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Revision as of 14:09, 6 December 2011 editBeetstra (talk | contribs)Edit filter managers, Administrators172,084 edits Saving copy of the {{chembox}} taken from revid 456688183 of page Silicon_nitride for the Chem/Drugbox validation project (updated: '').		Latest revision as of 02:29, 20 December 2024 edit Robert.corlett (talk | contribs)59 editsm Adding/removing wikilink(s)Tag: Visual edit
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			{{short description|Compound of silicon and nitrogen}}
	{{ambox | text = This page contains a copy of the infobox ({{tl|chembox}}) taken from revid of page ] with values updated to verified values.}}
	{{Chembox		{{Chembox
			| Watchedfields = changed
	| verifiedrevid = 455290753
			| verifiedrevid = 464390390
	| ImageFile = Si3N4ceramics2.jpg
			| ImageFile = Si3N4ceramics2.jpg
	| ImageName = Sample of silicon nitride
	| PIN = Silicon nitride		| ImageCaption = Sintered silicon nitride ceramic
			| PIN = Silicon nitride
	| OtherNames = Nierite
			| OtherNames = Trisilicon tetranitride,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Silicon-nitride |title=Silicon nitride (compound)|website=PubChem |access-date=2023-06-04}}</ref><br />Nierite
	| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
			|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
	| InChI1 = 1/N4Si3/c1-5-2-6(1)3(5)7(1,2)4(5)6
			| InChI1 = 1/N4Si3/c1-5-2-6(1)3(5)7(1,2)4(5)6
	| InChIKey1 = HQVNEWCFYHHQES-UHFFFAOYAJ		| InChIKey1 = HQVNEWCFYHHQES-UHFFFAOYAJ
	| CASNo = 12033-89-5		| CASNo = 12033-89-5
	| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}		| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
			| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
	| PubChem = 3084099
			| UNII = QHB8T06IDK
	| PubChem_Ref = {{Pubchemcite}}
			| PubChem = 3084099
	| ChemSpiderID = 2341213
			| ChemSpiderID = 2341213
	| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
			| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
	| EINECS = 234-796-8
			| EINECS = 234-796-8
	| MeSHName = Silicon+nitride
			| MeSHName = Silicon+nitride
	| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
			| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
	| StdInChI = 1S/N4Si3/c1-5-2-6(1)3(5)7(1,2)4(5)6		| StdInChI = 1S/N4Si3/c1-5-2-6(1)3(5)7(1,2)4(5)6
	| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}		| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
	| StdInChIKey = HQVNEWCFYHHQES-UHFFFAOYSA-N		| StdInChIKey = HQVNEWCFYHHQES-UHFFFAOYSA-N
	| SMILES = N1325N416N234N56		| SMILES = N1325N416N234N56
	| InChI = 1S/N4Si3/c1-5-2-6(1)3(5)7(1,2)4(5)6		| InChI = 1S/N4Si3/c1-5-2-6(1)3(5)7(1,2)4(5)6
	| InChIKey = HQVNEWCFYHHQES-UHFFFAOYSA-N}}		| InChIKey = HQVNEWCFYHHQES-UHFFFAOYSA-N
			}}
	| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties		|Section2={{Chembox Properties
	| Si = 3|N = 4		| Si=3 | N=4
	| Formula = Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>		| Formula = Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>
	| Appearance = grey, odorless powder		| Appearance = grey, odorless powder<ref name=b92/>
	| Density = 3.44 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, solid		| Density = 3.17 g/cm<sup>3</sup><ref name=b92/>
			| MeltingPt_ref = <ref name=b92>{{RubberBible92nd|page=4.88}}</ref>
			| MeltingPt_notes = (decomposes)
	| MeltingPtC = 1900		| MeltingPtC = 1900
	| RefractIndex = 2.016<ref></ref>		| RefractIndex = 2.016<ref>. refractiveindex.info</ref>
	| Melting_notes = decomposes
	| BoilingPt =		| BoilingPt =
	| Solubility =		| Solubility = Insoluble<ref name=b92/>
	}}		}}
	| Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards		| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
			| Thermochemistry_ref = <ref name="CRC97">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/930681942 |title=CRC handbook of chemistry and physics : a ready-reference book of chemical and physical data. |date=2016 |others=William M. Haynes, David R. Lide, Thomas J. Bruno |isbn=978-1-4987-5428-6 |edition=2016-2017, 97th |location=Boca Raton, Florida |oclc=930681942}}</ref>
	| MainHazards =
			| Entropy = 101.3&nbsp;J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup>
	| EUClass = not listed
			| DeltaHform = −743.5&nbsp;kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>
			| DeltaGfree = −642.6&nbsp;kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup>
			}}
			|Section7={{Chembox Hazards
			| MainHazards = <ref name="safetydatasheet"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140606225828/http://metal-powders-compounds.micronmetals.com/Asset/SI-501-505-MSDS.doc |date=2014-06-06 }}. metal-powders-compounds.micronmetals.com</ref>
	| FlashPt =		| FlashPt =
	| Autoignition =		| AutoignitionPt =
	}}		}}
	| Section3 = {{Chembox Related		|Section8={{Chembox Related
	| OtherAnions = ], ]		| OtherAnions = ], ]
	| OtherCations = ]		| OtherCations = ], ]
			}}
	}}		}}
			'''Silicon nitride''' is a ] compound of the elements ] and ]. {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} (''Trisilicon tetranitride'') is the most thermodynamically stable and commercially important of the silicon nitrides,<ref>{{cite book |last=Mellor |first=Joseph William |title=A Comprehensive Treatise on Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry |volume=8 |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co |date=1947 |pages=115–7 |oclc=493750289}}</ref> and the term ″''Silicon nitride''″ commonly refers to this specific composition. It is a white, high-melting-point solid that is relatively chemically inert, being attacked by dilute ] and hot ]. It is very hard (8.5 on the ]). It has a high thermal stability with strong optical nonlinearities for all-optical applications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=López-Suárez|first1=A.|last2=Torres-Torres|first2=C.|last3=Rangel-Rojo|first3=R.|last4=Reyes-Esqueda|first4=J. A.|last5=Santana|first5=G.|last6=Alonso|first6=J. C.|last7=Ortiz|first7=A.|last8=Oliver|first8=A.|date=2009-06-08|title=Modification of the nonlinear optical absorption and optical Kerr response exhibited by nc-Si embedded in a silicon-nitride film|url=https://www.osapublishing.org/oe/abstract.cfm?uri=oe-17-12-10056|journal=Optics Express|language=EN|volume=17|issue=12|pages=10056–10068|doi=10.1364/OE.17.010056|pmid=19506657|bibcode=2009OExpr..1710056L|issn=1094-4087|doi-access=free}}</ref>
			==Production==
			Silicon nitride is prepared by heating powdered silicon between 1300&nbsp;°C and 1400&nbsp;°C in a nitrogen atmosphere:
			:3 Si + 2 {{chem|N|2}} → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}
			The silicon sample weight increases progressively due to the chemical combination of silicon and nitrogen. Without an iron catalyst, the reaction is complete after several hours (~7), when no further weight increase due to nitrogen absorption (per gram of silicon) is detected.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}}
			In addition to {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}, several other silicon nitride phases (with chemical formulas corresponding to varying degrees of nitridation/Si oxidation state) have been reported in the literature. These include the gaseous ] ({{chem|Si|2|N}}), ] (SiN) and ] ({{chem|Si|2|N|3}}), each of which are stoichiometric phases. As with other ], the products obtained in these high-temperature syntheses depends on the reaction conditions (e.g. time, temperature, and starting materials including the reactants and container materials), as well as the mode of purification. However, the existence of the sesquinitride has since come into question.<ref>{{cite journal
			| doi =10.1007/BF02841719
			| title =The N-Si (Nitrogen-Silicon) system
			| year =1990
			| last1 =Carlson
			| first1 =O. N.
			| journal =Bulletin of Alloy Phase Diagrams
			| volume =11
			| issue =6
			| pages =569–573}}</ref>
			It can also be prepared by diimide route:<ref name=hist/>
			:{{chem|SiCl|4}} + 6 {{chem|NH|3}} → {{chem|Si(NH)|2}} + 4 {{chem|NH|4|Cl}}(s) &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;at 0&nbsp;°C
			:3 {{chem|Si(NH)|2}} → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} + {{chem|N|2}} + 3 {{chem|H|2}}(g) &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;at 1000&nbsp;°C
			] of silicon dioxide in a nitrogen atmosphere at 1400–1450&nbsp;°C has also been examined:<ref name=hist/>
			:3 {{chem|SiO|2}} + 6 C + 2 {{chem|N|2}} → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} + 6 CO
			The nitridation of silicon powder was developed in the 1950s, following the "rediscovery" of silicon nitride and was the first
			large-scale method for powder production. However, use of low-purity raw silicon caused contamination of silicon nitride by ]s and ]. The diimide decomposition results in amorphous silicon nitride, which needs further annealing under nitrogen at 1400–1500&nbsp;°C to convert it to a crystalline powder; this is now the second-most-important route for commercial production. The carbothermal reduction was the earliest used method for silicon nitride production and is now considered as the most-cost-effective industrial route to high-purity silicon nitride powder.<ref name=hist/>
			=== Film deposition ===
			Electronic-grade silicon nitride films are formed using ] (CVD), or one of its variants, such as ] (PECVD):<ref name=hist/><ref name=prop/>
			:3 {{chem|SiH|4}}(g) + 4 {{chem|NH|3}}(g) → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}(s) + 12 {{chem|H|2}}(g) at 750–850°C<ref name="Morgan&Board">{{cite book|last1=Morgan|first1=D. V.|last2=Board|first2=K.|title=An Introduction To Semiconductor Microtechnology|date=1991|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Chichester, West Sussex, England|isbn=978-0471924784|page=27|edition=2nd}}</ref>
			:3 {{chem|SiCl|4}}(g) + 4 {{chem|NH|3}}(g) → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}(s) + 12 HCl(g)
			:3 {{chem|SiCl|2|H|2}}(g) + 4 {{chem|NH|3}}(g) → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}(s) + 6 HCl(g) + 6 {{chem|H|2}}(g)
			For deposition of silicon nitride layers on semiconductor (usually silicon) substrates, two methods are used:<ref name=prop/>
			#Low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) technology, which works at rather high temperature and is done either in a vertical or in a horizontal tube furnace,<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.crystec.com/kllcompe.htm|title =Crystec Technology Trading GmbH, Comparison of vertical and horizontal tube furnaces in the semiconductor industry|work=crystec.com|access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref> or
			#Plasma-enhanced ] chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) technology, which works at rather low temperature (≤ 250 °C) and vacuum conditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title=Atmospheric-Pressure Plasma-Enhanced Spatial Atomic Layer Deposition of Silicon Nitride at Low Temperature |url=https://www.atomiclayerdeposition.com/commercial/ |access-date=2023-04-30 |journal=Atomic Layer Deposition |year=2023 |language=en |doi=10.15212/aldj-2023-1000 |last1=Shen |first1=Jie |last2=Roozeboom |first2=Fred |last3=Mameli |first3=Alfredo |s2cid=257304966 }}</ref> Examples include (bisdiethylamino)silane as silicon precursor and plasma of N<sub>2</sub> as reactant.<ref name=":0" />
			Since the ]s of silicon nitride and silicon are different, ] or ] can occur, depending on the deposition process. Especially when using PECVD technology this tension can be reduced by adjusting deposition parameters.<ref name=dep>{{cite web|url =http://www.crystec.com/kllnitre.htm|title = Crystec Technology Trading GmbH, deposition of silicon nitride layers|access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref>
			Silicon nitride ] can also be produced by ] method using carbothermal ] followed
			by nitridation of ], which contains ultrafine carbon particles. The particles can be produced by decomposition of ] in the temperature range 1200–1350&nbsp;°C. The possible synthesis reactions are:<ref>{{cite journal
			| bibcode =2008STAdM...9a5002G
			| title =A novel method for synthesis of α-Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> nanowires by sol-gel route
			| last1 =Ghosh Chaudhuri
			| first1 =Mahua
			| last2 =Dey
			| first2 =Rajib
			| last3 =Mitra
			| first3 =Manoj K.
			| last4 =Das
			| first4 =Gopes C.
			| last5 =Mukherjee
			| first5 =Siddhartha
			| volume =9
			| issue =1
			| year =2008
			| pages =5002 |pmc=5099808
			| journal =Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
			| doi =10.1088/1468-6996/9/1/015002
			| pmid=27877939}}</ref>
			:{{chem|SiO|2}}(s) + C(s) → SiO(g) + CO(g) &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''and''
			:3 SiO(g) + 2 {{chem|N|2}}(g) + 3 CO(g) → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}(s) + 3 {{chem|CO|2}}(g) &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;''or''
			:3 SiO(g) + 2 {{chem|N|2}}(g) + 3 C(s) → {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}(s) + 3 CO(g).
			==Processing==
			Silicon nitride is difficult to produce as a bulk material—it cannot be heated over 1850&nbsp;°C, which is well below its ], due to ] to silicon and nitrogen. Therefore, application of conventional ] techniques is problematic. Bonding of silicon nitride powders can be achieved at lower temperatures through adding materials called sintering aids or "binders", which commonly induce a degree of liquid phase sintering.<ref name=azom>{{cite journal |last1=Sorrell |first1=Chris |date=2001-02-06 |title=Silicon Nitride (Si₃N₄) Properties and Applications |url=https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=53 |journal=AZo Journal of Materials |issn=1833-122X |oclc=939116350}}<!--|access-date =2009-06-06--></ref> A cleaner alternative is to use ], where heating is conducted very rapidly (seconds) by passing pulses of electric current through the compacted powder. Dense silicon nitride compacts have been obtained by this techniques at temperatures 1500–1700&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=2007STAdM...8..635N |title =Fabrication of silicon nitride nanoceramics—Powder preparation and sintering: A review |last1=Nishimura |first1=T. |last2=Xu |first2=X. |last3=Kimoto |first3=K. |last4=Hirosaki |first4=N. |last5=Tanaka |first5=H. |volume=8 |year=2007 |pages=635–643 |journal=Science and Technology of Advanced Materials |doi=10.1016/j.stam.2007.08.006 |issue=7–8 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>], p. 38</ref>
			==Crystal structure and properties==
			{{Gallery
			| title = Blue atoms are nitrogen and grey are silicon atoms
			| File:ASi3N4.jpg|] α-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}}.
			| File:BSi3N4.jpg|] β-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}}
			| File:GammaSiN.jpg|] γ-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}}
	}}		}}
			There exist three ] structures of silicon nitride ({{chem|Si|3|N|4}}), designated as α, β and γ phases.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.hardmaterials.de/html/alpha-si3n4__beta-si3n4.html|title = Crystal structures of Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>|work=hardmaterials.de|access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref> The α and β ] are the most common forms of {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}, and can be produced under normal pressure condition. The γ phase can only be synthesized under high pressures and temperatures and has a hardness of 35&nbsp;GPa.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode = 2001JPCM...13L.515J |title = Hardness and thermal stability of cubic silicon nitride |last1 = Jiang |first1 = J. Z. |last2 = Kragh |first2 = F. |last3 = Frost |first3 = D. J. |last4 = Ståhl |first4 = K. |last5 = Lindelov |first5 = H. |volume = 13 |year = 2001 |pages = L515 |journal = Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter |doi = 10.1088/0953-8984/13/22/111 |issue = 22|s2cid = 250763667 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://beamteam.usask.ca/alumni.php?m=sam |title=Properties of gamma-Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> |access-date=2009-06-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715073014/http://beamteam.usask.ca/alumni.php?m=sam |archive-date=July 15, 2006 }}</ref>
			]
			The α- and β-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}} have ] (] hP28, ] P31c, No. 159) and ] (hP14, P6<sub>3</sub>, No. 173) structures, respectively, which are built up by corner-sharing {{chem|SiN|4}} ]. They can be regarded as consisting of layers of silicon and nitrogen atoms in the sequence ABAB... or ABCDABCD... in β-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}} and α-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}}, respectively. The AB layer is the same in the α and β phases, and the CD layer in the α phase is related to AB by a c-glide plane. The {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} tetrahedra in β-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}} are interconnected in such a way that tunnels are formed, running parallel with the c axis of the unit cell. Due to the c-glide plane that relates AB to CD, the α structure contains cavities instead of tunnels. The cubic γ-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}} is often designated as c modification in the literature, in analogy with the cubic modification of ] (c-BN). It has a ]-type structure in which two silicon atoms each coordinate six nitrogen atoms octahedrally, and one silicon atom coordinates four nitrogen atoms tetrahedrally.<ref>], pp. 1-3</ref>
			The longer stacking sequence results in the α-phase having higher hardness than the β-phase. However, the α-phase is chemically unstable compared with the β-phase. At high temperatures when a liquid phase is present, the α-phase always transforms into the β-phase. Therefore, β-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}} is the major form used in {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} ceramics.<ref>{{cite journal
			| bibcode =2008STAdM...9c3001Z
			| title =Textured silicon nitride: Processing and anisotropic properties
			| last1 =Zhu
			| first1 =Xinwen
			| last2 =Sakka
			| first2 =Yoshio
			| volume =9
			| year =2008
			| pages =3001 |pmc=5099652
			| journal =Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
			| doi =10.1088/1468-6996/9/3/033001
			| issue =3
			| pmid=27877995}}</ref> ] may occur in doped β-{{chem|Si|3|N|4}}, whereby abnormally large elongated grains form in a matrix of finer equiaxed grains and can serve as a technique to enhance fracture toughness in this material by crack bridging.<ref> Journal of Crystal growth</ref> ] in doped silicon nitride arises due to additive-enhanced diffusion and results in composite microstructures, which can also be considered as “in-situ composites” or “self-reinforced materials.<ref> Journal of the American Ceramic Society</ref>
			In addition to the crystalline polymorphs of silicon nitride, glassy amorphous materials may be formed as the pyrolysis products of ], most often containing varying amounts of residual carbon (hence they are more appropriately considered as silicon carbonitrides). Specifically, polycarbosilazane can be readily converted to an amorphous form of silicon carbonitride based material upon pyrolysis, with valuable implications in the processing of silicon nitride materials through processing techniques more commonly used for polymers.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.addma.2019.02.012|title=Additive manufacturing of ceramics from preceramic polymers: A versatile stereolithographic approach assisted by thiol-ene click chemistry|journal=Additive Manufacturing|volume=27|pages=80–90|year=2019|last1=Wang|first1=Xifan|last2=Schmidt|first2=Franziska|last3=Hanaor|first3=Dorian|last4=Kamm|first4=Paul H.|last5=Li|first5=Shuang|last6=Gurlo|first6=Aleksander|bibcode=2019arXiv190502060W|arxiv=1905.02060|s2cid=104470679}}</ref>
			==Applications==
			In general, the main issue with applications of silicon nitride has not been technical performance, but cost. As the cost has come down, the number of production applications is accelerating.<ref name=ornl>{{cite book
			| publisher =Oak Ridge National Laboratory
			| chapter =Ceramic Industry
			| first1 =David W.
			| last1 =Richerson
			| first2 =Douglas W.
			| last2 =Freita
			| title =Opportunities for Advanced Ceramics to Meet the Needs of the Industries of the Future
			| oclc =692247038| hdl =2027/coo.31924090750534
			}}</ref>
			===Automotive industry===
			One of the major applications of sintered silicon nitride is in engine parts. It can be used in ]s, ] for speed up start-up times; precombustion chambers (swirl chambers) to reduce emissions, start-up time and noise; and ] to reduce engine lag and emissions. In ]s, silicon nitride is used for ] pads for lower ], turbocharger turbines for lower inertia and less engine lag, and in ] for increased acceleration. Currently, it is estimated that more than 300,000 sintered silicon nitride turbochargers are made annually.
			Silicon nitride is used in some high-performance automotive ceramic coatings for protecting paint. <ref name=hist/><ref name=azom/><ref name=ornl/>
			===Bearings===
			]
			Silicon nitride bearings are both full ceramic bearings and ] with balls in ceramics and ] in steel. Silicon nitride ]s have good ] resistance compared to other ceramics. Therefore, ball bearings made of silicon nitride ceramic are used in performance ]. A representative example is use of silicon nitride bearings in the main engines of the NASA's ].<ref>{{cite web|publisher =NASA|url = http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation15/CeramicBalls.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20041024070046/http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation15/CeramicBalls.html|url-status = dead|archive-date = 2004-10-24|title = Ceramic Balls Increase Shuttle Engine Bearing Life|access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher =NASA|url =http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/ssme.html|title =Space Shuttle Main Engine Enhancements|access-date =2009-06-06|archive-date =2012-10-11|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121011141911/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/marshall/news/background/facts/ssme.html|url-status =dead}}</ref>
			Since silicon nitride ball bearings are harder than metal, this reduces contact with the bearing track. This results in 80% less friction, three to ten times longer lifetime, 80% higher speed, 60% less weight, the ability to operate with lubrication starvation, higher corrosion resistance and higher operation temperature, as compared to traditional metal bearings.<ref name=ornl/> Silicon nitride balls weigh 79% less than ] balls. Silicon nitride ball bearings can be found in high end automotive bearings, industrial bearings, ]s, motorsports, bicycles, rollerblades and ]s. Silicon nitride bearings are especially useful in applications where corrosion or electric or magnetic fields prohibit the use of metals, for example, in tidal flow meters, where seawater attack is a problem, or in electric field seekers.<ref name=azom/>
			Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> was first demonstrated as a superior bearing in 1972 but did not reach production until nearly 1990 because of challenges associated with reducing the cost.
			Since 1990, the cost has been reduced substantially as production volume has increased. Although {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} bearings are still two to five times more expensive than the best steel bearings, their superior performance and life are justifying rapid adoption. Around 15–20&nbsp;million {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} bearing balls were produced in the U.S. in 1996 for machine tools and many other applications. Growth is estimated at 40% per year, but could be even higher if ceramic bearings are selected for consumer applications such as in-line skates and computer disk drives.<ref name=ornl/>
			NASA testing says ceramic-hybrid bearings exhibit much lower fatigue (wear) life than standard all-steel bearings.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zaretsky |first1=Erwin V. |last2=Vlcek |first2=Brian L. |last3=Hendricks |first3=Robert C. |title=Effect of Silicon Nitride Balls and Rollers on Rolling Bearing Life |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20050175860 |language=en |date=1 April 2005}}</ref>
			===High-temperature material===
			]
			Silicon nitride has long been used in high-temperature applications. In particular, it was identified as one of the few monolithic ceramic materials capable of surviving the severe thermal shock and thermal gradients generated in hydrogen/oxygen rocket engines. To demonstrate this capability in a complex configuration, NASA scientists used advanced rapid prototyping technology to fabricate a one-inch-diameter, single-piece combustion chamber/nozzle (thruster) component. The thruster was hot-fire tested with hydrogen/oxygen propellant and survived five cycles including a 5-minute cycle to a 1320&nbsp;°C material temperature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5130eckel.html |title=Silicon Nitride Rocket Thrusters Test Fired Successfully |date=1999 |author=Eckel, Andrew J. |publisher=NASA |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090404161958/http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/RT/RT1999/5000/5130eckel.html |archive-date=April 4, 2009 }}</ref>
			In 2010 silicon nitride was used as the main material in the thrusters of the ] space probe ].<ref>. JAXA (2010-07-06)</ref>
			Silicon nitride was used for the "microshutters" developed for the ] aboard the ]. According to NASA: The "operating temperature is cryogenic so the device has to be able to operate at extremely cold temperatures. Another challenge was developing shutters that would be able to: open and close repeatedly without fatigue; open individually; and open wide enough to meet the science requirements of the instrument. Silicon nitride was chosen for use in the microshutters, because of its high strength and resistance to fatigue." This microshutter system allows the instrument to observe and analyze up to 100 celestial objects simultaneously.<ref>.</ref>
			===Medical===
			Silicon nitride has many orthopedic applications.<ref name="one">{{cite journal
			| doi =10.4161/biom.20710
			| title =Evaluation of silicon nitride as a wear resistant and resorbable alternative for total hip joint replacement
			| year =2012
			| last1 =Olofsson
			| first1 =Johanna
			| last2 =Grehk
			| first2 =T. Mikael
			| last3 =Berlind
			| first3 =Torun
			| last4 =Persson
			| first4 =Cecilia
			| last5 =Jacobson
			| first5 =Staffan
			| last6 =Engqvist
			| first6 =Håkan
			| journal =Biomatter
			| volume =2
			| issue =2
			| pages =94–102
			| pmid =23507807
			| pmc=3549862}}</ref><ref name="three">{{cite journal
			| pmid =18347952
			| year =2008
			| last1 =Mazzocchi
			| first1 =M
			| last2 =Bellosi
			| first2 =A
			| title =On the possibility of silicon nitride as a ceramic for structural orthopaedic implants. Part I: Processing, microstructure, mechanical properties, cytotoxicity
			| volume =19
			| issue =8
			| pages =2881–7
			| doi =10.1007/s10856-008-3417-2
			| journal =Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine| s2cid =10388233
			}}</ref> The material is also an alternative to ] (polyether ether ketone) and ], which are used for ] devices (with latter being relatively expensive).<ref name="four">{{cite journal
			| doi =10.1016/j.actbio.2012.07.038
			| title =Anti-infective and osteointegration properties of silicon nitride, poly(ether ether ketone), and titanium implants
			| year =2012
			| last1 =Webster
			| first1 =T.J.
			| last2 =Patel
			| first2 =A.A.
			| last3 =Rahaman
			| first3 =M.N.
			| last4 =Sonny Bal
			| first4 =B.
			| journal =Acta Biomaterialia
			| volume =8
			| issue =12
			| pages =4447–54
			| pmid =22863905}}</ref><ref name="six">{{cite journal
			| pmid =19437439
			| year =2010
			| last1 =Anderson
			| first1 =MC
			| last2 =Olsen
			| first2 =R
			| title =Bone ingrowth into porous silicon nitride
			| volume =92
			| issue =4
			| pages =1598–605
			| doi =10.1002/jbm.a.32498
			| journal =Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A| doi-access =free
			}}</ref> It is silicon nitride's ], ]d surface that contributes to the material's strength, durability and reliability compared to PEEK and titanium.<ref name="three"/><ref name="four"/><ref name="seven">{{cite journal
			| doi =10.1021/ja0483746
			| title =Tailor-Made Functionalization of Silicon Nitride Surfaces
			| year =2004
			| last1 =Arafat
			| first1 =Ahmed
			| last2 =Schroën
			| first2 =Karin
			| last3 =De Smet
			| first3 =Louis C. P. M.
			| last4 =Sudhölter
			| first4 =Ernst J. R.
			| last5 =Zuilhof
			| first5 =Han
			| journal =Journal of the American Chemical Society
			| volume =126
			| issue =28
			| pages =8600–1
			| pmid =15250682}}</ref> Certain compositions of this material exhibit anti-bacterial,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pezzotti|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Marin|first2=Elia|last3=Adachi|first3=Tetsuya|last4=Lerussi|first4=Federica|last5=Rondinella|first5=Alfredo|last6=Boschetto|first6=Francesco|last7=Zhu|first7=Wenliang|last8=Kitajima|first8=Takashi|last9=Inada|first9=Kosuke|last10=McEntire|first10=Bryan J.|last11=Bock|first11=Ryan M.|date=2018-04-24|title=Incorporating Si3 N4 into PEEK to Produce Antibacterial, Osteocondutive, and Radiolucent Spinal Implants|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mabi.201800033|journal=Macromolecular Bioscience|volume=18|issue=6|pages=1800033|doi=10.1002/mabi.201800033|pmid=29687593|issn=1616-5187}}</ref> anti-fungal,<ref>McEntire, B., Bock, R., & Bal, B.S. U.S Application. No. 20200079651. 2020.</ref> or anti-viral properties.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pezzotti|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Ohgitani|first2=Eriko|last3=Shin-Ya|first3=Masaharu|last4=Adachi|first4=Tetsuya|last5=Marin|first5=Elia|last6=Boschetto|first6=Francesco|last7=Zhu|first7=Wenliang|last8=Mazda|first8=Osam|date=2020-06-20|title=Rapid Inactivation of SARS-CoV-2 by Silicon Nitride, Copper, and Aluminum Nitride|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/2020.06.19.159970|access-date=2020-09-21|doi=10.1101/2020.06.19.159970|s2cid=220044677}}</ref>
			===Metal working and cutting ===
			The first major application of {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} was abrasive and ]. Bulk, monolithic silicon nitride is used as a material for ]s, due to its hardness, thermal stability, and resistance to ]. It is especially recommended for high speed ] of ]. Hot hardness, fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance mean that sintered silicon nitride can cut cast iron, hard steel and nickel based alloys with surface speeds up to 25 times quicker than those obtained with conventional materials such as tungsten carbide.<ref name=azom/> The use of {{chem|Si|3|N|4}} cutting tools has had a dramatic effect on manufacturing output. For example, face milling of gray cast iron with silicon nitride inserts doubled the cutting speed, increased tool life from one part to six parts per edge, and reduced the average cost of inserts by 50%, as compared to traditional ] tools.<ref name=hist/><ref name=ornl/>
			===Electronics===
			] through a Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> mask]]
			Silicon nitride is often used as an ] and chemical barrier in manufacturing ], to electrically isolate different structures or as an ] mask in ]. As a passivation layer for microchips, it is superior to ], as it is a significantly better ] against water molecules and ] ions, two major sources of corrosion and instability in microelectronics. It is also used as a ] between ] layers in ]s in analog chips.<ref>{{cite book
			| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=NF3W6zlN9WsC&pg=PA282
			| page =282
			| title =Handbook of chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
			| last =Pierson
			| first =Hugh O.
			| publisher =William Andrew
			| year =1992
			| isbn =978-0-8155-1300-1}}</ref>
			]
			Silicon nitride deposited by ] contains up to 8% hydrogen. It also experiences strong tensile ], which may crack films thicker than 200&nbsp;nm. However, it has higher ] and dielectric strength than most insulators commonly available in microfabrication (10<sup>16</sup> ]·cm and 10&nbsp;MV/cm, respectively).<ref name=prop>{{cite book
			| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Qi98H-iTgLEC&pg=PA325
			| pages =324–325
			| title =Handbook of semiconductor manufacturing technology
			| first1 =Yoshio
			| last1 =Nishi
			| first2 =Robert
			| last2 =Doering
			| publisher =CRC Press
			| year =2000
			| isbn =978-0-8247-8783-7}}</ref>
			Not only silicon nitride, but also various ternary compounds of silicon, nitrogen and hydrogen (SiN<sub>x</sub>H<sub>y</sub>) are used as insulating layers. They are plasma deposited using the following reactions:<ref name=prop/>
			:2 {{chem|SiH|4}}(g) + {{chem|N|2}}(g) → 2 SiNH(s) + 3 {{chem|H|2}}(g)
			:{{chem|SiH|4}}(g) + {{chem|NH|3}}(g) → SiNH(s) + 3 {{chem|H|2}}(g)
			These SiNH films have much less tensile stress, but worse electrical properties (resistivity 10<sup>6</sup> to 10<sup>15</sup>&nbsp;Ω·cm, and dielectric strength 1 to 5&nbsp;MV/cm),<ref name=prop/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sze |first1=Simon M. |last2=Lee |first2=Ming-Kwei |date=2012 |chapter= |title=Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology |url= |edition=3 |location=New York, NY |publisher=Wiley |page=406 |isbn=978-1-118-13983-7}}</ref> and are thermally stable to high temperatures under specific physical conditions. Silicon nitride is also used in the ] as one of the layers of the photo drum.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Duke |first1=Charles B. |last2=Noolandi |first2=Jaan |last3=Thieret |first3=Tracy |date=2002 |title=The surface science of xerography |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299133381 |format=PDF |journal=Surface Science |volume=500 |issue=1–3 |pages=1005–1023 |doi=10.1016/S0039-6028(01)01527-8|bibcode=2002SurSc.500.1005D }}</ref> Silicon nitride is also used as an ignition source for domestic gas appliances.<ref>Levinson, L. M. ''et al.'' (17 April 2001) "Ignition system for a gas appliance" {{US patent|6217312}}</ref> Because of its good elastic properties, silicon nitride, along with silicon and silicon oxide, is the most popular material for ]s — the sensing elements of ]s.<ref>{{cite book|page = 605|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SOt_yFjV-xwC|title = The materials science of thin films: deposition and structure|author = Ohring, M. |publisher =Academic Press|year = 2002|isbn = 978-0-12-524975-1}}</ref>
			==Aspirational applications==
			===Solar cells===
			]s are often coated with an ]. Silicon nitride can be used for this, and it is possible to adjust its ] by varying the parameters of the deposition process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rajinder Sharma |title=Effect of obliquity of incident light on the performance of silicon solar cells |journal=] |date=Jul 2, 2019 |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=e01965 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01965 |doi-access=free |pmid=31317080 |pmc=6611928 |bibcode=2019Heliy...501965S }}</ref>
			=== Photonic integrated circuits ===
			]s can be produced with various materials, also called material platforms. Silicon nitride is one of those material platforms, next to, for example, ] and ]. Silicon Nitride photonic integrated circuits have a broad spectral coverage and features low light losses.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Buzaverov |first1=Kirill A. |last2=Baburin |first2=Aleksandr S. |last3=Sergeev |first3=Evgeny V. |last4=Avdeev |first4=Sergey S. |last5=Lotkov |first5=Evgeniy S. |last6=Andronik |first6=Mihail |last7=Stukalova |first7=Victoria E. |last8=Baklykov |first8=Dmitry A. |last9=Dyakonov |first9=Ivan V. |last10=Skryabin |first10=Nikolay N. |last11=Saygin |first11=Mikhail Yu. |last12=Kulik |first12=Sergey P. |last13=Ryzhikov |first13=Ilya A. |last14=Rodionov |first14=Ilya A. |date=2023-05-01 |title=Low-loss silicon nitride photonic ICs for near-infrared wavelength bandwidth |journal=Optics Express |volume=31 |issue=10 |pages=16227–16242 |doi=10.1364/oe.477458 |issn=1094-4087|doi-access=free |pmid=37157706 |bibcode=2023OExpr..3116227B }}</ref> This makes them highly suited to detectors, spectrometers, biosensors, and quantum computers. The lowest propagation losses reported in SiN (0.1&nbsp;dB/cm down to 0.1&nbsp;dB/m) have been achieved by LioniX International’s TriPleX waveguides.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roeloffzen |first1=Chris G. H. |last2=Hoekman |first2=Marcel |last3=Klein |first3=Edwin J. |last4=Wevers |first4=Lennart S. |last5=Timens |first5=Roelof Bernardus |last6=Marchenko |first6=Denys |last7=Geskus |first7=Dimitri |last8=Dekker |first8=Ronald |last9=Alippi |first9=Andrea |last10=Grootjans |first10=Robert |last11=van Rees |first11=Albert |last12=Oldenbeuving |first12=Ruud M. |last13=Epping |first13=Jorn P. |last14=Heideman |first14=Rene G. |last15=Worhoff |first15=Kerstin |date=July 2018 |title=Low-Loss Si3N4 TriPleX Optical Waveguides: Technology and Applications Overview |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8259277 |journal=IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=1–21 |doi=10.1109/JSTQE.2018.2793945 |bibcode=2018IJSTQ..2493945R |s2cid=3431441 |issn=1077-260X}}</ref>
			=== High stress membranes ===
			Silicon nitride has emerged as a favorable platform for high-stress thin film ] devices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=D. J. |last2=Regal |first2=C. A. |last3=Papp |first3=S. B. |last4=Kimble |first4=H. J. |date=2009-11-13 |title=Cavity Optomechanics with Stoichiometric SiN Films |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.207204 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=103 |issue=20 |pages=207204 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.207204|pmid=20366008 |arxiv=0909.0970 |bibcode=2009PhRvL.103t7204W }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Serra |first1=E. |last2=Bawaj |first2=M. |last3=Borrielli |first3=A. |last4=Di Giuseppe |first4=G. |last5=Forte |first5=S. |last6=Kralj |first6=N. |last7=Malossi |first7=N. |last8=Marconi |first8=L. |last9=Marin |first9=F. |last10=Marino |first10=F. |last11=Morana |first11=B. |last12=Natali |first12=R. |last13=Pandraud |first13=G. |last14=Pontin |first14=A. |last15=Prodi |first15=G. A. |date=2016-06-01 |title=Microfabrication of large-area circular high-stress silicon nitride membranes for optomechanical applications |url=https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4953805 |journal=AIP Advances |volume=6 |issue=6 |doi=10.1063/1.4953805 |issn=2158-3226|arxiv=1601.02669 |bibcode=2016AIPA....6f5004S }}</ref> These devices have been used as sensing devices in a wide variety of a scientific experiments including ] applications<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ramos |first1=Daniel |last2=Malvar |first2=Oscar |last3=Davis |first3=Zachary J. |last4=Tamayo |first4=Javier |last5=Calleja |first5=Montserrat |date=2018-11-14 |title=Nanomechanical Plasmon Spectroscopy of Single Gold Nanoparticles |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b03236 |journal=Nano Letters |language=en |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=7165–7170 |doi=10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b03236 |pmid=30339403 |bibcode=2018NanoL..18.7165R |issn=1530-6984|hdl=10261/181326 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and ] searches.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manley |first1=Jack |last2=Chowdhury |first2=Mitul Dey |last3=Grin |first3=Daniel |last4=Singh |first4=Swati |last5=Wilson |first5=Dalziel J. |date=2021-02-10 |title=Searching for Vector Dark Matter with an Optomechanical Accelerometer |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.061301 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=126 |issue=6 |pages=061301 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.126.061301|pmid=33635693 |arxiv=2007.04899 |bibcode=2021PhRvL.126f1301M }}</ref>
			==History==
			The first synthesis of silicon nitride was reported in 1857 by ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/jlac.18571040224|title=Ueber das Stickstoffsilicium|journal=Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie|volume=104|issue=2|pages=256|year=1857}}</ref> In their method, silicon was heated in a crucible placed inside another crucible packed with carbon to reduce permeation of oxygen to the inner crucible. They reported a product they termed silicon nitride but without specifying its chemical composition. ] first reported a product with the composition of the tetranitride, {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}, in 1879 that was obtained by heating silicon with brasque (a paste made by mixing charcoal, coal, or coke with clay which is then used to line crucibles) in a blast furnace. In 1910, Ludwig Weiss and Theodor Engelhardt heated silicon under pure nitrogen to produce {{chem|Si|3|N|4}}.<ref>{{cite journal
			|author1=Weiss, L. |author2=Engelhardt, T
			|name-list-style=amp | title =Über die Stickstoffverbindungen des Siliciums
			| journal =Z. Anorg. Allg. Chem.
			| year =1910
			| volume =65
			| issue =1
			| pages =38–104
			| doi =10.1002/zaac.19090650107|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1428116
			}}</ref> E. Friederich and L. Sittig made Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> in 1925 via carbothermal reduction under nitrogen, that is, by heating silica, carbon, and nitrogen at 1250–1300&nbsp;°C.
			Silicon nitride remained merely a chemical curiosity for decades before it was used in commercial applications. From 1948 to 1952, the Carborundum Company, Niagara Falls, New York, applied for several ]s on the manufacture and application of silicon nitride.<ref name=hist>{{cite journal
			| doi =10.1111/j.1151-2916.2000.tb01182.x
			| title =Silicon Nitride and Related Materials
			| year =2004
			| last1 =Riley
			| first1 =Frank L.
			| journal =Journal of the American Ceramic Society
			| volume =83
			| issue =2
			| pages =245–265}}</ref> By 1958 ] (]) silicon nitride was in commercial production for ] tubes, rocket nozzles, and boats and ]s for melting metals. British work on silicon nitride, started in 1953, was aimed at high-temperature parts of ]s and resulted in the development of reaction-bonded silicon nitride and hot-pressed silicon nitride. In 1971, the ] of the ] placed a US$17&nbsp;million contract with ] and ] for two ceramic gas turbines.<ref>{{cite book|page = 27|title = Ceramic Materials: Science and Engineering
			|author1=Carter, C. Barry |author2=Norton, M. Grant |name-list-style=amp |publisher = Springer|year = 2007|isbn = 978-0-387-46270-7|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aE_VQ8I24OoC}}</ref>
			Even though the properties of silicon nitride were well known, its natural occurrence was discovered only in the 1990s, as tiny inclusions (about 2&nbsp;] × 0.5&nbsp;μm in size) in ]s. The mineral was named ] after a pioneer of ], ].<ref>{{cite journal
			| bibcode =1995Metic..30..387L
			| title =Nierite (Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>), a new mineral from ordinary and enstatite chondrites
			| last1 =Lee
			| first1 =M. R.
			| last2 =Russell
			| first2 =S. S.
			| author2-link =Sara Russell
			| last3 =Arden
			| first3 =J. W.
			| last4 =Pillinger
			| first4 =C. T.
			| volume =30
			| year =1995
			| pages =387
			| journal =Meteoritics
			| doi =10.1111/j.1945-5100.1995.tb01142.x
			| issue =4}}</ref> This mineral may have been detected earlier, again exclusively in meteorites, by Soviet geologists.<ref>{{cite web
			| access-date =2009-08-08
			| url =http://www.mindat.org/min-7193.html
			| publisher =Mindat
			| title =Nierite}}</ref>
			==References==
			{{reflist}}
			==Cited sources==
			{{Commons category|Silicon nitride}}
			*{{cite book |ref=Peng
			| url =http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:189799
			| title =Spark Plasma Sintering of Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>-based Ceramics: Sintering mechanism-Tailoring microstructure-Evaluating properties
			| type =PhD thesis
			| publisher =Stockholm University
			| last =Peng
			| first =Hong
			| year =2004
			| isbn =978-91-7265-834-9}}
			{{Good article}}
			{{silicon compounds}}
			{{Nitrides}}
			{{DEFAULTSORT:Silicon Nitride}}
			]
			]
			]
			]
			]