
    • 302d Fighter Squadron Associate AFRC squadron to the 3 WG.

• Air National Guard
  • 192d Fighter Wing – Langley AFB, Virginia.
    • 149th Fighter Squadron – Associate ANG squadron to the 1 FW.
  • 154th Wing, Hickam AFB, Hawaii
    • 199th Fighter Squadron, Hawaii Air National Guard

Notable accidents

Because of the platform's relative immaturity due to its early operational status and low number of flight hours compared to other platforms, the F-22 has the highest accident rate of any USAF fighter aircraft in service. This rate is expected to go down as the Air Force gains more experience in operating the aircraft.

In April 1992, the first YF-22 crashed while landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California. The test pilot Tom Morgenfeld escaped without injury. The cause of the crash was found to be a flight control software error that failed to prevent a pilot-induced oscillation.

The first crash of a production F-22 occurred during takeoff at Nellis Air Force Base on 20 December 2004, in which the pilot ejected safely before impact. The crash investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to flight caused a malfunction in the flight-control system; consequently the aircraft design was corrected to avoid the problem. All F-22s were grounded after the crash, operations resumed following a review.

On 25 March 2009, an F-22 crashed 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Edwards Air Force Base during a test flight, resulting in the death of Lockheed test pilot David P. Cooley. An Air Force Materiel Command investigation found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during a high-G maneuver then ejected when he found himself too low to recover. Cooley was killed during ejection by blunt-force trauma from the aircraft's speed and the windblast. The investigation found no issues with the F-22's design.

On 16 November 2010, an F-22, based at Elmendorf, Alaska, lost contact with Air Traffic Control. The aircraft was discovered to have crashed; the pilot, Captain Jeffrey Haney, did not survive. The F-22 fleet was restricted to flying below 25,000 feet, before being grounded completely, while the accident was investigated. During the summer of 2011, more wreckage from the crash site was recovered; the accident has been attributed to a malfunction in the bleed air system that shut down the aircraft's Environmental Control System (ECS) and On-Board Oxygen Generating System (OBOGS).

Aircraft on display

The National Museum of the United States Air Force, on 30 April 2007, announced that EMD Raptor 91-4003 would be put on display later in 2007 in the space being occupied by the YF-22. The Museum publicly unveiled its Raptor 91-4003 display on 18 January 2008.

Specifications

Data from USAF, F-22 Raptor Team web site, Lockheed Martin, Aviation Week, and Journal of Electronic Defense

General characteristics

• Crew: 1
• Airfoil: NACA 64A?05.92 root, NACA 64A?04.29 tipFuel capacity: 18,000 lb (8,200 kg) internally, or 26,000 lb (11,900 kg) with two external fuel tanks

Performance

• Thrust/weight: 1.08 (1.26 with loaded weight & 50% fuel)
• Maximum design g-load: -3.0/+9.0 g

Armament

• Guns: 1× 20 mm (0.787 in) M61A2 Vulcan 6-barreled gatling cannon in starboard wing root, 480 rounds
• Air to air loadout:
  • 6× AIM-120 AMRAAM
  • 2× AIM-9 Sidewinder
• Air to ground loadout:
  • 2× AIM-120 AMRAAM and
  • 2× AIM-9 Sidewinder for self-protection, and one of the following:
    • 2× 1,000 lb (450 kg) JDAM or
    • 8× 250 lb (110 kg) GBU-39 Small Diameter Bombs
• Hardpoints: 4× under-wing pylon stations can be fitted to carry 600 US gallon drop tanks or weapons, each with a capacity of 5,000 lb (2,268 kg).

Avionics

• RWR (Radar warning receiver): 250 nmi (463 km) or more
• Radar: 125–150 miles (200–240 km) against 1 m (11 sq ft) targets (estimated range)
• Chemring MJU-39/40 flares for protection against IR missiles.

Notable appearances in media

See also

• Fifth generation jet fighter
• Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II

Related development

• Lockheed YF-22
• Lockheed Martin FB-22
• Lockheed Martin X-44 MANTA

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

• Chengdu J-20
• Northrop YF-23
• Sukhoi PAK FA
• Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft

Related lists

• List of fighter aircraft
• List of Lockheed aircraft
• List of active United States military aircraft
• List of megaprojects, Aerospace

References

Notes

1. Referring to statements made by the Secretary of Defense Robert Gates: "The secretary once again highlighted his ambitious next-year request for the more-versatile F-35s."
2. "... noting that Raptors are ready for a mission around 62 percent of the time, if its low-observable requirements are met (DAILY, 20 Nov.). Reliability goes up above 70 percent for missions with lower stealth demands."
3. The F-22 was "lost" when its victim exited the area, regenerated, and immediately reentered the engagement, with the Raptor pilot erroneously assuming it was still "dead".
4. Claim: …only 1.7 hours…. (Para. 5) AF Response: True based on the FOT&E Report. The F-22 program does not measure mean time between critical failure. However, Mean Time Between Maintenance (MTBM) has dramatically matured from 0.97 in 2004 to 3.22 as demonstrated by Lot 6 aircraft performance.
5. Previous planning, as noted in 2006 Air Force news releases, appears to have seen the 531st Fighter Squadron take the active associate role, but this has now changed.
6. empty weight+ 8,200 kg(fuel) + 1,142 kg (6 AMRAAM + 2 AIM-9X) + 292 kg (munition for the canon)

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Bibliography

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• Crosby, Francis. Fighter Aircraft. London: Lorenz Books, 2002. ISBN 0-7548-0990-0.
• Goodall, James C. "The Lockheed YF-22 and Northrop YF-23 Advanced Tactical Fighters". America's Stealth Fighters and Bombers: B-2, F-117, YF-22 and YF-23. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1992. ISBN 0-87938-609-6.
• Jenkins, Dennis R. and Tony R. Landis. Experimental & Prototype U.S. Air Force Jet Fighters. Minnesota, US:Specialty Press, 2008. ISBN 978-1-58007-111-6.
• Miller, Jay. Lockheed Martin F/A-22 Raptor, Stealth Fighter. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 2005. ISBN 1-85780-158-X.
• Miller, Jay. Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works: The Official History... (updated edition). Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing, 1995. ISBN 1-85780-037-0.
• Pace, Steve. F-22 Raptor: America's Next Lethal War Machine. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. ISBN 0 July 134271-0.
• Pace, Steve. X-Fighters: USAF Experimental and Prototype Fighters, XP-59 to YF-23. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1991. ISBN 0-87938-540-5.
• Polmar, Norman. The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2005. ISBN 978-1591146858
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• Williams, Mel (ed.). "Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor". Superfighters: The Next Generation of Combat Aircraft. London: AIRtime Publishing Inc., 2002. ISBN 1-880588-53-6.

External links

External image
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Cutaway
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Cutaway from Flightglobal.com

• F-22 official team web site
• F-22 page on NASA Langley site
• F-22 page on GlobalSecurity.org
• F-22 Raptor site – f22fighter.com
• F-22 Raptor site – f-22raptor.com
• F-22 Raptor page with YF-22/F-22 comparison on fighter-planes.com
• F-22A Raptor page on airforce-technology.com
• Interview – F-22 Chief Test Pilot, Paul Metz, 1998
• F-22 Raptor wows Farnborough air show. BBC, 17 July 2008
• Unique Flight Demonstration video – 2007 Capital Airshow in Sacramento – with narrative by F-22 pilot Paul "Max" Moga
• "Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Air Dominance Fighters Begin Operations In New Mexico". Lockheed Martin, 6 June 2008

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• Use dmy dates from August 2011
• Lockheed Martin aircraft
• Stealth aircraft
• United States fighter aircraft 1990-1999