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Intermittent fasting

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Intermittent fasting (intermittent energy restriction, intermittent calorie restriction or caveman diet) is an umbrella term for various eating patterns that cycle between a period of fasting (or reduced calorie intake) and non-fasting over a defined period. Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, whole-day fasting, and time-restricted feeding.

Intermittent fasting exists in religious practices, including Vrata in Hinduism, Ramadan fasting (Islam), Yom Kippur fasting (Judaism), Orthodox Christian fasting, Fast Sunday (LDS Church), and Buddhist fasting.

Intermittent fasting is a relatively recent diet under active research to determine if it can produce weight loss and improvement of general health, whether in the short term or long term. Intermittent fasting achieves similar weight loss results to conventional calorie restriction in the short term for overweight or obese individuals, and has a specific regulating effect on insulin that is not observed in calorie reduction diet.

Intermittent fasting and calorie restriction diets, although promising and under active research, are currently not recommended for non-obese nor overweight individuals by the National Institute on Aging until more clinical trials are conducted.

Types and variants

Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, whole-day fasting, and time-restricted feeding.

  • Alternate-day fasting (ADF) is the strictest form of IF besides religious fasting.  This involves 24-hours complete fasting followed by a 24-hour non-fasting period.
    • An adjusted form of ADF is alternate-day modified fasting (ADMF) which allows the consumption of approximately 25% of daily calorie needs on fasting days instead of full fasting.
  • Whole-day fasting involves regular one or two fasting days per week. A 5:2 diet requires five non-fasting days and 2 fasting days in a week. During the fasting days, it allows approximately 500 to 600 calories or about 25% of regular daily caloric intake.
  • Time-restricted feeding involves eating only during a certain number of hours each day. An example can be 16:8 diets which advocate 16 fasting hours cycled by 8 non-fasting hours.

Intermittent energy restriction is a variant where reduced calorie intake is allowed intermittently (instead of fasting completely), an example being the 5:2 diet.

Intermittent fasting has a different duration (less than 48 hours) than long term, periodic fasting (more than 48 hours).

Religious fasting

Forms of intermittent fasting exist in religious practices in various groups across the world. Religious fasting regimens include, but are not limited to, Vrata in Hinduism, Ramadan fasting (Islam), Yom Kippur fasting (Judaism), Orthodox Christian fasting, Fast Sunday (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and Buddhist fasting. Certain religious fasting practices, only require abstinence from certain foods, while others, like the Jewish fast on Yom Kippur, last for a short period of time and would cause negligible effects on the body.

In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of Theravada Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day. This fasting is also undertaken by laypeople who undertake the eight precepts, optional rules laypeople can take to get an impression of what it is like to live as a monastic. Taiwanese physician Ming-Jun Hung and his co-authors have analyzed early and medieval Chinese Buddhist Texts and argue that the main purposes of the half-day fast is to lessen desire, improve fitness and strength, and decrease sleepiness.

Islam engages in a fasting practice reflective of intermittent fasting in terms of both food consumption and diet consistency. The duration of the Ramadan fast is between 29 and 30 days, depending on the year, and consists of not eating or drinking from sunrise until sunset. During the holiday, Muslims eat twice per day: once in the morning before dawn and once in the evening after dusk. A meta-analysis on the health of Muslims during Ramadan shows significant weight loss during the fasting period of up to 1.51 kilograms (3.3 lb), but this weight was regained within about two weeks of Ramadan ending. The analysis concluded that "Ramadan provides an opportunity to lose weight, but structured and consistent lifestyle modifications are necessary to achieve lasting weight loss." A scoping review found a high similarity between islamic fasting and time-restricted feeding. Negative effects of Ramadan fasting include increased risk of hypoglycemia in diabetics as well as inadequate levels of certain nutrients.

Fasting trends

UK

Intermittent fasting (specifically the 5:2 diet) became popular in the UK in 2012 after the BBC2 television Horizon documentary Eat, Fast and Live Longer. Via sales of best-selling books, it became widely practiced.

North America

In the United States, intermittent fasting has become a trend among Silicon Valley companies. According to NHS Choices as of 2012, people considering the 5:2 diet should first consult a physician, as fasting can sometimes be unsafe. A news item in the Canadian Medical Association Journal expressed concern that promotional material for the diet showed people eating high-calorie food, such as hamburgers and chips, and that this could encourage binge eating since the implication was that "if you fast two days a week, you can devour as much junk as your gullet can swallow during the remaining five days".

Commercialization

As of 2019, interest in intermittent fasting led some companies to commercialize diet coaching, dietary supplements, and full meal packages. These companies have been criticized for offering products or services that are expensive and not backed by science.

Research

Weight loss and health biomarkers

Alternate day fasting produces weight loss, in a quantity that is comparable to calorie restricted diet. Alternate day fasting does not appear to affect lean body mass, similarly to calorie restricted diet, but contrary to very-low-calorie diet. Intermittent fasting does not seem to affect bone health, contrary to vegetarian and vegan diets.

Alternate day fasting improves cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers similarly to calorie restriction diet for overweight or obese individuals. Intermittent fasting further improves fasting insulin concentrations and reduces IGF-1 levels, the latter further reducing caloric intake, whereas these effects on insulin were observed with calorie restriction diet only when the caloric reduction was at least 50% compared to the usualy daily caloric intake. However, the clinical relevance for long term general health is uncertain, and it remains unclear whether the beneficial effects are due to the sole weight loss or to an additional "flip switch" mechanism specific to intermittent fasting.

The reviewed clinical trials were run mostly (but not solely) on overweight or obese middle-aged women from the US and the UK, limiting interpretation of the results. Intermittent fasting has not yet been studied in children, the elderly, or underweight people, and could be harmful in these populations. The long-term sustainability of the intermittent fasting effects is currently known.

Intermittent fasting and calorie restriction diets, although promising and under active research, are currently not recommended for non-obese or non-overweight individuals by the National Institute on Aging until more clinical trials are conducted.

Other effects

Nocturnal eating has been linked to impaired sleep quality. There is no evidence that fasting can prevent or treat cancer. Athletic performance does not benefit from intermittent fasting.

Weight loss is associated with cognitive performance improvements in overweight and obese individuals, and general health improvement.

Adverse effects

Reviews of preliminary clinical studies and randomized clinical trials found that short-term intermittent fasting may produce minor adverse effects, such as continuous feelings of weakness and hunger, headaches, fainting, or dehydration. However, the data remain sparse, as most studies did not systematically collect data about adverse effects.

Long-term, periodic fasting may cause eating disorders or malnutrition, with increased susceptibility to infectious diseases.

Tolerance

Tolerance of the diet is a highly important criterion for the effectiveness and maintenance of the benefices such as weight loss or biomarkers improvement, since adherence to a diet is the best predictor of its success. A 2019 systematic review observed between 2% to 38% drop-out rates between various trials of intermittent fasting, and 0% to 50% for calorie restriction diet.

See also

References

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