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{{Short description|Fluorosurfactant and persistent organic pollutant}}
{{chembox {{chembox
| Verifiedfields = changed | Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 400844688 | verifiedrevid = 444044854
| Name = Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid | Name = Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid
| ImageFile = Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid structure.svg | ImageFile = Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid.svg
| ImageSize = 210px | ImageSize = 210px
| ImageFile1 = PFOS-anion-3D-vdW.png | ImageFile1 = Perfluorooctanesulfonic-acid-3D-spacefill.png
| ImageSize1 = 230px | ImageSize1 = 230px
| ImageAlt1 = PFOS molecule
| ImageName =
| PIN = 1,1,2,2,3,3,4,4,5,5,6,6,7,7,8,8,8-Heptadecafluorooctane-1-sulfonic acid
| OtherNames = PFOS
| OtherNames = PFOS
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 67068 | ChemSpiderID = 67068
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|changed|kegg}} | KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = C18142 | KEGG = C18142
| InChI = 1/C8HF17O3S/c9-1(10,3(13,14)5(17,18)7(21,22)23)2(11,12)4(15,16)6(19,20)8(24,25)29(26,27)28/h(H,26,27,28) | InChI = 1/C8HF17O3S/c9-1(10,3(13,14)5(17,18)7(21,22)23)2(11,12)4(15,16)6(19,20)8(24,25)29(26,27)28/h(H,26,27,28)
Line 20: Line 22:
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}} | StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = YFSUTJLHUFNCNZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N | StdInChIKey = YFSUTJLHUFNCNZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}
| CASNo = 1763-23-1 | CASNo = 1763-23-1
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| PubChem = 74483
| ChEBI = 39421 | UNII = 9H2MAI21CL
| PubChem = 74483
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 39421
| SMILES = FC(F)(C(F)(F)S(=O)(=O)O)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)F | SMILES = FC(F)(C(F)(F)S(=O)(=O)O)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)C(F)(F)F
| EINECS = 217-179-8 | EINECS = 217-179-8
}} }}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |Section2={{Chembox Properties
| Formula = C<sub>8</sub>HF<sub>17</sub>O<sub>3</sub>S | Formula = C<sub>8</sub>HF<sub>17</sub>O<sub>3</sub>S
| MolarMass = 500.13 g/mol | MolarMass = 500.13 g/mol
| Density = | Density =
| Solvent = | Solvent =
| SolubleOther = | SolubleOther =
| MeltingPt = | MeltingPt =
| BoilingPt = 133 °C at 6 torr | BoilingPtC = 133
| pKa = <<0<ref name=Cheng2009>{{cite journal | BoilingPt_notes = at 6 torr
| pKa = <<0<ref name=Cheng2009>{{cite journal
|author=Cheng J, Psillakis E, Hoffmann MR, Colussi AJ |vauthors=Cheng J, Psillakis E, Hoffmann MR, Colussi AJ | title =Acid dissociation versus molecular association of perfluoroalkyl oxoacids: Environmental implications
| journal =J. Phys. Chem. A
|title=Acid dissociation versus molecular association of perfluoroalkyl oxoacids: Environmental implications
| volume =113 |issue=29 |pages=8152–8156 |date=July 2009
|journal=J. Phys. Chem. A
| doi =10.1021/jp9051352 |pmid=19569653| url =https://authors.library.caltech.edu/15048/2/jp9051352_si_001.pdf
|volume=113 |issue=29 |pages=8152–8156 |year=2009 |month=July
| bibcode =2009JPCA..113.8152C
|doi=10.1021/jp9051352 |pmid=19569653}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2010>{{cite journal
}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2010>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K, Friesen KJ
|title=Extending the semi-empirical PM6 method for carbon oxyacid pKa prediction to sulfonic acids: Application towards congener-specific estimates for the environmentally and toxicologically relevant C1 through C8 perfluoroalkyl derivatives |vauthors=Rayne S, Forest K, Friesen KJ | title =Extending the semi-empirical PM6 method for carbon oxyacid pKa prediction to sulfonic acids: Application towards congener-specific estimates for the environmentally and toxicologically relevant C1 through C8 perfluoroalkyl derivatives
|journal=Nature Precedings | journal =Nature Precedings
|year=2009 |doi=10101/npre.2009.2922.1}}</ref> | year =2009
| pages =1
}}
| hdl = 10101/npre.2009.2922.1
| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
| doi=10.1038/npre.2009.3011| doi-access =free}}</ref>
| EUIndex = 607-624-00-8
}}
| EUClass = Toxic ('''T''')<br/>Dangerous for the environment ('''N''')
|Section7={{Chembox Hazards
| RPhrases = {{R61}}, {{R20/22}}, {{R40}}, {{R48/25}}, {{R64}}, {{R51/53}}
| MainHazards = Toxic, persistent environmental pollutant
| SPhrases = {{S53}}, {{S45}}, {{S61}}
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS06}}{{GHS08}}{{GHS09}}
}}
| GHSSignalWord=Danger
| Section8 = {{Chembox Related
| Function = compounds | NFPA-H = 3
| NFPA-F = 0
| OtherFunctn = ] (PFOA), ] (PFBS), ] (PFOSA), ] (PFNA)
| NFPA-R = 0
}}
}}
|Section8={{Chembox Pharmacology
| Legal_status = Restricted internationally under ]
| Legal_US = Illegal in California and Maine<ref></ref>
}}
|Section9={{Chembox Related
| OtherFunction_label = compounds
| OtherFunction = ] (PFOA), ] (PFBS), ] (PFOSA), ] (PFNA)
}}
}} }}


'''Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid''' ('''PFOS'''), or '''perfluorooctane sulfonate''', is a man-made ] and global ]. It was added to Annex B of the ] in May 2009.<ref name="PR09May">{{Cite book | title = Governments unite to step-up reduction on global DDT reliance and add nine new chemicals under international treaty | url = http://chm.pops.int/Convention/Pressrelease/COP4Geneva8May2009/tabid/542/language/en-US/Default.aspx | publisher = Stockholm Convention Secretariat | location = Geneva | date = 8 May 2008}}</ref> PFOS can form from the degradation of precursors in addition to industrial production. The PFOS levels that have been detected in wildlife are considered high enough to affect health parameters. '''Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid''' ('''PFOS''') (] '''perfluorooctanesulfonate''') is a ] having an eight-] ] chain and a ] ], and thus it is a ] and a ] (PFAS). It is an ] (man-made) ], now regarded as a global ]. PFOS was the key ingredient in ], a fabric protector made by ], and related stain repellents. The acronym "PFOS" refers to the parent sulfonic acid and to various ] of perfluorooctanesulfonate. These are all colorless or white, water-soluble solids. Although of low acute toxicity, PFOS has attracted much attention for its pervasiveness and environmental impact. It was added to Annex B of the ] in May 2009.<ref name="PR09May">{{Cite book | title = Governments unite to step-up reduction on global DDT reliance and add nine new chemicals under international treaty | url = http://chm.pops.int/Convention/Pressrelease/COP4Geneva8May2009/tabid/542/language/en-US/Default.aspx | publisher = Stockholm Convention Secretariat | location = Geneva | date = 8 May 2009}}</ref>


==History== ==History==
In 1949, ] began producing PFOS-based compounds by ] resulting in the synthetic precursor perfluorooctane sulfonyl fluoride.<ref name=Paul>{{cite journal In 1949, ] began producing PFOS-based compounds by ].<ref name=Paul>{{cite journal
|title=A first global production, emission, and environmental inventory for perfluorooctane sulfonate | title =A first global production, emission, and environmental inventory for perfluorooctane sulfonate
|journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. | journal =Environ. Sci. Technol.
|volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=386–92 |month=January | year=2009 | volume =43 |issue=2 |pages=386–92 |date=January 2009
|pmid=19238969 |doi=10.1021/es802216n | pmid =19238969 |doi=10.1021/es802216n
|author=Paul AG, Jones KC, Sweetman AJ}}</ref> In 1968, ] content was detected in the ] of consumers, and in 1976 it was suggested to be ] or a related compound such as PFOS.<ref name=Kennedy2004>{{cite journal |vauthors=Paul AG, Jones KC, Sweetman AJ | bibcode =2009EnST...43..386P
}}</ref> In 1968, ] compounds were detected in the ] of consumers, and in 1976, ] (PFOA) or a related compound such as PFOS were suggested as components.<ref name=Kennedy2004>{{cite journal
|author=Kennedy GL, Butenhoff JL, Olsen GW, ''et al.'' |vauthors=Kennedy GL, Butenhoff JL, Olsen GW, etal | s2cid =8873920
|title=The toxicology of perfluorooctanoate | title =The toxicology of perfluorooctanoate
|journal=Crit. Rev. Toxicol. | journal =Crit. Rev. Toxicol.
|volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=351–84 |year=2004 | volume =34 |issue=4 |pages=351–84 |year=2004
|pmid=15328768 |doi=10.1080/10408440490464705}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | pmid =15328768 |doi=10.1080/10408440490464705}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
|author=Giesy JP, Kannan K |vauthors=Giesy JP, Kannan K | title =Perfluorochemical surfactants in the environment
| journal =Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=146A–152A |date=April 2002
|title=Perfluorochemical surfactants in the environment
| pmid =11999053 |doi=10.1021/es022253t |doi-access=free | bibcode=2002EnST...36..146G }}</ref><ref name=Lau04>{{cite journal
|journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=146A–152A |year=2002 |month=April
|vauthors=Lau C, Butenhoff JL, Rogers JM | title =The developmental toxicity of perfluoroalkyl acids and their derivatives
|pmid=11999053 |doi=10.1021/es022253t |url=}}</ref><ref name=Lau04>{{cite journal
| journal =Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
|author=Lau C, Butenhoff JL, Rogers JM
| volume =198 |issue=2 |pages=231–41 |date=July 2004
|title=The developmental toxicity of perfluoroalkyl acids and their derivatives
| pmid =15236955 |doi=10.1016/j.taap.2003.11.031 | bibcode =2004ToxAP.198..231L
|journal=Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1259371}}</ref> In 1997, 3M detected PFOS in blood from global blood banks,<ref>{{cite web
|volume=198 |issue=2 |pages=231–41 |year=2004 |month=July
|url = http://www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/scotchgard/1.asp
|pmid=15236955 |doi=10.1016/j.taap.2003.11.031 |url=}}</ref> In 1997, 3M detected PFOS in blood from global blood banks.<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Inside Story: 3M and Scotchgard
|url=http://www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/scotchgard/1.asp
|publisher = Environmental Working Group
|title=The Inside Story: 3M and Scotchgard
|access-date = 29 May 2009
|format= |publisher=Environmental Working Group
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090425144324/http://www.chemicalindustryarchives.org/dirtysecrets/scotchgard/1.asp
|accessdate=29 May 2009}}</ref> In 1999, the ] began investigating ] after receiving data on the global distribution and toxicity of PFOS, the key ingredient in ].<ref>Aziz Ullah. Cleaning & Restoration. www.ascr.org, (October, 2006). Accessed October 25, 2008.</ref> For these reasons, and USEPA pressure,<ref>{{cite news
|archive-date = 25 April 2009
|first=Jennifer 8. |last=Lee |authorlink=Jennifer 8. Lee
|url-status = dead
|title=E.P.A. Orders Companies to Examine Effects of Chemicals
|df = dmy-all
|work=The New York Times |date=15 April 2003 |accessdate=15 May 2009
}}</ref> although the company's internal documents indicate knowledge of this decades earlier, dating from the 1970s.<ref name="Fellner">{{cite news |last1=Fellner |first1=Carrie |title=Toxic Secrets: Professor 'bragged about burying bad science' on 3M chemicals |url=https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/health-and-wellness/toxic-secrets-professor-bragged-about-burying-bad-science-on-3m-chemicals-20180615-p4zlsc.html |access-date=25 June 2018 |work=] |date=16 June 2018}}</ref> In 1999, the ] began investigating ] after receiving data on the global distribution and toxicity of PFOS, the key ingredient in ].<ref>{{cite web |first1=Aziz |last1=Ullah |url=https://www.restorationindustry.org/buyersguide/FlurochemicalsOct06.pdf |title=The Fluorochemical Dilemma: What the PFOS/PFOA fuss is all about |publisher=Cleaning & Restoration |date=October 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305133928/https://www.restorationindustry.org/buyersguide/FlurochemicalsOct06.pdf |archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> For these reasons, and USEPA pressure,<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/15/science/epa-orders-companies-to-examine-effects-of-chemicals.html?pagewanted=2}}</ref> the primary American producer of PFOS, ], announced, in May 2000, the phaseout of the production of PFOS, ], and PFOS-related products.<ref name="3M08">3M: Accessed October 25, 2008.</ref> PFOS and PFOS-related chemicals are currently produced in ].
| first =Jennifer 8. |last=Lee |author-link=Jennifer 8. Lee
| title =E.P.A. Orders Companies to Examine Effects of Chemicals
| work =The New York Times |date=15 April 2003 |access-date=15 May 2009
| url =https://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/15/science/epa-orders-companies-to-examine-effects-of-chemicals.html?pagewanted=2}}</ref> the primary American producer of PFOS, ], announced, in May 2000, the phaseout of the production of PFOS, PFOA, and PFOS-related products.<ref name="3M08">3M: {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922004724/http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/PFOS/PFOA/Information/Action/ |date=2008-09-22 }} Accessed October 25, 2008.</ref><ref name="Fellner" /> Most other manufacturers (particularly, those in Europe) phased out the production of PFOS and ] (PFOA) in 2000 and 2006, respectively. A shorter-chain PFOS (], PFHxS), was included in Annex A to the Stockholm Convention in 2022.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Richterová |first1=D. |last2=Govarts |first2=E. |last3=Fábelová |first3=L. |last4=Rausová |first4=K. |last5=Rodriguez Martin |first5=L. |last6=Gilles |first6=L. |last7=Remy |first7=S. |last8=Colles |first8=A. |last9=Rambaud |first9=L. |last10=Riou |first10=M. |last11=Gabriel |first11=C. |last12=Sarigiannis |first12=D. |last13=Pedraza-Diaz |first13=S. |last14=Ramos |first14=J.J. |last15=Kosjek |first15=T. |date=2023 |title=PFAS levels and determinants of variability in exposure in European teenagers – Results from the HBM4EU aligned studies (2014–2021) |journal=International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health |language=en |volume=247 |pages=114057 |doi=10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114057 |pmc=9758614 |pmid=36327670|bibcode=2023IJHEH.24714057R }}</ref>


Currently, most of PFOS and PFOS-related chemicals are produced in China.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.09.021|title=A review of sources, multimedia distribution and health risks of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in China|year=2015|last1=Wang|first1=Tieyu|last2=Wang|first2=Pei|last3=Meng|first3=Jing|last4=Liu|first4=Shijie|last5=Lu|first5=Yonglong|last6=Khim|first6=Jong Seong|last7=Giesy|first7=John P.|journal=Chemosphere|volume=129|pages=87–99|pmid=25262946|bibcode=2015Chmsp.129...87W|url=http://ir.rcees.ac.cn/handle/311016/32241}}</ref>
Advances in ] in recent years have allowed the routine detection of low- and sub-] levels of PFOS in food, wildlife, and humans.


==Synthesis== ==Chemistry==
{{more citations needed|date=February 2022}}
The synthesis of PFOS uses ] (POSF) as feedstock.
The main method used for the industrial scale production of PFOS is ] (ECF).<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.pops.int/Portals/0/download.aspx?d=UNEP-POPS-POPRC.2-17-Add.5.English.pdf|title=Risk profile on perfluorooctane sulfonate|publisher=POPs Review Committee|year=2006}}</ref> ECF is an electrolysis method whereby the precursor of ] is electrolyzed in a solution of hydrogen fluoride to give ]. This production method also results in shorter chain perfluoroalkyl substances being formed.{{cn|date=July 2024}} PFOS predominates in the resultant mixture. A distinct isomer ratio has been observed in PFOS produced by ECF, in the order of 70% linear PFOS, 25% branched and 5% terminal; this is not a function of the production process but rather that the precursor also exhibits this isomer ratio. ECF was the means by which 3M produced PFOS up until May 2000 when the company announced a phaseout of ]s.

Although 89 ] of PFOS are possible,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rayne |first=Sierra |last2=Forest |first2=Kaya |last3=Friesen |first3=Ken J. |date=2008 |title=Congener-specific numbering systems for the environmentally relevant C<sub>4</sub> through C<sub>8</sub> perfluorinated homologue groups of alkyl sulfonates, carboxylates, telomer alcohols, olefins, and acids, and their derivatives |journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A |language=en |volume=43 |issue=12 |pages=1391–1401 |doi=10.1080/10934520802232030}}</ref> environmental samples usually consist of a mixture of the linear isomer and 10 branched isomers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Buck|first1=Robert C|last2=Franklin|first2=James|last3=Berger|first3=Urs|last4=Conder|first4=Jason M|last5=Cousins|first5=Ian T|last6=de Voogt|first6=Pim|last7=Jensen|first7=Allan Astrup|last8=Kannan|first8=Kurunthachalam|last9=Mabury|first9=Scott A|last10=van Leeuwen|first10=Stefan PJ|date=2011|title=Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment: Terminology, Classification, and Origins|journal=Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management|volume=7|issue=4|pages=513–541|doi=10.1002/ieam.258|pmc=3214619|pmid=21793199|bibcode=2011IEAM....7..513B }}</ref>

Telomerisation involves constructing the PFOS molecule using short chain (often 2-carbon) precursors and adding a sulfonate group as a final step. This production process results in 100% linear PFOS. This production method, whilst cleaner and resulting in a much purer product than ECF, is not known to have been widely used except for the production of reagent grade PFOS and analytical standards.{{cn|date=August 2024}}

===Indirect routes===
Perfluorooctylsulfonyl compounds degrade to PFOS.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.oecd.org/officialdocuments/publicdisplaydocumentpdf/?doclanguage=en&cote=env/jm/mono%282006%2915|title=Lists of PFOS, PFAS, PFCA, related compounds and chemicals that may degrade to PFCA|date=August 2007|publisher=OECD|section=Annex 1: Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and related compounds}}</ref> Examples include {{ill|N-Methylperfluoroctansulfonamidoethanol|lt=''N''-methyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol|de}} (''N''-MeFOSE), a ] stain repellent, and {{ill|N-Ethylperfluoroctansulfonamidoethanol|lt=''N''-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol|de}} (''N''-EtFOSE), a ] treatment.<ref>{{cite journal
| author =Renner R
| title =Perfluorinated sources outside and inside
| journal =Environ. Sci. Technol.
| volume =38 |issue=5 |pages=80A |date=March 2004
| pmid =15046317 |doi=10.1021/es040387w| bibcode =2004EnST...38...80R
| doi-access =free}}</ref> Also ] is a precursor.<ref name=Leh>{{cite journal
| last =Lehmler |first=HJ
| title =Synthesis of environmentally relevant fluorinated surfactants—a review
| journal =Chemosphere |volume=58 |issue=11 |pages=1471–96 |date=March 2005
| doi =10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.11.078 |pmid=15694468 |bibcode=2005Chmsp..58.1471L
}}</ref> About 50 precursors were named in the 2004 proposed ] ban on PFOS.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pelley J |title=Canada moves to eliminate PFOS stain repellents |journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=38 |issue=23 |pages=452A |date=December 2004 |pmid=15597866 |doi=10.1021/es040676k|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Degradation===
PFOS virtually does not degrade under environmental conditions and is thus highly persistent. ]s are also unable to degrade PFOS.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.cej.2017.10.153|title=Advanced Oxidation/Reduction Processes treatment for aqueous perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) – A review of recent advances|year=2018|last1=Trojanowicz|first1=Marek|last2=Bojanowska-Czajka|first2=Anna|last3=Bartosiewicz|first3=Iwona|last4=Kulisa|first4=Krzysztof|journal=Chemical Engineering Journal|volume=336|pages=170–199|bibcode=2018ChEnJ.336..170T }}</ref> On the other hand, precursors are transformed to PFOS in waste water treatment plants.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Eriksson|first1=Ulrika|last2=Haglund|first2=Peter|last3=Kärrman|first3=Anna|date=2017|title=Contribution of precursor compounds to the release of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from waste water treatment plants (WWTPs)|journal=Journal of Environmental Sciences (China)|volume=61|pages=80–90|doi=10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.004|pmid=29191318|bibcode=2017JEnvS..61...80E }}</ref>


==Properties== ==Properties==
The C<sub>8</sub>F<sub>17</sub> subunit of PFOS is ] and ], like other ], while the ]/] group adds polarity. PFOS is an exceptionally stable compound in industrial applications and in the environment because of the effect of aggregate ]s. PFOS is a ] that lowers the ] of water more than that of ] ]s. Although attention is typically focused on the straight-chain isomer (n-PFOS), which is dominant in commercial mixtures and environmental samples, there are 89 linear and branched congeners that are expected to have different physical, chemical, and toxicological properties.<ref name=Rayne2008>{{cite journal The C<sub>8</sub>F<sub>17</sub> subunit of PFOS is ] and ], like other ], while the ]/] group adds polarity. PFOS is an exceptionally stable compound in industrial applications and in the environment because of the effect of aggregate ]s. PFOS is a ] that lowers the ] of water more than that of ] ]s.
|author=Rayne S, Forest K, Friesen KJ
|title=Congener-specific numbering systems for the environmentally relevant C1 through C8 perfluorinated homologue groups of alkyl sulfonates, carboxylates, telomer alcohols, olefins, and acids, and their derivatives
|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A: Toxic / Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering
|volume=43 |pages=1391–1401 |year=2008
|doi=10.1080/10934520802232030
|issue=12}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2009>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K, Friesen KJ
|title=Estimated bioconcentration factors (BCFs) for the C1 through C8 perfluorinated alkylsulfonic acid (PFSA) and alkylcarboxylic acid (PFCA) congeners
|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A: Toxic / Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering
|volume=44 |pages=598–604
|year=2009 |doi=10.1080/10934520902784641
|issue=6}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2009b>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K, Friesen KJ
|title=Linear free energy relationship based estimates for the congener specific relative reductive defluorination rates of perfluorinated alkyl compounds
|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A: Toxic / Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering
|volume=44 |pages=866–879
|year=2009 |doi=10.1080/10934520902958625
|issue=9}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2009c>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K, Friesen KJ
|title=Estimated congener specific gas phase atmospheric behavior and fractionation of perfluoroalkyl compounds: Rates of reaction with atmospheric oxidants, air-water partitioning, and wet/dry deposition lifetimes
|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A: Toxic / Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering
|volume=44 |pages=936–954
|year=2009 |doi=10.1080/10934520902996815
|issue=10}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2009d>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K
|title=Perfluoroalkyl sulfonic and carboxylic acids: A critical review of physicochemical properties, levels and patterns in waters and waste waters, and treatment methods
|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A: Toxic / Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering
|volume=44 |pages=1145–1199
|year=2009 |doi=10.1080/10934520903139811
|issue=12}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2009e>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K
|title=Congener specific organic carbon normalized soil and sediment-water partitioning coefficients for the C1 through C8 perfluoroalkyl carboxylic and sulfonic acids
|journal=Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A: Toxic / Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering
|volume=44 |pages=1374–1387
|year=2009 |doi=10.1080/10934520903217229
|issue=13}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2009f>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K
|title=An assessment of organic solvent based equilibrium partitioning methods for predicting the bioconcentration behavior of perfluorinated sulfonic acids, carboxylic acids, and sulfonamides
|journal=Nature Precedings
|year=2009 |doi=10101/npre.2009.3256.1}}</ref><ref name=Rayne2009f>{{cite journal
|author=Rayne S, Forest K
|title=A comparative assessment of octanol-water partitioning and distribution constant estimation methods for perfluoroalkyl carboxylates and sulfonates
|journal=Nature Precedings
|year=2009 |doi=10101/npre.2009.3282.2}}</ref>


==Uses== ==Uses==
Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid is usually used as the sodium or potassium ]. Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid is usually used as the sodium or potassium ].


*PFOS was the key ingredient in ], a fabric protector made by ], and numerous stain repellents. * PFOS was the key ingredient in ], a fabric protector made by ], and numerous stain repellents.
*PFOS, together with ], has also been used to make ''aqueous film forming foam'' (AFFF), a component of ], and ]s. * PFOS, together with ], has also been used to make '']'' (AFFF), a component of ], and ]s.
*PFOS compounds can be also found in some impregnation agents for textiles, paper, and leather; in wax, polishes, paints, varnishes, and cleaning products for general use; in metal surfaces, and carpets. * PFOS compounds can also be found in some impregnation agents for textiles, paper, and leather; in wax, polishes, paints, varnishes, and cleaning products for general use; in metal surfaces, and carpets.
*In the ] industry, PFOS is used in multiple ] chemicals including: photoacid generators (PAGs) and anti-reflective coatings (ARCs). It has been phased out in the European Union semiconductor industry due to health concerns. * In the ] industry, PFOS is used in multiple ] chemicals including: photoacid generators (PAGs) and anti-reflective coatings (ARCs). It has been phased out in the European Union semiconductor industry due to health concerns.
*In ], a ] used in ]. * PFOS is the key ingredient in ], a fire-resistant ] used in ].


The most important emission sources of PFOS are metal plating and fire-fighting foams.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=Substance flow analysis for Switzerland |url=https://www.bafu.admin.ch/uw-0922-e |publisher=]}}</ref> Because of concerns about PFOS, ] has been used as a replacement for mist suppression in metal plating.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Renjun |last2=Liu |first2=Shuyu |last3=Liang |first3=Xiaoxing |last4=Yin |first4=Nuoya |last5=Ruan |first5=Ting |last6=Jiang |first6=Linshu |last7=Faiola |first7=Francesco |title=F–53B and PFOS treatments skew human embryonic stem cell in vitro cardiac differentiation towards epicardial cells by partly disrupting the WNT signaling pathway |journal=Environmental Pollution |date=June 2020 |volume=261 |pages=114153 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114153 |pmid=32088431 |bibcode=2020EPoll.26114153Y |s2cid=211260717 | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32088431/ |access-date=20 December 2022}}</ref>
The most important emission sources of PFOS are metal plating and fire-fighting foams.<ref>http://www.environment-switzerland.ch/uw-0922-e</ref>


==Levels in humans==
==Threat to people and wildlife==
Because of its chemical nature, PFOS will remain in the body for several years. It is estimated that it takes 4 years for half of this substance to be eliminated from the body.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ATSDR Public Health Statement Perfluoroalkyls |url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp200-c1-b.pdf}}</ref>
According to a study by the Environmental Directorate of the OECD ''"PFOS is persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic to mammalian species."''<ref name="OECD02">{{Cite journal |author=OECD |title=Hazard Assessment of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and its Salt |journal=ENV/JM/RD(2002)17/FINAL (page 5) |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2002 |month= |pmid= |pmc= |doi= |url=}}</ref>


PFOS is detected in the ] of almost all people in the U.S., but concentrations have been decreasing over time. In contrast, PFOS blood levels appear to be rising in China<ref>{{cite journal |last=Renner |first=Rebecca |title=PFOS phaseout pays off |journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=42 |issue=13 |pages=4618 |year=2008 |doi=10.1021/es0871614 |pmid=18677976 |bibcode=2008EnST...42.4618R |doi-access=free}}</ref> where PFOS production continues. A study of ca. 2000 teenagers from 9 European countries with most samples collected in years 2016-2018 found higher blood concentrations of several PFOS’s in those, who consumed more seafood, eggs or ], as well as in those from North and West (versus the South and East) Europe. Within the same country, boys had a higher PFOS concentrations than girls. A typical PFOS blood concentration range in this study was 1,500-2,500 ].
It has been shown to affect the ] of male mice at a ] concentration of ~90 ], raising the possibility that highly exposed people and wildlife are ].<ref name="pmid18629339">{{cite journal |author=Betts KS |title=Not immune to PFOS effects? |journal=] |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=A290 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18629339 |pmc=2453185 |doi=10.1289/ehp.116-a290a }}</ref> Chicken eggs dosed at 1 milligram per kilogram (or 1000 parts per billion) of egg weight developed into juvenile chickens with an average of ~150 parts per billion in blood serum&mdash;and showed effects such as brain asymmetry and decreased ] levels.<ref>{{cite pmid|19071210}}</ref> Occupationally exposed individuals have an average level of PFOS over 1000 parts per billion, and a small segment of individuals in the upper range of the general population are also over the 91.5 parts per billion level.<ref name="pmid18629339"/> A variety of ] species have had PFOS levels measured in ], ], ], ], and ] samples and some of the highest recorded values as of January 2006 are listed below.<ref name=hou>{{cite journal |author=Houde M, Martin JW, Letcher RJ, Solomon KR, Muir DC |title=Biological monitoring of polyfluoroalkyl substances: A review |journal=] |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=3463–73 |year=2006 |month=June |pmid=16786681 |doi=10.1021/es052580b}} (PDF).</ref>
<ref>PFAS levels and determinants of variability in exposure in European teenagers – Results from the HBM4EU aligned studies (2014–2021). 2023. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 247/. D. Richterová, E. Govarts, L. Fábelová, K. Rausová, L. Rodriguez Martin, L. Gilles, et al. doi: 10.1016/j.ijheh.2022.114057.</ref>

Much higher levels of blood PFOS (12,830 ]) have been reported in people with occupational exposure <ref>{{cite journal
|vauthors=Fromme H, Tittlemier SA, Völkel W, Wilhelm M, Twardella D | title =Perfluorinated compounds&mdash;exposure assessment for the general population in Western countries
| journal =Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health
| volume =212
| issue =3
| pages =239–70
| date =May 2009
| pmid =18565792
| doi =10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.04.007
| bibcode =2009IJHEH.212..239F
}}</ref>&mdash;or possibly 1,656 parts per billion<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olsen |first1=Geary W |last2=Church |first2=Timothy R |last3=Miller |first3=John P |last4=Burris |first4=Jean M |last5=Hansen |first5=Kristen J |last6=Lundberg |first6=James K |last7=Armitage |first7=John B |last8=Herron |first8=Ross M |last9=Medhdizadehkashi |first9=Zahra |last10=Nobiletti |first10=John B |last11=O'Neill |first11=E Mary |last12=Mandel |first12=Jeffrey H |last13=Zobel |first13=Larry R |title=Perfluorooctanesulfonate and other fluorochemicals in the serum of American Red Cross adult blood donors. |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=December 2003 |volume=111 |issue=16 |pages=1892–1901 |doi=10.1289/ehp.6316 |pmid=14644663 |pmc=1241763 }}</ref>&mdash;in a consumer. Occupationally exposed individuals may have an average level of PFOS over 1000 parts per billion, and a small segment of individuals in the upper range of the general population may be over the 91.5 parts per billion level.<ref name="pmid18629339">{{cite journal |author=Betts KS |date=July 2008 |title=Not immune to PFOS effects? |journal=] |volume=116 |issue=7 |pages=A290 |doi=10.1289/ehp.116-a290a |pmc=2453185 |pmid=18629339}}</ref>

PFOS exposure has been demonstrated as early as fetal development during pregnancy since PFOS can easily pass through the ].<ref name="Sunderland 131–147">{{Cite journal |last1=Sunderland |first1=Elsie M. |last2=Hu |first2=Xindi C. |last3=Dassuncao |first3=Clifton |last4=Tokranov |first4=Andrea K. |last5=Wagner |first5=Charlotte C. |last6=Allen |first6=Joseph G. |date=March 2019 |title=A review of the pathways of human exposure to poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and present understanding of health effects |journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=131–147 |doi=10.1038/s41370-018-0094-1 |issn=1559-064X |pmc=6380916 |pmid=30470793}}</ref> It has been shown that fetal exposure to PFOS is quite prevalent and has been shown to be detected in greater than 99% of ] serum samples.<ref name="Tarapore 3794">{{Cite journal |last1=Tarapore |first1=Pheruza |last2=Ouyang |first2=Bin |date=2021-04-05 |title=Perfluoroalkyl Chemicals and Male Reproductive Health: Do PFOA and PFOS Increase Risk for Male Infertility? |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=3794 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18073794 |issn=1661-7827 |pmc=8038605 |pmid=33916482|doi-access=free }}</ref>

PFOS has been detected in U.S. ],<ref>{{cite news |last1=LaMotte |first1=Sandee |title=Locally caught fish are full of dangerous chemicals called PFAS, study finds |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/01/17/health/freshwater-fish-pfas-contamination-wellness/index.html |access-date=15 February 2023 |work=CNN |date=17 January 2023 |language=en |archive-date=14 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230214213701/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/01/17/health/freshwater-fish-pfas-contamination-wellness/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barbo |first1=Nadia |last2=Stoiber |first2=Tasha |last3=Naidenko |first3=Olga V. |last4=Andrews |first4=David Q. |title=Locally caught freshwater fish across the United States are likely a significant source of exposure to PFOS and other perfluorinated compounds |journal=Environmental Research |date=1 March 2023 |volume=220 |pages=115165 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2022.115165 |pmid=36584847 |bibcode=2023ER....22015165B |s2cid=255248441 |language=en |issn=0013-9351|doi-access=free }}</ref> as well as in municipal wastewater<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arvaniti |first1=Olga S. |last2=Stasinakis |first2=Athanasios S. |title=Review on the occurrence, fate and removal of perfluorinated compounds during wastewater treatment |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=15 August 2015 |volume=524–525 |pages=81–92 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.04.023 |pmid=25889547 |bibcode=2015ScTEn.524...81A }}</ref> and drinking water samples,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/dwucmr/third-unregulated-contaminant-monitoring-rule|title=Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule|first=OW|last=US EPA|date=September 1, 2015|website=US EPA}}</ref> worldwide, at concentrations ranging between few ng/L and some μg/L.

==Levels in wildlife==
A variety of ] species have had PFOS levels measured in ], ], ], ], and ] samples and some of the highest recorded values as of January 2006 are listed below.<ref name=hou>{{cite journal |vauthors=Houde M, Martin JW, Letcher RJ, Solomon KR, Muir DC |title=Biological monitoring of polyfluoroalkyl substances: A review |journal=] |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=3463–73 |date=June 2006 |pmid=16786681 |doi=10.1021/es052580b|bibcode=2006EnST...40.3463H }} (PDF).</ref>


{| class="wikitable" {| class="wikitable"
!width="130"|Species !Species
!width="200"|Geography !Geography
!width="80"|Year !Year
!width="80"|Sample !Sample
!width="90"|PFOS (])<!--page # in Supporting Information--> !PFOS (])<!--page # in Supporting Information-->
|- |-
|] || Midwestern ] || 1990&ndash;93 || plasma || 2,200<!-- p. 21--> | ] || Midwestern United States || 1990–93 || plasma || 2,200<!-- p. 21-->
|- |-
|] || ], USA || 1997 || liver || 970<!--p. 19--> | ] || ], US || 1997 || liver || 970<!--p. 19-->
|- |-
|] || ] || 1997 || egg || 614<!--p. 18--> | ] || ], Sweden || 1997 || egg || 614<!--p. 18-->
|- |-
|] || ], ] || 2000 || liver || 464<!-- p. 22--> | ] || ], Japan || 2000 || liver || 464<!-- p. 22-->
|- |-
|] || ], USA || 1998 || liver || 861<!--p. 21--> | ] || ], US || 1998 || liver || 861<!--p. 21-->
|- |-
|] || ], ] || 2002 || liver || 3,100<!--p. 24--> | ] || ], ], Canada || 2002 || liver || 3,100<!--p. 24-->
|- |-
|] || Dutch Wadden Sea, ] || 2002 || muscle || 2,725<!--p. 28--> | ] || ], the Netherlands || 2002 || muscle || 2,725<!--p. 28-->
|- |-
|] || ], USA || 2003 || plasma || 1,315<!--p. 32--> | ] || ], US || 2003 || plasma || 1,315<!--p. 32-->
|- |-
|] || ], ] || 1998 || liver || 940<!--p. 32--> | ] || ], Italy || 1998 || liver || 940<!--p. 32-->
|- |-
|] || ], USA || 2000&ndash;01 || liver || 59,500<!--p. 34--> | ] || ], US || 2000–01 || liver || 59,500<!--p. 34-->
|-
| ] || ], Canada || 2001 || liver || 72,900<!--p. 7-->
|-
|] ||near ], ], Belgium ||2007 ||liver ||553–11,359<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dauwe |first1=Tom |last2=Van de Vijver |first2=Kristin |last3=De Coen |first3=Wim |last4=Eens |first4=Marcel |date=April 2007 |title=PFOS levels in the blood and liver of a small insectivorous songbird near a fluorochemical plant |journal=Environment International |volume=33 |issue=3 |pages=357–361 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2006.11.014 |pmid=17188355|bibcode=2007EnInt..33..357D }}</ref>
|} |}
Despite the global wide-ranging restriction, PFOS concentrations in air continued to increase at many monitoring stations between 2009 and 2017.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saini |first1=Amandeep |last2=Chinnadurai |first2=Sita |last3=Schuster |first3=Jasmin K. |last4=Eng |first4=Anita |last5=Harner |first5=Tom |date=February 2023 |title=Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances and volatile methyl siloxanes in global air: Spatial and temporal trends |journal=Environmental Pollution |volume=323 |pages=121291 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121291|pmid=36796663 |s2cid=256881039 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023EPoll.32321291S }}</ref>


==Health effects in humans and wildlife==
The levels observed in wild animals are considered sufficient to "alter health parameters".<ref>{{cite doi|10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.11.016}}</ref><ref>Peden-Adams ''et al''. (June 2008). In (PDF). p. 28.</ref> In people, the highest exposures to PFOS in blood are 12,830 parts per billion for occupational exposure and 656 parts per billion<ref>{{cite journal
There is a growing body of research investigating the health effects of PFOS in humans and animals, including the reproductive, developmental, liver, kidney, thyroid, and immunological effects.<ref name="Blake 152565">{{Cite journal |last1=Blake |first1=Bevin E. |last2=Fenton |first2=Suzanne E. |date=October 2020 |title=Early life exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) and latent health outcomes: A review including the placenta as a target tissue and possible driver of peri- and postnatal effects |journal=Toxicology |volume=443 |pages=152565 |doi=10.1016/j.tox.2020.152565 |issn=1879-3185 |pmc=7530144 |pmid=32861749|bibcode=2020Toxgy.44352565B }}</ref> According to a 2002 report by the Environmental Directorate of the ], "PFOS is ] to mammalian species."<ref name="OECD02">{{Cite journal |author=OECD |title=Hazard Assessment of Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and its Salts |journal=ENV/JM/RD(2002)17/FINAL (Page 5) |year=2002 |url=https://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/risk-assessment/2382880.pdf |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20150916064735/https://www.oecd.org/env/ehs/risk-assessment/2382880.pdf |archive-date=September 16, 2015}}</ref>
|author=Fromme H, Tittlemier SA, Völkel W, Wilhelm M, Twardella D
|title=Perfluorinated compounds&mdash;exposure assessment for the general population in Western countries
|journal=Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health
|volume=212
|issue=3
|pages=239–70
|year=2009
|month=May
|pmid=18565792
|doi=10.1016/j.ijheh.2008.04.007
|url=
}}</ref>&mdash;or possibly 1,656 parts per billion<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Olsen GW, Church TR, Miller JP, ''et al''
|title=Perfluorooctanesulfonate and other fluorochemicals in the serum of American Red Cross adult blood donors
|journal=Environ. Health Perspect.
|volume=111 |issue=16 |pages=1892–901 |year=2003 |month=December |pmid=14644663 |pmc=1241763 |doi=10.1289/ehp.6316
|url=http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/members/2003/6316/6316.html}}</ref>&mdash;in a consumer.


=== Pregnancy outcomes ===
In animal studies PFOS also causes ], physical development delays, ], and ]; ] might be the most dramatic result of laboratory animal tests with PFOS.<ref name="Betts2007">{{cite journal |author=Betts KS |title=Perfluoroalkyl acids: what is the evidence telling us? |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume=115 |issue=5 |pages=A250–6 |year=2007 |month=May |pmid=17520044 |url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2007/115-5/focus.html |doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a250 |pmc=1867999}}</ref> Female mice with blood levels of PFOS within ranges found in wildlife and humans demonstrated higher mortality when infected with ].<ref>{{cite journal
Several studies have focused on pregnancy outcomes in infants and mothers who are exposed to PFOS during pregnancy. For developing offspring, exposure to PFOS occurs through the placenta.<ref name="Sunderland 131–147"/> While the impact of PFOS compounds on fetal development continues to be an ongoing investigation, findings have demonstrated a relationship between PFOS exposure in pregnant mothers and negative birth outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Xuping |last2=Ni |first2=Wanze |last3=Zhu |first3=Sui |last4=Wu |first4=Yanxin |last5=Cui |first5=Yunfeng |last6=Ma |first6=Junrong |last7=Liu |first7=Yanhua |last8=Qiao |first8=Jinlong |last9=Ye |first9=Yanbin |last10=Yang |first10=Pan |last11=Liu |first11=Chaoqun |date=October 2021 |title=Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances exposure during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34237336/ |journal=Environmental Research |volume=201 |pages=111632 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2021.111632 |issn=1096-0953 |pmid=34237336|bibcode=2021ER....20111632G }}</ref>
|author=Guruge KS, Hikono H, Shimada N, Murakami K, Hasegawa J, Yeung LW, Yamanaka N, Yamashita N
|title=Effect of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) on influenza A virus-induced mortality in female B6C3F1 mice
|journal=J Toxicol Sci |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=687–91
|year=2009 |month=December
|pmid=19952504 |doi= 10.2131/jts.34.687|url=http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jts/34/6/687/_pdf}}</ref> PFOS reduces the birth size of animals;<ref name="Betts2007b">{{cite journal
|author=Betts K
|title=PFOS and PFOA in humans: new study links prenatal exposure to lower birth weight
|journal=Environ Health Perspect.
|volume=115 |issue=11 |pages=A550 |year=2007 |month=November
|pmid=18007977 |pmc=2072861
|doi=10.1289/ehp.115-a550a}}</ref> in humans, correlations between PFOS levels and reduced fetal growth are inconsistent.<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Washino N, Saijo Y, Sasaki S, ''et al.''
|title=Correlations between prenatal exposure to perfluorinated chemicals and reduced fetal growth
|journal=Environ. Health Perspect.
|volume=117 |issue=4 |pages=660–7 |year=2009 |month=April
|pmid=19440508 |pmc=2679613 |doi=10.1289/ehp.11681 |url=}}</ref>


There has been some evidence to suggest that PFOS levels in pregnant women have been associated with ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stein |first1=C. R. |last2=Savitz |first2=D. A. |last3=Dougan |first3=M. |title=Serum Levels of Perfluorooctanoic Acid and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate and Pregnancy Outcome |journal=American Journal of Epidemiology |date=19 August 2009 |volume=170 |issue=7 |pages=837–846 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwp212 |pmid=19692329 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Health Effects Support Document for Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) |url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-05/documents/pfos_hesd_final_508.pdf}}</ref> Although, the strongest association is between PFOS levels with preterm birth and preeclampsia.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Xuping |last2=Ni |first2=Wanze |last3=Zhu |first3=Sui |last4=Wu |first4=Yanxin |last5=Cui |first5=Yunfeng |last6=Ma |first6=Junrong |last7=Liu |first7=Yanhua |last8=Qiao |first8=Jinlong |last9=Ye |first9=Yanbin |last10=Yang |first10=Pan |last11=Liu |first11=Chaoqun |date=October 2021 |title=Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances exposure during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34237336 |journal=Environmental Research |volume=201 |pages=111632 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2021.111632 |issn=1096-0953 |pmid=34237336|bibcode=2021ER....201k1632G }}</ref> There has been some evidence to suggest that PFOS impairs fetal growth during pregnancy, although findings have been inconsistent.<ref name=":0" />
PFOS is detected in the ] of almost all people in the U.S., where concentrations are decreasing; by contrast, blood levels of PFOS appear to be rising in ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Renner |first=Rebecca |title=PFOS phaseout pays off |journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=42 |issue=13 |pages=4618 |year=2008 |url=http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es0871614 |doi=10.1021/es0871614 |pmid=18677976 }}</ref> PFOS levels in pregnant women have been associated with ].<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Stein CR, ], Dougan M
|title=Serum levels of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate and pregnancy outcome
|journal=Am. J. Epidemiol.
|volume=170
|issue=7
|pages=837–46
|year=2009
|month=October
|pmid=19692329
|doi=10.1093/aje/kwp212
|url=
}}</ref> Levels have also been associated with altered ] values<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Dallaire R, Dewailly E, Pereg D, Dery S, Ayotte P
|title=Thyroid function and plasma concentrations of polyhalogenated compounds in Inuit adults
|journal=Environ. Health Perspect.
|volume=117
|issue=9
|pages=1380–6
|year=2009
|month=September
|pmid=19750101
|pmc=2737013
|doi=10.1289/ehp.0900633
|url=
}}</ref> and an increased risk of high ].<ref name=Steenland>{{cite journal
|author=Steenland K, Tinker S, Frisbee S, Ducatman A, Vaccarino V
|title=Association of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate with serum lipids among adults living near a chemical plant
|journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. |volume=170 |issue=10 |pages=1268–78
|year=2009 |month=November
|pmid=19846564 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwp279}}</ref><ref name=Nelson>{{cite journal
|author=Nelson JW, Hatch EE, Webster, TF |title=Exposure to Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals and Cholesterol, Body Weight, and Insulin Resistance in the General U.S. Population
|format=PDF
|journal=]
|volume= 118|issue= 2|pages= 197–202|year=2009 |month=
|pmid= 20123614|pmc= 2831917|doi=10.1289/ehp.0901165
|url=http://www.ehponline.org/members/2009/0901165/0901165.pdf}}</ref> Levels in US children aged 12&ndash;15 were associated with an increased risk (60% over the ]) of ] (ADHD).<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Hoffman K, Webster TF, Weisskopf MG, Weinberg J, Vieira VM
|title=Exposure to Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in U.S. Children Aged 12-15 Years
|journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |volume= 118|issue= 12|pages=1762–7
|year=2010 |month=
|pmid= 20551004|pmc= 3002197|doi=10.1289/ehp.1001898
|url=}}</ref>


The specific physiological mechanisms behind adverse pregnancy outcomes with PFOS exposure remain unclear. One proposed cause has to do with PFOS impairment on placental blood flow.<ref name="Blake 152565"/> This mechanism could help explain several of the pregnancy-related outcomes from PFOS exposure including such as intrauterine growth development, low birth weight, preterm birth labor, and preeclampsia. Additional physiological mechanisms may include disruption in inflammatory signals during pregnancy, decreased trophoblast signaling and trophoblast migration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Szilagyi |first1=John T. |last2=Freedman |first2=Anastasia N. |last3=Kepper |first3=Stewart L. |last4=Keshava |first4=Arjun M. |last5=Bangma |first5=Jackie T. |last6=Fry |first6=Rebecca C. |date=2020-06-01 |title=Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances Differentially Inhibit Placental Trophoblast Migration and Invasion In Vitro |journal=Toxicological Sciences|volume=175 |issue=2 |pages=210–219 |doi=10.1093/toxsci/kfaa043 |issn=1096-0929 |pmc=7253207 |pmid=32219433}}</ref> Additionally, PFOS exposure has been shown to be related to the downregulation genes corresponding to growth factors, pregnancy-related signal transducers, and maternal hormones.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xiaoheng |last2=Ye |first2=Leping |last3=Ge |first3=Yufei |last4=Yuan |first4=Kaiming |last5=Zhang |first5=Yufei |last6=Liang |first6=Yong |last7=Wei |first7=Jia |last8=Zhao |first8=Connie |last9=Lian |first9=Qing-Quan |last10=Zhu |first10=Xueqiong |last11=Ge |first11=Ren-Shan |date=March 2016 |title=In utero perfluorooctane sulfonate exposure causes low body weights of fetal rats: A mechanism study |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26992685/ |journal=Placenta |volume=39 |pages=125–133 |doi=10.1016/j.placenta.2016.01.010 |issn=1532-3102 |pmid=26992685}}</ref> PFOS impact on thyroid hormone regulation also has the potential to impact several birth outcomes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ames |first1=Jennifer L. |last2=Windham |first2=Gayle C. |last3=Lyall |first3=Kristen |last4=Pearl |first4=Michelle |last5=Kharrazi |first5=Martin |last6=Yoshida |first6=Cathleen K. |last7=Van de Water |first7=Judy |last8=Ashwood |first8=Paul |last9=Croen |first9=Lisa A. |date=March 2020 |title=Neonatal Thyroid Stimulating Hormone and Subsequent Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders and Intellectual Disability |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31823519/ |journal=Autism Research|volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=444–455 |doi=10.1002/aur.2247 |issn=1939-3806 |pmid=31823519|s2cid=209316725 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moog |first1=N.K. |last2=Entringer |first2=S. |last3=Heim |first3=C. |last4=Wadhwa |first4=P.D. |last5=Kathmann |first5=N. |last6=Buss |first6=C. |date=February 2017 |title=Influence of maternal thyroid hormones during gestation on fetal brain development |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.09.070 |journal=Neuroscience |volume=342 |pages=68–100 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.09.070 |pmid=26434624 |pmc=4819012 |issn=0306-4522}}</ref>
==Precursors==
] ] PFOS precursors include ''N''-methyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol (''N''-MeFOSE), a ] stain repellent, and ''N''-ethyl perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol (''N''-EtFOSE), a ] treatment.<ref>{{cite journal
|author=Renner R
|title=Perfluorinated sources outside and inside
|journal=Environ. Sci. Technol.
|volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=80A |year=2004 |month=March
|pmid=15046317 |doi=10.1021/es040387w}}</ref> ] is a precursor.<ref name=Leh>{{cite journal
|last=Lehmler |first=HJ
|title=Synthesis of environmentally relevant fluorinated surfactants—a review
|journal=Chemosphere |volume=58 |issue=11 |pages=1471–96 |month=March |year=2005
|doi=10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.11.078 |pmid=15694468 |pmc=2587313}}</ref> About 50 precursors were named in the 2004 proposed ] ban on PFOS.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Pelley J |title=Canada moves to eliminate PFOS stain repellents |journal=Environ. Sci. Technol. |volume=38 |issue=23 |pages=452A |year=2004 |month=December |pmid=15597866 |doi=10.1021/es040676k}}</ref>


=== Breastfeeding and lactation ===
==Regulatory Status==
PFOS has been measured in breastmilk and is estimated to contribute the greatest level of PFOS exposure in infants. Specifically, the duration of breastfeeding has been shown to be associated with increases in PFOS in infants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mogensen |first1=Ulla B. |last2=Grandjean |first2=Philippe |last3=Nielsen |first3=Flemming |last4=Weihe |first4=Pal |last5=Budtz-Jørgensen |first5=Esben |date=2015-09-01 |title=Breastfeeding as an Exposure Pathway for Perfluorinated Alkylates |journal=Environmental Science & Technology |volume=49 |issue=17 |pages=10466–10473 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.5b02237 |issn=1520-5851 |pmc=6190571 |pmid=26291735|bibcode=2015EnST...4910466M }}</ref> Some evidence has shown that breastmilk provides more than 94% of the PFOS exposure in infants up to six months old.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haug |first1=Line S. |last2=Huber |first2=Sandra |last3=Becher |first3=Georg |last4=Thomsen |first4=Cathrine |date=May 2011 |title=Characterisation of human exposure pathways to perfluorinated compounds--comparing exposure estimates with biomarkers of exposure |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21334069 |journal=Environment International |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=687–693 |doi=10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.011 |issn=1873-6750 |pmid=21334069|bibcode=2011EnInt..37..687H |hdl=10852/12717 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) concluded that breastfeeding benefits continue to outweigh potential risks associated with PFOS in breastmilk.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-11-19 |title=PFAS and Breastfeeding {{!}} ATSDR |url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/health-effects/pfas-breastfeeding.html |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=www.atsdr.cdc.gov |language=en-us}}</ref>
In May 2009 PFOS was included in Annex B of the ] by the Fourth Conference of Parties.<ref name="PR09May" /> ] has a proposed ban on PFOS, only the second chemical proposed for a complete ban under the '']''.<ref>Environmental Defence: News Release.
(April 21, 2008). Accessed October 26, 2008.</ref>


=== Thyroid disease ===
Based on an OECD study on PFOS <ref name="OECD02" /> and a risk assessment by Europe's Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks<ref name=Scher04>{{cite journal
Increased levels of PFOS have been shown to accumulate in ] gland cells and have been associated with altered ] levels in adults.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Coperchini |first1=F. |last2=Awwad |first2=O. |last3=Rotondi |first3=M. |last4=Santini |first4=F. |last5=Imbriani |first5=M. |last6=Chiovato |first6=L. |date=February 2017 |title=Thyroid disruption by perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27837466/ |journal=Journal of Endocrinological Investigation |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=105–121 |doi=10.1007/s40618-016-0572-z |issn=1720-8386 |pmid=27837466|s2cid=207503788 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dallaire |first1=Renée |last2=Dewailly |first2=Éric |last3=Pereg |first3=Daria |last4=Dery |first4=Serge |last5=Ayotte |first5=Pierre |title=Thyroid Function and Plasma Concentrations of Polyhalogenated Compounds in Inuit Adults |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=September 2009 |volume=117 |issue=9 |pages=1380–1386 |doi=10.1289/ehp.0900633 |pmid=19750101 |pmc=2737013 }}</ref> Appropriate levels of thyroid hormone during pregnancy are critical for a developing fetus as this hormone is involved with brain development and body growth.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Shahid |first1=Muhammad A. |title=Physiology, Thyroid Hormone |date=2022 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK500006/ |work=StatPearls |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29763182 |access-date=2022-03-31 |last2=Ashraf |first2=Muhammad A. |last3=Sharma |first3=Sandeep}}</ref> Studies have demonstrated a relationship between PFOS exposure and thyroid dysfunction during pregnancy resulting in altered thyroid hormone levels in both the mother and the fetus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Coperchini |first1=Francesca |last2=Croce |first2=Laura |last3=Ricci |first3=Gianluca |last4=Magri |first4=Flavia |last5=Rotondi |first5=Mario |last6=Imbriani |first6=Marcello |last7=Chiovato |first7=Luca |date=2021 |title=Thyroid Disrupting Effects of Old and New Generation PFAS |journal=Frontiers in Endocrinology |volume=11 |page=612320 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2020.612320 |pmid=33542707 |pmc=7851056 |issn=1664-2392|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boesen |first1=Sophie A. H. |last2=Long |first2=Manhai |last3=Wielsøe |first3=Maria |last4=Mustieles |first4=Vicente |last5=Fernandez |first5=Mariana F. |last6=Bonefeld-Jørgensen |first6=Eva C. |date=2020-10-13 |title=Exposure to Perflouroalkyl acids and foetal and maternal thyroid status: a review |journal=Environmental Health |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=107 |doi=10.1186/s12940-020-00647-1 |issn=1476-069X |pmc=7557068 |pmid=33050930 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020EnvHe..19..107B }}</ref>
|author=SCHER

|title=RPA's report "Perfluorooctane Sulphonates Risk reduction strategy and analysis of advantages and drawbacks"
=== Hypercholesterolemia ===
|journal=Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks, European Commission
PFOS has been associated with increased risk of abnormal levels of ].<ref name="Steenland">{{cite journal |last1=Steenland |first1=K. |last2=Tinker |first2=S. |last3=Frisbee |first3=S. |last4=Ducatman |first4=A. |last5=Vaccarino |first5=V. |title=Association of Perfluorooctanoic Acid and Perfluorooctane Sulfonate With Serum Lipids Among Adults Living Near a Chemical Plant |journal=American Journal of Epidemiology |date=21 October 2009 |volume=170 |issue=10 |pages=1268–1278 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwp279 |pmid=19846564 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Nelson">{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Jessica W. |last2=Hatch |first2=Elizabeth E. |last3=Webster |first3=Thomas F. |title=Exposure to Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals and Cholesterol, Body Weight, and Insulin Resistance in the General U.S. Population |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=February 2010 |volume=118 |issue=2 |pages=197–202 |doi=10.1289/ehp.0901165 |pmid=20123614 |pmc=2831917 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OW |date=2016-05-05 |title=Drinking Water Health Advisories for PFOA and PFOS |url=https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/drinking-water-health-advisories-pfoa-and-pfos |access-date=2022-03-31 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref> Specifically, ] in humans have reported an association between increased PFOS levels and the total cholesterol and ] (LDL) cholesterol.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Saikat |first1=Sohel |last2=Kreis |first2=Irene |last3=Davies |first3=Bethan |last4=Bridgman |first4=Stephen |last5=Kamanyire |first5=Robie |date=February 2013 |title=The impact of PFOS on health in the general population: a review |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25208696 |journal=Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=329–335 |doi=10.1039/c2em30698k |issn=2050-7895 |pmid=25208696}}</ref>
|volume=|issue= |pages=|year=2005

|pmid= |doi=}}</ref> the European Union practically banned the use of PFOS in finished and semi-finished products in 2006 (maximum content of PFOS: 0.005% by weight).<ref></ref> Use of PFOS for industrial applications (e.g. photolithography, mist suppressants for hard chromium plating, hydraulic fluids for aviation) was exempted.
=== Chronic kidney disease ===
In 2009 this directive was incorporated into the REACH regulation.<ref></ref> In summer 2010 PFOS was added to the regulation on persistent organic pollutants and the threshold was lowered to max. 0.001% by weight (10&nbsp;mg/kg).<ref></ref>
Serum levels of PFOS were found to be associated with increased risk of ] in the general US population.<ref name="Shankar et al, 2011">{{cite journal | title = Perfluoroalkyl Chemicals and Chronic Kidney Disease in US Adults | journal = American Journal of Epidemiology | date = 2011-10-15 | first = Anoop | last = Shankar |author2=Jie Xiao |author3=Alan Ducatman | volume = 174 | issue = 8 | pages = 893–900 | url= | pmid=21873601 | doi=10.1093/aje/kwr171 | pmc=3218627}}</ref> "This ] was independent of ] such as age, sex, race/ethnicity, ], diabetes, hypertension, and serum cholesterol level."<ref name="Shankar et al, 2011" />

=== Cancer ===
Research demonstrating the association between PFOS and cancer is still ongoing. A few studies have demonstrated an elevated risk for prostate and bladder cancer, however, there were notable limitations in the design and analysis of these studies.<ref name=":0" /> As of November 2023, the ] (IARC) has classified PFOS as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2b) based on “strong” mechanistic evidence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zahm |first1=Shelia |last2=Bonde |first2=Jens Peter |last3=Chiu |first3=Weihsueh A |last4=Hoppin |first4=Jane |last5=Kanno |first5=Jun |last6=Abdallah |first6=Mohamed |last7=Blystone |first7=Chad R |last8=Calkins |first8=Miriam M |last9=Dong |first9=Guang-Hui |last10=Dorman |first10=David C |last11=Fry |first11=Rebecca |last12=Guo |first12=Huan |last13=Haug |first13=Line S |last14=Hofmann |first14=Jonathan N |last15=Iwasaki |first15=Motoki |date=2023 |title=Carcinogenicity of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid |journal=] |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=16–17 |doi=10.1016/S1470-2045(23)00622-8|pmid=38043561 }}</ref> The Division of Cancer Epidemiology & Genetics (DCEG) is currently investigating the association of several PFAS compounds and cancers including kidney cancer, testicular cancer, prostate cancer, ovarian and endometrial cancer, thyroid cancer, non-hodgkins lymphoma, and childhood leukemia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-15 |title=PFAS Exposure and Risk of Cancer - National Cancer Institute |url=https://dceg.cancer.gov/research/what-we-study/pfas |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=dceg.cancer.gov |language=en}}</ref>

=== In wildlife ===
The levels observed in wild animals are considered sufficient to "alter health parameters".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peden-Adams |first1=M. M. |last2=Keil |first2=D. E. |last3=Romano |first3=T. |last4=Mollenhauer |first4=M. A. M. |last5=Fort |first5=D. J. |last6=Guiney |first6=P. D. |last7=Houde |first7=M. |last8=Kannan |first8=K. |last9=Muir |first9=D. C. |last10=Rice |first10=C. D. |last11=Stuckey |first11=J. |year=2009 |title=Health effects of perfluorinated compounds—What are the wildlife telling us? |journal=Reproductive Toxicology |volume=27 |issue=3–4 |pages=414–415 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.11.016 |first17=J. M. |last17=Keller |first16=P. A. |last16=Fair |last14=Talent |first15=G. D. |last15=Bossart |first13=T. |last12=Segars |first12=A. L. |first14=L. |last13=Scott|bibcode=2009RepTx..27..414P }}</ref><ref>Peden-Adams ''et al.'' (June 2008). In {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726103614/http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/hazardous/topics/pfcs/pfaadaysII.pdf|date=2011-07-26}} (PDF). p. 28.</ref>

PFOS affects the ] of male mice at a ] concentration of 91.5 ], raising the possibility that highly exposed people and wildlife are ].<ref name="pmid18629339" /> Chicken eggs dosed at 1 milligram per kilogram (or 1 part per million) of egg weight developed into juvenile chickens with an average of ~150 parts per billion in blood serum&mdash;and showed brain asymmetry and decreased ] levels.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peden-Adams |first1=M. |last2=Stuckey |first2=J. |last3=Gaworecki |first3=K. |last4=Berger-Ritchie |first4=J. |last5=Bryant |first5=K. |last6=Jodice |first6=P. |last7=Scott |first7=T. |last8=Ferrario |first8=J. |last9=Guan |first9=B. |last10=Vigo |first10=C. |last11=Boone |first11=J. S. |year=2009 |title=Developmental toxicity in white leghorn chickens following in ovo exposure to perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) |journal=Reproductive Toxicology (Elmsford, N.Y.) |volume=27 |issue=3–4 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1016/j.reprotox.2008.10.009 |pmid=19071210 |last13=Dewitt |first12=W. D. |last12=McGuinn |first13=J. C. |first14=D. E. |last14=Keil|bibcode=2009RepTx..27..307P }}</ref>

==Regulation==
===Globally===
It was added to Annex B of the ] in May 2009.<ref name="PR09May"/> Originally, parties agreed on acceptable proposes (time-unlimited exemptions) for the following uses—in addition to a range of specific exemptions (time-limited):<ref></ref>
* Photo-imaging
* Photo-resist and anti-reflective coatings for semi-conductors
* ] agent for compound semi-conductors and ceramic filters
* Aviation hydraulic fluids
* ] (hard metal plating) only in closed-loop systems
* Certain medical devices (such as ethylene tetrafluoroethylene copolymer (]) layers and radio-opaque ETFE production, in-vitro diagnostic medical devices, and CCD colour filters)
* ]
* Insect baits for control of leaf-cutting ants from ''] spp.'' and ''] spp.''

In 2019, it was decided to only keep one acceptable purpose:<ref></ref>
* Insect baits with ] (CAS No. 4151-50-2) as an active ingredient for control of leaf-cutting ants from ''Atta'' spp. and ''Acromyrmex'' spp. for agricultural use only

===Canada===
In 2023, the Government of Canada is considering addressing PFAS as a class rather than as individual substances or in smaller groups. A report to conclude that PFAS as a class are harmful to human health and the environment, and to define risk management aspects and alternatives to PFAs, is under development.

===Europe===
Based on an OECD study on PFOS<ref name="OECD02" /> and a risk assessment by Europe's Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks<ref name=Scher04>{{cite journal
| author =SCHER
| title =RPA's report "Perfluorooctane Sulphonates Risk reduction strategy and analysis of advantages and drawbacks"
| journal =Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks, European Commission
|year=2005
}}</ref> the European Union practically banned the use of PFOS in finished and semi-finished products in 2006 (maximum content of PFOS: 0.005% by weight).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:372:0032:0034:EN:PDF|title=DIRECTIVE 2006/122/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 12 December 2006}}</ref> However, PFOS use for industrial applications (e.g. photolithography, mist suppressants for hard chromium plating, hydraulic fluids for aviation) was exempted.
In 2009 this directive was incorporated into the ] regulation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:164:0007:0031:EN:PDF|title=COMMISSION REGULATION (EC) No 552/2009 of 22 June 2009}}</ref> In the summer of 2010 PFOS was added to the regulation on persistent organic pollutants and the threshold was lowered to max. 0.001% by weight (10&nbsp;mg/kg).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2010:223:0029:0036:EN:PDF|title=COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 757/2010 of 24 August 2010}}</ref>

===United States===
In 2018 the ] established a legally enforceable groundwater cleanup level of 70 ppt for both PFOA and PFOS.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-10 |title=Michigan abruptly sets PFAS cleanup rules |url=https://www.mlive.com/news/2018/01/michigan_pfos_pfoa_part_201_cr.html |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=mlive |language=en}}</ref>

In 2020 the ] (EGLE) adopted stricter drinking water standards in the form of ]s (MCLs), lowering acceptable levels from the 2018 enforceable groundwater cleanup levels of 70 ppt to 8 ppt for PFOA and 16 ppt for PFOS and adding MCLs for 5 previously unregulated PFAS compounds ], ], ], ], and ].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Matheny |first=Keith |date=3 August 2020 |title=Michigan's drinking water standards for these chemicals now among toughest in nation |url=https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/08/03/tougher-pfas-standards-drinking-water-michigan/5574268002/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220131152306/https://eu.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2020/08/03/tougher-pfas-standards-drinking-water-michigan/5574268002/ |archive-date=31 January 2022 |access-date=31 March 2022 |website=Detroit Free Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2020 |title=New state drinking water standards pave way for expansion of Michigan's PFAS clean-up efforts |url=https://www.michigan.gov/egle/0,9429,7-135--535602--,00.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220103083526/https://www.michigan.gov/egle/0,9429,7-135--535602--,00.html |archive-date=3 January 2022 |access-date=6 April 2022 |website=Michigan.gov}}</ref>

In 2020, a California bill was passed banning PFOS and the following salts as an intentionally added ingredient from cosmetics: ammonium perfluorooctane sulfonate, diethanolamine perfluorooctane sulfonate, lithium perfluorooctane sulfonate and potassium perfluorooctane sulfonate.<ref>{{cite web |title=Assembly Bill No. 2762 |url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201920200AB2762 |publisher=State of California |access-date=10 October 2020 |date=September 30, 2020}}</ref>

In March 2021 the U.S. EPA announced that it will develop national drinking water standards for PFOA and PFOS.<ref>EPA (2021-03-03). "Announcement of Final Regulatory Determinations for Contaminants on the Fourth Drinking Water Contaminant Candidate List." ''Federal Register,'' {{usfr|86|12272}}</ref>

In October 2021 the EPA proposed to designate PFOA and PFOS as hazardous substances in its PFAS Strategic Roadmap.<ref>RIN </ref><ref>Docket </ref> In September 2022 the EPA proposed to designate as hazardous substances under the ] Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA).


==See also== ==See also==
*] *]
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==References== ==References==
{{reflist|2}} {{Reflist|30em}}


==External links== ==External links==
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