| Revision as of 09:22, 21 November 2011 editBeetstra (talk | contribs)Edit filter managers, Administrators172,031 edits Saving copy of the {{chembox}} taken from revid 461735601 of page Potassium_perchlorate for the Chem/Drugbox validation project (updated: 'ChEMBL'). |
Latest revision as of 14:05, 29 December 2024 edit Trasheater Midir (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users3,643 edits →External links |
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{{Chembox |
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{{ambox | text = This page contains a copy of the infobox ({{tl|chembox}}) taken from revid of page ] with values updated to verified values.}} |
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{{chembox |
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| verifiedrevid = 402558923 |
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| ImageFile = Potassium perchlorate.png |
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| verifiedrevid = 461740157 |
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| ImageFile = Potassium perchlorate.png |
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| ImageSize = 150px |
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| ImageSize = 200px |
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| ImageFile1 = Potassium-perchlorate-unit-cell-3D-balls-perspective.png |
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| ImageFileL1 = Potassium-perchlorate-unit-cell-3D-balls-perspective.png |
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| ImageSize1 = 180px |
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| ImageSizeL1 = |
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| ImageFile2 = Potassium-perchlorate-xtal-3D-SF.png |
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| ImageFileR1 = Potassium-perchlorate-xtal-3D-SF.png |
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| ImageSize2 = 180px |
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| ImageSizeR1 = |
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| ImageFile3 = Potassium perchlorate 200g.jpg |
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| ImageFile2 = Potassium perchlorate 200g.jpg |
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| Name = Potassium perchlorate |
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| ImageSize2 = 200px |
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| Name = Potassium perchlorate |
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| OtherNames = Potassium chlorate(VII)<br /> Perchloric acid, potassium salt<br /> peroidin |
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| OtherNames = Potassium chlorate(VII); Perchloric acid, potassium salt; peroidin |
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| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers |
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|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers |
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| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}} |
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| ChemSpiderID = 22913 |
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| ChemSpiderID = 22913 |
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| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}} |
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| ChEMBL = <!-- blanked - oldvalue: 1200696 --> |
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| ChEMBL = 1200696 |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
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| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}} |
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| UNII = 42255P5X4D |
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| UNII = 42255P5X4D |
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| StdInChIKey = YLMGFJXSLBMXHK-UHFFFAOYSA-M |
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| StdInChIKey = YLMGFJXSLBMXHK-UHFFFAOYSA-M |
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| CASNo = 7778-74-7 |
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| CASNo = 7778-74-7 |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}} |
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| PubChem = 516900 |
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| PubChem = 516900 |
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| EINECS = 231-912-9 |
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| EINECS = 231-912-9 |
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| RTECS = SC9700000 |
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| RTECS = SC9700000 |
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| UNNumber = 1489 |
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| UNNumber = 1489 |
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}} |
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}} |
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| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties |
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|Section2={{Chembox Properties |
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| Formula = KClO<sub>4</sub> |
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| Formula = KClO<sub>4</sub> |
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| MolarMass = 138.55 g/mol |
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| MolarMass = 138.55 g/mol |
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| Appearance = Colourless/white crystalline powder |
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| Appearance = colourless/ white crystalline powder |
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| Density = 2.5239 g/cm<sup>3</sup> |
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| Density = 2.5239 g/cm<sup>3</sup> |
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| MeltingPtC = 610 |
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| Solubility = 0.75 g/100 mL (0 °C)<br /> 1.5 g/100 mL (25 °C)<ref name = jtbaker>{{cite web | url = http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/p5983.htm | publisher = ] | title = Potassium Perchlorate MSDS | date = 2007-02-16 | accessdate = 2007-12-10}}</ref><br /> 21.8 g/100 mL (100 °C) |
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| MeltingPt_notes = <br> decomposes from 400 °C<ref name=hop>{{cite book|last1 = Benenson|first1 = Walter|last2 = Stöcker|first2 = Horst|title = Handbook of Physics| date=13 January 2006 |publisher = Springer|page = |isbn = 978-0387952697|url = https://archive.org/details/handbookofphysic0000harr/page/780}}</ref><ref name="sigma" /> |
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| SolubleOther = negligible in ]<br /> insoluble in ] |
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| Solubility = 0.76 g/100 mL (0 °C)<br> 1.5 g/100 mL (25 °C)<ref name = jtbaker>{{cite web|url=http://hazard.com/msds/mf/baker/baker/files/p5983.htm|publisher=]|title = Potassium Perchlorate MSDS|date=2007-02-16|access-date=2007-12-10}}</ref><br> 4.76 g/100 mL (40 °C)<br> 21.08 g/100 mL (100 °C)<ref name=chemister>{{cite web|url=http://chemister.ru/Database/properties-en.php?dbid=1&id=519|title=potassium perchlorate|website=chemister.ru|access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> |
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| MeltingPt = 525 °C |
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| SolubleOther = negligible in ]<br> insoluble in ] |
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| BoilingPt = 600 °C (decomp.) |
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| Solubility1 = 47 mg/kg (0 °C)<br> 120 mg/kg (25 °C)<ref name = chemister /> |
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| Solvent1 = ethanol |
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| Solubility2 = 1.6 g/kg<ref name = chemister /> |
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| Solvent2 = acetone |
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| Solubility3 = 15 mg/kg<ref name = chemister /> |
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| Solvent3 = ethyl acetate |
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| RefractIndex = 1.4724 |
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| SolubilityProduct = 1.05·10<sup>−2</sup><ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.solubilityofthings.com/water/ions_solubility/ksp_chart.php | title=Ksp solubility product constants of many popular salts at SolubilityOFthings}}</ref> |
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| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure |
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|Section3={{Chembox Structure |
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| Coordination = |
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| Coordination = |
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| CrystalStruct = rhombohedral |
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| CrystalStruct = Rhombohedral |
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| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards |
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|Section4={{Chembox Thermochemistry |
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| DeltaHf = -433 kJ/mol<ref name=b1>{{cite book|author=Zumdahl, Steven S.|title=Chemical Principles 6th Ed.|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2009|isbn=978-0-618-94690-7|page=A22}}</ref> |
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| ExternalMSDS = |
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| HeatCapacity = 111.35 J/mol·K<ref name=nist>{{nist|name=Potassium perchlorate|id=C7778747|accessdate=2014-05-27|mask=FFFF|units=SI}}</ref> |
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| EUClass = Oxidant ('''O''')<br />Harmful ('''Xn''') |
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| DeltaGf = -300.4 kJ/mol<ref name = chemister /> |
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| EUIndex = 017-008-00-5 |
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| Entropy = 150.86 J/mol·K<ref name=nist /> |
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| NFPA-H = 1 |
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| NFPA-F = 0 |
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|Section7={{Chembox Hazards |
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| NFPA-R = 1 |
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| ExternalSDS = |
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| NFPA-O = OX |
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| GHSPictograms = {{GHS03}}{{GHS07}}<ref name="sigma">], . Retrieved on 2022-02-17.</ref> |
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| RPhrases = {{R9}}, {{R22}} |
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| GHSSignalWord = Danger |
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| SPhrases = {{S2}}, {{S13}}, {{S22}}, {{S27}} |
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| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|271|302|335|}}<ref name="sigma" /> |
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| FlashPt = |
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| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|220|280}}<ref name="sigma" /> |
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| NFPA-H = 1 |
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| NFPA-F = 0 |
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| NFPA-R = 1 |
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| NFPA-S = OX |
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| FlashPt = |
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| Section8 = {{Chembox Related |
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|Section8={{Chembox Related |
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| OtherAnions = ]<br />]<br />] |
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| OtherAnions = ]<br> ]<br> ] |
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| OtherCations = ]<br />] |
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| OtherCations = ]<br> ] |
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'''Potassium perchlorate''' is the inorganic ] with the chemical formula ]]]. Like other ]s, this salt is a strong ] when the solid is heated at high temperature although it usually reacts very slowly in solution with reducing agents or organic substances. This colorless crystalline solid is a common oxidizer used in ], ] ]s, ]s, and is used variously in ]s, ], stars, and ]. It has been used as a ] propellant, although in that application it has mostly been replaced by the more performant ]. |
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KClO<sub>4</sub> has a relatively low ] in water (1.5 g in 100 mL of water at 25 °C).<ref name=jtbaker /> |
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==Production== |
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] |
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Potassium perchlorate is prepared industrially by treating an aqueous solution of ] with ]. This single precipitation reaction exploits the low ] of KClO<sub>4</sub>, which is about 1/100 as much as the solubility of NaClO<sub>4</sub> (209.6 g/100 mL at 25 °C).<ref>Helmut Vogt, Jan Balej, John E. Bennett, Peter Wintzer, Saeed Akbar Sheikh, Patrizio Gallone "Chlorine Oxides and Chlorine Oxygen Acids" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a06_483}}</ref> |
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It can also be produced by bubbling chlorine gas through a solution of ] and ],{{citation needed|date=June 2017}} and by the reaction of ] with potassium hydroxide; however, this is not used widely due to the dangers of perchloric acid. |
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Another preparation involves the ] of a potassium chlorate solution, causing KClO<sub>4</sub> to form and precipitate at the ]. This procedure is complicated by the low solubility of both potassium chlorate and potassium perchlorate, the latter of which may precipitate onto the electrodes and impede the current. |
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==Oxidizing properties== |
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KClO<sub>4</sub> is an ] in the sense that it exothermically ''"transfers ]"'' to ] materials, greatly increasing their rate of ] relative to that in ]. Thus, it reacts with ] to give ], water molecules and ]: |
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: 3 KClO<sub>4</sub> + C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub> → 6 CO<sub>2</sub> + 6 H<sub>2</sub>O + 3 KCl |
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The conversion of solid glucose into hot gaseous {{CO2}} is the basis of the explosive force of this and other such mixtures. With ], KClO<sub>4</sub> yields a low explosive, provided a necessary confinement. Otherwise such mixtures simply ] with an intense purple flame characteristic of ]. Flash compositions used in ]s usually consist of a mixture of ] powder and potassium perchlorate. This mixture, sometimes called flash powder, is also used in ground and air ]s. |
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As an oxidizer, potassium perchlorate can be used safely in the presence of ], whereas ] cannot. The greater reactivity of chlorate is typical – perchlorates are ] poorer oxidants. ] produces ] ({{Chem2|HClO3}}), which is highly unstable and can lead to premature ignition of the composition. Correspondingly, ] ({{Chem2|HClO4}}) is quite stable.<ref>Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd Edn.), Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. {{ISBN|0-7506-3365-4}}.</ref> |
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For a commercial use, potassium perchlorate is mixed 50/50 with ] to fabricate ''Pyrodex'', a ], and when not compressed within a muzzle loading firearm or in a cartridge, burns at a sufficiently slow rate to prevent it from being categorized with the ] as a "low explosive", and to demote it as "flammable" material. |
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==Debated medical use== |
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Potassium perchlorate can be used as an ] agent used to treat ], usually in combination with one other medication. This application exploits the similar ] and ] of perchlorate and ]. |
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The administration of known ] substances can also be used as a prevention in reducing the biological uptake of ], (whether it is the nutritional non-radioactive ] or radioactive iodine, most commonly ] (] = 8.02 days), as the body cannot discern between different iodine ]). ] ions, a common water contaminant in the USA due to the ], has been shown to reduce iodine uptake and thus is classified as a ]. Perchlorate ion is a competitive inhibitor of the process by which iodide is actively accumulated into the thyroid follicular cells. Studies involving healthy adult volunteers determined that at levels above 7 micrograms per kilogram per day (μg/(kg·d)), perchlorate begins to temporarily inhibit the thyroid gland's ability to absorb iodine from the bloodstream ("iodide uptake inhibition", thus perchlorate is a known goitrogen).<ref name="bare_url">{{cite journal |doi=10.1289/ehp.02110927 |title=Health Effects Assessment for Environmental Perchlorate Contamination: The Dose Response for Inhibition of Thyroidal Radioiodine Uptake in Humans |year=2002 |last1=Greer |first1=Monte A. |last2=Goodman |first2=Gay |last3=Pleus |first3=Richard C. |last4=Greer |first4=Susan E. |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=110 |issue=9 |pages=927–37 |pmid=12204829 |pmc=1240994}}</ref> The reduction of the iodide pool by perchlorate has a dual effect – reduction of excess ] synthesis and ], on the one hand, and reduction of thyroid inhibitor synthesis and ] on the other. Perchlorate remains very useful as a single dose application in tests measuring the discharge of radioiodide accumulated in the thyroid as a result of many different disruptions in the further metabolism of iodide in the thyroid gland.<ref name="ncbi">{{cite journal |pmid=9549759 |year=1998 |last1=Wolff |first1=J |title=Perchlorate and the thyroid gland |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=89–105 |journal=Pharmacological Reviews}}</ref> |
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Treatment of ] (including ]) with 600-2,000 mg potassium perchlorate (430-1,400 mg perchlorate) daily for periods of several months, or longer, was once a common practice, particularly in Europe,<ref name="bare_url" /><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=4290684 |year=1966 |last1=Barzilai |first1=D |last2=Sheinfeld |first2=M |title=Fatal complications following use of potassium perchlorate in thyrotoxicosis. Report of two cases and a review of the literature |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=453–6 |journal=Israel Journal of Medical Sciences}}</ref> and perchlorate use at lower doses to treat thyroid problems continues to this day.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s00108-005-1508-4 |title=Therapie und Prävention der Hyperthyreose |trans-title=Therapy and prevention of hyperthyroidism |language=de |year=2005 |last1=Woenckhaus |first1=U. |last2=Girlich |first2=C. |journal=Der Internist |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1318–23 |pmid=16231171}}</ref> Although 400 mg of potassium perchlorate divided into four or five daily doses was used initially and found effective, higher doses were introduced when 400 mg/d was discovered not to control thyrotoxicosis in all subjects.<ref name="bare_url" /><ref name="ncbi" /> |
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Current regimens for treatment of ] (including Graves' disease), when a patient is exposed to additional sources of iodine, commonly include 500 mg potassium perchlorate twice per day for 18–40 days.<ref name="bare_url" /><ref name="ncbi_a">{{cite journal |title=Treatment of amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis, a difficult challenge: Results of a prospective study |year=1996 |last1=Bartalena |first1=L. |journal=Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism |volume=81 |issue=8 |pmid=8768854 |pages=2930–3 |last2=Brogioni |first2=S |last3=Grasso |first3=L |last4=Bogazzi |first4=F |last5=Burelli |first5=A |last6=Martino |first6=E|doi=10.1210/jcem.81.8.8768854 |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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] with perchlorate-containing water at concentrations of 17 ], corresponding to 0.5 mg/(kg·d) intake for a person of 70 kg consuming 2 litres of water per day, was found to reduce the baseline of radioiodine uptake by 67%<ref name="bare_url" /> This is equivalent to ingesting a total of just 35 mg of perchlorate ions per day. In another related study were subjects drank just 1 litre of perchlorate-containing water per day at a concentration of 10 ppm, i.e. daily 10 mg of perchlorate ions were ingested, an average 38% reduction in the uptake of Iodine was observed.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1089/10507250050137734 |title=The Effect of Short-Term Low-Dose Perchlorate on Various Aspects of Thyroid Function |year=2000 |last1=Lawrence |first1=J. E. |last2=Lamm |first2=S. H. |last3=Pino |first3=S. |last4=Richman |first4=K. |last5=Braverman |first5=L. E. |journal=Thyroid |volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=659–63 |pmid=11014310}}</ref> |
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However, when the average perchlorate absorption in perchlorate plant workers subjected to the highest exposure has been estimated as approximately 0.5 mg/(kg·d), as in the above paragraph, a 67% reduction of iodine uptake would be expected. Studies of chronically exposed workers though have thus far failed to detect any abnormalities of thyroid function, including the uptake of iodine.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1097/00043764-199904000-00006 |title=Thyroid Health Status of Ammonium Perchlorate Workers: A Cross-Sectional Occupational Health Study |year=1999 |last1=Lamm |first1=Steven H. |last2=Braverman |first2=Lewis E. |last3=Li |first3=Feng Xiao |last4=Richman |first4=Kent |last5=Pino |first5=Sam |last6=Howearth |first6=Gregory |journal=Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine |volume=41 |issue=4 |pmid=10224590 |pages=248–60}}</ref> This may well be attributable to sufficient daily exposure, or intake, of stable ] among these workers and the short 8 hr ] of perchlorate in the body.<ref name="bare_url" /> |
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To completely block the uptake of iodine-131 (half-life = 8.02 days) by the purposeful addition of perchlorate ions to a public water supply, aiming at dosages of 0.5 mg/(kg·d), or a water concentration of 17 ppm, would therefore be grossly inadequate at truly reducing a radio-iodine uptake. Perchlorate ion concentrations in a region water supply, would need to be much higher, at least 7.15 mg/kg of body weight per day or a water concentration of 250 ], assuming people drink 2 liters of water per day, to be truly beneficial to the population at preventing ] when exposed to an iodine-131 contamination,<ref name="bare_url" /><ref name="ncbi_a" /> independent of the availability of ] or ] compounds. |
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The distribution of perchlorate tablets, or the addition of perchlorate to the water supply, would need to continue for 80–90 days (~10 half-life of 8.02 days) after the release of iodine-131. After this time, the radioactive iodine-131 would have decayed to less than 1/1000 of its initial activity at which time the danger from the biological uptake of iodine-131 is essentially over.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/nuclear-chemistry-halflives-and-radioactive-dating.html |title=Nuclear Chemistry: Half-Lives and Radioactive Dating - For Dummies |publisher=Dummies.com |date=2010-01-06 |access-date=2013-01-21}}</ref> |
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===Limitations and criticisms=== |
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So, perchlorate administration could represent a possible alternative to iodide tablets distribution in case of a large-scale nuclear accident releasing important quantities of iodine-131 in the atmosphere. However, the advantages are not always clear and would depend on the extent of a hypothetical nuclear accident. As for the stable iodide intake to rapidly saturate the thyroid gland before it accumulates radioactive iodine-131, a careful cost-benefit analysis has to be first done by the nuclear safety authorities. Indeed, blocking the thyroid activity of a whole population for three months can also have negative consequences for the human health, especially for young children. |
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So, the decision of perchlorate, or stable iodine, administration cannot be left to the individual initiative and falls under the authority of the government in case of a major nuclear accident. |
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Injecting perchlorate or iodide directly in the public drinking water is also probably as restrictive as tablets distribution. |
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==See also== |
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* ] |
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* ] |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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== Further reading == |
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*{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Perchlorate Oxidizers |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Oxidizers |publisher=De Gruyter |last=Schmidt |first=Eckart W. |date=2022 |pages=3752–3761|doi=10.1515/9783110750294-028 |isbn=978-3-11-075029-4 |chapter=Alkali Metal Chlorates and Perchlorates}} |
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==External links== |
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{{Commons category|Potassium perchlorate}} |
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{{Potassium compounds}} |
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{{Perchlorates}} |
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{{Thyroid therapy}} |
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{{Thyroid hormone receptor modulators}} |
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] |
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] |
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] |