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Revision as of 20:43, 17 September 2004 by Quadell (talk | contribs) (+{{wikiquote}})(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)Intelligence is a general mental capability that involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language, and learn. While the definition and importance of intelligence is an issue of some controversy, especially in the popular press, a consensus opinion exists among intelligence researchers on many issues.
When considering animal intelligence, a more general definition of intelligence might be applied: the "ability to adapt effectively to the environment, either by making a change in oneself or by changing the environment or finding a new one" (Encyclopædia Britannica).
Intelligence tests are often used to quantify human intelligence. This is not without controversy; see below for more information.
Some thinkers have explored the idea of collective intelligence, arising from the coordination of many people. Computer science has developed the field of artificial intelligence, which seeks to make computers act in increasingly intelligent ways. Many people have also speculated about the possibility of extraterrestrial intelligence.
Intelligence tests
Intelligence, narrowly defined, can be measured by intelligence tests (see IQ). They are among the most accurate (reliable and valid) psychological tests, but they are not intended to measure creativity, personality, character, or wisdom. Intelligence tests take many forms, but they all measure the same intelligence. The general factor measured by each intelligence test is known as g (see g theory).
Some researchers have proposed that intelligence is not a single quantity or concept, but really consists of a set of relatively independent abilities. Yale psychologist Robert J. Sternberg has proposed a Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Harvard psychologist Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, for example, breaks intelligence down into the seven different components: logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinesthetic, intra-personal and inter-personal intelligences. Daniel Goleman and several other researchers have developed the concept of emotional intelligence and claim it is at least as important as more traditional sorts of intelligence.
Proponents of multiple-intelligence theories often claim that g is, at best, a measure of academic ability. Other types of intelligence, they claim, might be just as important outside of a school setting. One theory even suggests the existence of two types of g (see Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence).
In response, g theorists have argued that multiple intelligences have not been borne out when actually tested (Hunt 2001) and that g actually has a substantial impact on personal affairs.
Practical importance
Intelligence is well recognized as being important for academic success. There is also an important role for intelligence in other valued life outcomes. In addition to performance in school, intelligence is associated with job performance (i.e. supervisor ratings), socioeconomic advancement (e.g., level of education, occupation, and income), and social pathology (e.g., adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). Also, there is been recent work demonstrating a relationship between intelligence and health, longevity, and functional literacy. Correlations between g and life outcomes are pervasive, but interestingly there is no correlation between IQ and happiness. IQ/g correlates highly with school performance, less so with occupational prestige, income correlates moderately, and law-abidingness only to a small degree. The correlation between job performance and IQ depends on the complexity of the job, ranging from .2 for unskilled jobs to .8 for the most complex.
The correlations discussed above are non-controversial. However, there is disagreement over their interpretation. One group maintains that IQ is a product of the privileged classes, used to maintain their privilege. Others insist that IQ/g is a useful tool in performing life tasks. The two explanations can be distinguished because they make opposite predictions about what would happen if people were given equal opportunities to succeed. The first predicts that equal treatment would destroy the correlations, and the second predicts that it would create them. Several pieces of data can address these predictions. Adoption studies show that by adolescence adopted siblings are no more similar than strangers, and the gap between full siblings is 2/3 of that size. Conversely, monozygotic twins raised separately are highly similar, more so than dizygotic twins raised together. The heritability of IQ increases with age, such that differences in family advantage are lost by adolescence.
Controversies
Researchers in the field of human intelligence have encountered a considerable amount of public concern and criticism; much more than many scientists would be accustomed to or comfortable with. Some of the controversial topics include:
- the relevance of psychometric intelligence to the common sense understanding of the topic
- the importance of intelligence in everyday life
- the genetic and environmental contributions to individual variation in intelligence (see Nature versus nurture).
- differences in average measured intelligence between racial groups and sexes; and the source and meaning of these differences (see Race and intelligence).
References
- Hunt, E. (2001). Multiple views of multiple intelligence. Contemporary Psychology, 46, 5-7.