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The Samkhyakarika (Template:Lang-sa, Sāṁkhyakārikā) is the earliest surviving text of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy. The text's original composition date is unknown, but its terminus ad quem (completed before) date has been established through its Chinese translation that became available by 569 CE. It is attributed to Ishvara Krishna (Iśvarakṛṣṇa, 350 C.E).

In the text, the author described himself as a successor of the disciples from the great sage Kapila, through Āsuri and Pañcaśikha. His Sāṁkhya Kārikā consists of 72 ślokas written in the Ārya metre, with the last verse asserting that the original Samkhya Karika had only 70 verses.

The earliest important commentary on his Kārikā was written by Gaudapada. Yuktidipika, whose medieval era manuscript editions were discovered and published about mid 20th century, is among the most significant extant review and commentary on Samkhyakarika.

The Sāṁkhya Kārikā was translated into Chinese in c. 6th century CE. In 1832, Christian Lassen translated the text in Latin. H.T. Colebrooke first translated this text into English. Windischmann and Lorinser translated it into German, and Pautier and St. Hilaire translated it into French.

Authorship and chronology

Samkhya is an important pillar of Indian philosophical tradition, called shad-darshana, however, of the standard works of Samkhya only three are available at present. These are: Samkhya Sutras attributed to the founder of Samkhya, Kapila; Tattva Samasa, which some authors (Max Muller) consider prior to Samkhya Sutras, and Samkhya Karika authored by Ishvara Krishna. Ishvara Krishna follows several earlier teachers of Samkhya and is said to come from Kausika family. He taught before Vasubandhu and is placed following Kapila, Asuri, Panca Shikha, Vindhyavasa, Varsaganya, Jaigisavia, Vodhu, Devala and Sanaka.

Samkhya karika was probably composed sometime in the Gupta Empire period, between 320-540 CE. The translation of Paramartha into Chinese together with a commentary was composed over 557-569 CE, has survived in China, and it constitutes the oldest surviving version of Samkhya karika. Several manuscripts, with slightly variant verses are known, but these do not challenge the basic thesis or the overall meaning of the text.

In terms of comparative textual chronology, states Larson, the final redaction of Yogasutra and the writing of Samkhya-karika were probably contemporaneous.

Gerald Larson, in Classical Samkhya, includes also a formative stage period between the death of Mahavira (468 BCE) and Chandra Gupta period 300-500 CE, which he calls Proto-Samkhyan Speculations. Later developments include the 9th century Samkhya Tattva Kaumudi of Vacaspati Mishra.

Structure

Number of verses

The Karika, wrote ancient Hindu scholars Gaudapada and Vacaspati Misra, contains seventy two verses. However, Gaudapada commented on the first sixty nine, leading 19th-century colonial era scholars to suggest that the last three may have been added later. With the discovery of 6th-century manuscripts of translations of the Indian text into Chinese language, it became clear that by the 6th-century, the Karika had seventy two verses. The Chinese version includes commentary on the Karika, but for unknown reasons, skips or misses the commentary on verse sixty three.

In mid 20th-century, the first manuscript of Yuktidipika was discovered in India, which is a review and commentary on the Karika. Yuktidipika, for unknown reasons, skipped commenting on verses sixty through sixty three, verse sixty five and sixty six, but reviews and analyzes the remaining 66 of 72 verses.

The medieval era Matharavrtti text states that the Karika has seventy three verses. In contrast, verse seventy two of the surviving 6th-century CE Karika declares that its original had just seventy verses, implying that a more ancient version of Samkhya-karika once existed. Scholars have attempted to produce a critical edition, by identifying the most ancient original set of seventy verses, but this effort has not produced a consensus among scholars. In terms of content, importance and meaning, the text is essentially the same regardless of which version of the manuscript is referred to.

Meter

Each verse of the philosophical Samkhya-karika text is composed in a precise mathematical meter, that repeats in a musical rhythm of an Arya meter (also called the Gatha, or song, meter). Every verse is set in two half stanza with the following rule: both halves have exactly repeating total instants and repeating sub-total pattern in the manner of many ancient Sanskrit compositions. The stanza is divided into feet, each feet has four instants, with its short syllable counting as one instant (matra), while the long syllable prosodically counts are two instants.

Each verse of Karika are presented in four quarters (two quarters making one half), the first quarter has exactly three feet (12 beats), the second quarter four and half feet (18 beats), the third quarter of every verse has three feet (12 beats again), while the fourth quarter has three and a half plus an extra short syllable at its end (15 beats). Thus, metrically, the first half stanza of every verse of this philosophical text has thirty instants, the second has twenty seven.

Contents

Samkhya emerged in the Vedic tradition, states Gerald Larson, and the Karika is an important text that was the fruit of those efforts.

Goal of the text: verses 1 to 3

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The Samkhya karika opens by stating that the pursuit of happiness is a basic need of all human beings. Yet, one is afflicted by three forms of suffering, a truth that motivates this text to study means of counteracting suffering.

दुःखत्रयाभिघाताज्जिज्ञासा तदभिघातके हेतौ ।
दृष्टे सापार्था चेन्नैकान्तात्यन्ततोऽभावात् ॥ १ ॥

Because of the torment of the three-fold suffering, arises this inquiry to know the means of counteracting it. If it is said that such inquiry is useless because perceptible means of removal exist, we say no because these means are neither lasting nor effective. (1)

— Samkhya karika, Verse 1

The three causes of unhappiness (duhkha-traya) are adhyatmika that is caused by self; adhibhautika that is caused by others and external influences; and, adhidaivika that is caused by nature and supernatural agencies.

Means of knowledge: verses 4 to 8

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The theory of causation and the doctrine of Gunas: verses 9 to 14

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Nature of Prakrti: verses 15 to 16

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Nature of Purusha: verses 17 to 19

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The connection between Prakriti and Purusha: verses 20 to 21

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The theory of emergence of principles: verses 22 to 38

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The theory of reality: verses 39 to 59

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The theory of understanding and freedom: verses 60 to 69

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Transmission of Samkhya tradition: verses 70 to 72

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Summary

The Samkhyakarika's implied premise is that "Every being in the world without exception seeks happiness" (Introduction by Swami Virupakshananda). Therefore, the existence of duhkha-traya is the reason for the inquiry about the means of permanent removal of pain.

The means of removing pain is based in the Discriminate Knowledge, which Samkhyakarika considers superior to the ritualistic Vedic rules, because Vedic means are linked to "impurity, decay and excess" and do not remove pain permanently (Karika 2). Discriminate Knowledge arises from the right knowledge and discriminating of what is the Manifest, the Unmanifest and the Cogniser.

The Unanifest Prakriti (avyakta), also called Mulaprakriti, or Primal Matter, is uncreated. Vyakta, the manifest world arising out of Prakriti has two categories. The seven: mahat (intelligence), ahamkara (self-awerness, or ego), five subtle elements (tanmatras) are created and creative. The second category of the sixteen includes: manas (mind), five buddhindriyas (organs of sense), five karmendriyas (organs of action), and five mahabhutas (gross elements).

Prakriti, exists for the sake of Purusha. Purusha is neither created nor creative. The task of the Cogniser is to distinguish between the two. This method is further refined in following Karikas with the reference to 24 tattvas. The end effect, is "the practice of Truth", which produces the wisdom in the form of "I am not, naught is mine, and not 'I' (Karika 64), which is pure on account of the absence of error and which is absolute."

Commentaries

The well known and widely studied medieval era reviews and commentaries on Samkhya-karika include the Gaudapada Samkhya Karika Bhasya (unclear date, certainly before 11th-century), the Paramartha's Chinese translation (6th-century), the Matharavrtti, the Samkhya tattva kaumudi (9th-century), the Jayamangala (likely before 9th-century), and the more recently discovered Yuktidipika.

Vacaspati Mishra's Sāṁkhyatattvakaumudī is well studied commentary, in addition to his well-known commentary to Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.

See also

References

  1. ^ Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, pages 146-153
  2. Gerald James Larson (1998), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarasidass, ISBN 81-208-0503-8, page 4
  3. Feuerstein, Georg (2008). Yoga Tradition. Prescott, Arizona: Hohm Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-1-890772-18-5.
  4. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 146-147
  5. ^ Albrecht Wezler and Shujun Motegi (1998), Yuktidipika - The Most Significant Commentary on the Såmkhyakårikå, Critically Edited, Vol. I. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 3-515-06132-0
  6. 佛子天空藏經閣T54 No. 2137《金七十論》
  7. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Friedrich Max Müller, p.296, 2013, ASIN: B00F1M1B1Y
  8. Swami, Virupakshananada, (1995), vi
  9. Swami, Virupakshananada, (1995), vi
  10. Larson, Gerald J. (1979). Classical Samkhya. New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 252–3. ISBN 0-915520-27-3.
  11. Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 149
  12. Larson, 1979, p. 253
  13. ^ Arthur Basham (Original 1954, Reprint 2014), The Wonder That Was India, Picador, ISBN 978-0330439091, pages 511-512
  14. ^ Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 147
  15. Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 7, 15-21
  16. Krishna, Ishvara; (translated by: Swami, Virupakshananada), (1995). Samkhya Karika. Sri Vacaspati Misra. Mylapore, Madras: Sri Ramakrishna Matt. pp. iv. ISBN 81-7120-711-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 7
  18. Original Sanskrit: Samkhya karika Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;
    Samkhya karika by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press
  19. Swami, Virupakshananada, (1995), p.1
  20. Virupakshananada, 1995, p.9
  21. Larson, 1979, p. 8
  22. Virupakshananada, 1995, p.9
  23. Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 148
  24. Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, page 149

Further reading

  • Daniel P. Sheridan, Īshvarakrishna, in Great Thinkers of the Eastern World, Ian McGreal, ed., New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 194–197.

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