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Revision as of 16:03, 6 December 2011 editBeetstra (talk | contribs)Edit filter managers, Administrators172,031 edits Saving copy of the {{chembox}} taken from revid 456300580 of page Solanine for the Chem/Drugbox validation project (updated: 'CASNo').		Latest revision as of 17:56, 4 January 2025 edit KMaster888 (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users11,547 edits ce
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			{{short description|Glycoalkaloid poison found in the nightshade family of plants}}
	{{ambox | text = This page contains a copy of the infobox ({{tl|chembox}}) taken from revid of page ] with values updated to verified values.}}
			{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
	{{chembox
			{{Distinguish|Solanin}}
	| verifiedrevid = 450579612
			{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
			{{Chembox
			| Verifiedfields = changed
			| Watchedfields = changed
			| verifiedrevid = 464404882
	| Name = α-Solanine		| Name = α-Solanine
	| ImageFile = Solanine chemical structure.png		| ImageFile = Solanine.svg
	| ImageSize = 350px		| ImageSize = 250px
	| ImageFile2 = Solanine_3d_structure.png		| ImageFile2 = Solanine_3d_structure.png
	| ImageSize2 = 350px		| ImageSize2 =
			| IUPACName = Solanid-5-en-3β-yl α-<small>L</small>-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→2)--β-<small>D</small>-galactopyranoside
	| IUPACName =
			| SystematicName = (2''S'',3''R'',4''R'',5''R'',6''S'')-2-<nowiki/>{indenoindolizin-2-yl]oxy}-4-{oxy}oxan-3-yl]oxy}-6-methyloxane-3,4,5-triol
	| OtherNames =
			| OtherNames = α-Solanine; Solanin; Solatunine
	| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
			| Section1=
	| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
			{{Chembox Identifiers
	| ChemSpiderID = 5020632
			| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|changed|chemspider}}
	| InChI = 1/C45H73NO15/c1-19-6-9-27-20(2)31-28(46(27)16-19)15-26-24-8-7-22-14-23(10-12-44(22,4)25(24)11-13-45(26,31)5)57-43-40(61-41-37(54)35(52)32(49)21(3)56-41)39(34(51)30(18-48)59-43)60-42-38(55)36(53)33(50)29(17-47)58-42/h7,19-21,23-43,47-55H,6,8-18H2,1-5H3/t19-,20+,21-,23?,24+,25-,26-,27+,28-,29+,30+,31-,32-,33+,34-,35+,36-,37+,38+,39-,40+,41+,42-,43+,44-,45-/m0/s1
			| ChemSpiderID = 28033
	| InChIKey = ZGVSETXHNHBTRK-WWELWOLRBD
			| SMILES = C1CC2(3(N2C1)C43(CC54CC=C65(CC(C6)O7((((O7)CO)O)O8((((O8)CO)O)O)O)O9((((O9)C)O)O)O)C)C)C
	| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
	| StdInChI = 1S/C45H73NO15/c1-19-6-9-27-20(2)31-28(46(27)16-19)15-26-24-8-7-22-14-23(10-12-44(22,4)25(24)11-13-45(26,31)5)57-43-40(61-41-37(54)35(52)32(49)21(3)56-41)39(34(51)30(18-48)59-43)60-42-38(55)36(53)33(50)29(17-47)58-42/h7,19-21,23-43,47-55H,6,8-18H2,1-5H3/t19-,20+,21-,23?,24+,25-,26-,27+,28-,29+,30+,31-,32-,33+,34-,35+,36-,37+,38+,39-,40+,41+,42-,43+,44-,45-/m0/s1		| InChI = 1/C45H73NO15/c1-19-6-9-27-20(2)31-28(46(27)16-19)15-26-24-8-7-22-14-23(10-12-44(22,4)25(24)11-13-45(26,31)5)57-43-40(61-41-37(54)35(52)32(49)21(3)56-41)39(34(51)30(18-48)59-43)60-42-38(55)36(53)33(50)29(17-47)58-42/h7,19-21,23-43,47-55H,6,8-18H2,1-5H3/t19-,20+,21-,23-,24+,25-,26-,27+,28-,29+,30+,31-,32-,33+,34-,35+,36-,37+,38+,39-,40+,41+,42-,43+,44-,45-/m0/s1
			| InChIKey = ZGVSETXHNHBTRK-OTYSSXIJBP
	| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
			| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}}
	| StdInChIKey = ZGVSETXHNHBTRK-WWELWOLRSA-N
			| StdInChI = 1S/C45H73NO15/c1-19-6-9-27-20(2)31-28(46(27)16-19)15-26-24-8-7-22-14-23(10-12-44(22,4)25(24)11-13-45(26,31)5)57-43-40(61-41-37(54)35(52)32(49)21(3)56-41)39(34(51)30(18-48)59-43)60-42-38(55)36(53)33(50)29(17-47)58-42/h7,19-21,23-43,47-55H,6,8-18H2,1-5H3/t19-,20+,21-,23-,24+,25-,26-,27+,28-,29+,30+,31-,32-,33+,34-,35+,36-,37+,38+,39-,40+,41+,42-,43+,44-,45-/m0/s1
	| CASNo = <!-- blanked - oldvalue: 20562-02-1 -->
			| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}}
	| PubChem = 6537493
			| StdInChIKey = ZGVSETXHNHBTRK-OTYSSXIJSA-N
	| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
			| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
	| UNII = 3FYV8328OK
	| SMILES = }}		| CASNo = 20562-02-1
			| PubChem = 6537493
	| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
			| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|changed|EBI}}
	| Formula = C<sub>45</sub>H<sub>73</sub>NO<sub>15</sub>
	| MolarMass = 868.06		| ChEBI = 9188
			| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
	| Appearance = white crystalline solid
			| UNII = 3FYV8328OK
	| Density =
			}}
	| MeltingPt = 271 - 273 °C
			|Section2=
	| BoilingPt =
			{{Chembox Properties
	| Solubility = }}
			| Formula = C<sub>45</sub>H<sub>73</sub>NO<sub>15</sub>
	| Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards
			| MolarMass = 868.06
	| EUClass =
			| Appearance = white crystalline solid
	| ExternalMSDS =
	| FlashPt =		| Density =
			| MeltingPtC = 271 to 273
	| Autoignition = }}
			| MeltingPt_notes =
			| BoilingPt =
			| Solubility =
			}}
			|Section3=
			{{Chembox Hazards
			| ExternalMSDS =
			| FlashPt =
			| AutoignitionPt =
			}}
	}}		}}
			'''Solanine''' is a ] ] found in species of the ] family within the genus '']'', such as the ] (''Solanum tuberosum''). It can occur naturally in any part of the plant, including the ], ], and ]s. Solanine has ] properties, and it is one of the plant's ]. Solanine was first isolated in 1820 from the ] of the European black nightshade ('']''), after which it was named.<ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Desfosses |title=Extrait d'une lettre de M. Desfosses, pharmacien, à Besançon, à M. Robiquet |journal=Journal de Pharmacie |date=1820 |volume=6 |pages=374–376 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015062276103&view=1up&seq=468&skin=2021 |series=2nd series |trans-title=Extract of a letter from Mr. Desfosses, pharmacist in Besançon, to Mr. Robiquet |language=French}}</ref> It belongs to the chemical family of ]s.
			== Solanine poisoning ==
			=== Symptoms ===
			Solanine poisoning is primarily displayed by gastrointestinal and neurological disorders. Symptoms include ], ], ], stomach cramps, burning of the throat, ], ], ], ], itching, ], thyroid problems, and inflammation and pain in the joints. In more severe cases, ]s, loss of sensation, ], ], ], ], ], and death have been reported.<ref>{{cite news|title=Solanine poisoning – how does it happen? |url=http://msue.anr.msu.edu/news/solanine_poisoning_how_does_it_happen |date=7 February 2014 |access-date=24 September 2018 }}</ref><ref name="MP"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/horrific-tales-of-potatoes-that-caused-mass-sickness-and-even-death-3162870/ |title=Horrific Tales of Potatoes That Caused Mass Sickness and Even Death |publisher=Smithsonian Magazine |date=21 Oct 2013 |author=K. Annabelle Smith}}</ref>
			Ingestion of solanine in moderate amounts can cause death. One study suggests that doses of 2 to 5&nbsp;mg/kg of body weight can cause toxic symptoms, and doses of 3 to 6&nbsp;mg/kg of body weight can be fatal.<ref> {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060815010907/http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=6F5E930D-F1F6-975E-7037ACA48ABB25F4 |date=15 August 2006 }}</ref>
			Symptoms usually occur 8 to 12 hours after ingestion, but may occur as rapidly as 10 minutes after eating high-solanine foods.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			=== Correlation with birth defects ===
			Some studies show a correlation between the consumption of potatoes suffering from ] (which increases solanine and other ] levels) and the incidence of ] in humans.{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} However, other studies have shown no correlation between potato consumption and the incidence of birth defects.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v30je19.htm | title=Solanine and Chaconine | access-date=31 May 2009}}</ref>
			=== Livestock poisoning ===
			Livestock can also be susceptible to glycoalkaloids. High concentrations of solanine are necessary to cause death to mammals. The gastrointestinal tract cannot efficiently absorb solanine, which helps decrease its strength to the mammal body.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dalvi RR, Bowie WC |title=Toxicology of solanine: an overview |journal=Vet Hum Toxicol |date=Feb 1983 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=13–5 |pmid= 6338654}}</ref> Livestock can hydrolyze solanine and excrete its contents to diminish its presence in the body.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
			== Mechanism of action ==
			There are several proposed mechanisms of how solanine causes toxicity in humans, but the true mechanism of action is not well understood. '']'' ] have been shown to inhibit ], disrupt cell membranes, and ].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Friedman |first1=Mendel |last2=McDonald |first2=Gary M. |chapter=Postharvest Changes in Glycoalkaloid Content of Potatoes |editor1-first=Lauren S. |editor1-last=Jackson |editor2-first=Mark G. |editor2-last=Knize |editor3-first=Jeffrey N. |editor3-last=Morgan |title=Impact of Processing on Food Safety |series=Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology |volume=459 |pages=121–43 |year=1999 |pmid=10335373 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-4853-9_9 |isbn=978-1-4615-4853-9 }}</ref> One study suggests that the toxic mechanism of solanine is caused by the chemical's interaction with ] membranes. Experiments show that solanine exposure opens the ]s of mitochondria, increasing their ]. This, in turn, leads to Ca<sup>2+</sup> being transported from the mitochondria into the cytoplasm, and this increased concentration of Ca<sup>2+</sup> in the cytoplasm triggers cell damage and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Shi-Yong |last2=Wang |first2=Qiu-Juan |last3=Ji |first3=Yu-Bin |title=Effect of solanine on the membrane potential of mitochondria in HepG<sub>2</sub> cells and <sub>i</sub> in the cells |journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |volume=12 |issue=21 |pages=3359–67 |year=2006 |pmid=16733852 |pmc=4087866 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v12.i21.3359 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Potato, tomato, and eggplant glycoalkaloids like solanine have also been shown to affect ] of sodium across cell membranes.<ref name="mendel">{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=Mendel |title=Potato Glycoalkaloids and Metabolites Roles in the Plant and in the Diet |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=November 2006 |volume=54 |issue=23 |pages=8655–8681 |doi=10.1021/jf061471t|pmid=17090106 }}</ref> This cell membrane disruption is likely the cause of many of the symptoms of solanine toxicity, including burning sensations in the mouth, nausea, vomiting, ] cramps, diarrhea, internal ], and stomach ].<ref name=autogenerated5>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=Mendel |last2=McDonald |first2=Gary M. |last3=Filadelfi-Keszi |first3=MaryAnn |title=Potato Glycoalkaloids: Chemistry, Analysis, Safety, and Plant Physiology |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |date=22 September 2010 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=55–132 |doi=10.1080/07352689709701946}}</ref>
			== Biosynthesis ==
			]
			Solanine is a ] poison created by various plants in the genus '']'', such as the potato plant. When the plant's stem, tubers, or leaves are exposed to sunlight, it stimulates the ] of solanine and other glycoalkaloids as a defense mechanism so it is not eaten.<ref name=autogenerated3>{{cite journal |last1=Itkin |first1=Maxim |last2=Rogachev |first2=Ilana |last3=Alkan |first3=Noam |last4=Rosenberg |first4=Tally |last5=Malitsky |first5=Sergey |last6=Masini |first6=Laura |last7=Meir |first7=Sagit |last8=Iijima |first8=Yoko |last9=Aoki |first9=Koh |last10=de Vos |first10=Ric |last11=Prusky |first11=Dov |last12=Burdman |first12=Saul |last13=Beekwilder |first13=Jules |last14=Aharoni |first14=Asaph |display-authors=3|title=GLYCOALKALOID METABOLISM1 Is Required for Steroidal Alkaloid Glycosylation and Prevention of Phytotoxicity in Tomato |journal=The Plant Cell |date=December 2011 |volume=23 |issue=12 |pages=4507–4525 |doi=10.1105/tpc.111.088732|pmid=22180624 |pmc=3269880 }}</ref> It is therefore considered to be a natural ].{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			Though the structures of the intermediates in this biosynthetic pathway are shown, many of the specific ]s involved in these chemical processes are not known. However, it is known that in the biosynthesis of solanine, ] is first converted into the steroidal alkaloid ]. This is accomplished through a series of ], ], ], ], ], and ] reactions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ohyama |first1=Kiyoshi |last2=Okawa |first2=Akiko |last3=Moriuchi |first3=Yuka |last4=Fujimoto |first4=Yoshinori |title=Biosynthesis of steroidal alkaloids in Solanaceae plants: Involvement of an aldehyde intermediate during C-26 amination |journal=Phytochemistry |date=May 2013 |volume=89 |pages=26–31 |doi=10.1016/j.phytochem.2013.01.010|pmid=23473422 |bibcode=2013PChem..89...26O }}</ref> Specifically, solanidine formation involves sequential hydroxylation, transamination, and cyclization reactions<ref name=":1" />.The solanidine is then converted into solanine through a series of ] reactions catalyzed by specific ].<ref name=autogenerated3 />
			Plants like the potato and tomato constantly synthesize low levels of glycoalkaloids like solanine. However, under stress, such as the presence of a ] or ], they increase the synthesis of compounds like solanine as a natural ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lachman |first1=J. |last2=Hamouz |first2=K. |last3=Orsak |first3=M. |last4=Pivec |first4=V. (Ceska Zemedelska Univ |title=Potato glycoalkaloids and their significance in plant protection and human nutrition – review |journal=Rostlinna Vyroba – UZPI (Czech Republic) |date=2001 |url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=CZ2001000620 |language=en |issn=0370-663X}}</ref> This rapid increase in glycoalkaloid concentration gives the potatoes a ], and stressful ] like light also stimulate ] and the accumulation of ]. As a result, the potatoes turn green, and are thus unattractive to pests.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chowański |first1=Szymon |last2=Adamski |first2=Zbigniew |last3=Marciniak |first3=Paweł |last4=Rosiński |first4=Grzegorz |last5=Büyükgüzel |first5=Ender |last6=Büyükgüzel |first6=Kemal |last7=Falabella |first7=Patrizia |last8=Scrano |first8=Laura |last9=Ventrella |first9=Emanuela |last10=Lelario |first10=Filomena |last11=Bufo |display-authors=3|first11=Sabino |title=A Review of Bioinsecticidal Activity of Solanaceae Alkaloids |journal=Toxins |date=1 March 2016 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=60 |doi=10.3390/toxins8030060|pmid=26938561 |pmc=4810205 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other stressors that can stimulate increased solanine biosynthesis include mechanical damage, improper storage conditions, improper food processing, and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hlywka |first1=Jason J. |last2=Stephenson |first2=Gerald R. |last3=Sears |first3=Mark K. |last4=Yada |first4=Rickey Y. |title=Effects of insect damage on glycoalkaloid content in potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=November 1994 |volume=42 |issue=11 |pages=2545–2550 |doi=10.1021/jf00047a032}}</ref> The largest concentration of solanine in response to stress is on the surface in the peel, making it an even better defense mechanism against pests trying to consume it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bushway |first1=Rodney J. |last2=Ponnampalam |first2=Rathy |title=.alpha.-Chaconine and .alpha.-solanine content of potato products and their stability during several modes of cooking |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=July 1981 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=814–817 |doi=10.1021/jf00106a033}}</ref>
			== Safety ==
			=== Suggested limits on consumption of solanine ===
			] typically occurs when people ingest ] containing high levels of solanine. The average consumption of potatoes in the U.S. is estimated to be about 167 g of potatoes per day per person.<ref name=autogenerated5 /> There is variation in ] levels in different types of potatoes, but potato farmers aim to keep solanine levels below 0.2&nbsp;mg/g.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Beier |first1=Ross |title=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology |date=1990 |publisher=Springer New York |isbn=978-1-4612-7983-9}}</ref> Signs of solanine poisoning have been linked to eating potatoes with solanine concentrations of between 0.1 and 0.4&nbsp;mg per gram of potato.<ref name=":0" /> The average potato has 0.075&nbsp;mg solanine/g potato, which is equal to about 0.18&nbsp;mg/kg based on average daily potato consumption.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite journal |last1=Jadhav |first1=S. J. |last2=Sharma |first2=Raghubir P. |last3=Salunkhe |first3=D. K. |title=Naturally Occurring Toxic Alkaloids in Foods |journal=CRC Critical Reviews in Toxicology |date=26 September 2008 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=21–104 |doi=10.3109/10408448109059562|pmid=7018841 }}</ref>
			Calculations have shown that 2 to 5&nbsp;mg/kg of body weight is the likely toxic dose of glycoalkaloids like solanine in humans, with 3 to 6&nbsp;mg/kg constituting the fatal dose.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite journal |last1=S.c |first1=Morris |last2=T.h |first2=Lee |title=The toxicity and teratogenicity of Solanaceae glycoalkaloids, particularly those of the potato (Solanum tuberosum): a review. |journal=Food Technology in Australia |date=1984 |url=http://agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID=AU19850092379 |language=en |issn=0015-6647}}</ref> Other studies have shown that symptoms of toxicity were observed with consumption of even 1&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref name=autogenerated5 />
			=== Storage of potatoes ===
			Various storage conditions can have an impact on the level of solanine in potatoes. ] levels increase when potatoes are exposed to light because light increases ] of glycoalkaloids like solanine.<ref name=":0" /> Potatoes stored in a dark place avoid increased solanine synthesis. Potatoes that have turned green due to increased ] and ] are indicative of increased light exposure and are therefore associated with high levels of solanine.<ref name=autogenerated2 /> Synthesis of solanine is also stimulated by mechanical injury because glycoalkaloids are synthesized at cut surfaces of potatoes.<ref name=":0" /> Storage of potatoes for extended periods of time has also been associated with increased solanine content.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=AM |last2=McGann |first2=DF |last3=Bushway |first3=RJ |title=Effect of Growth-Location and Length of Storage on Glycoalkaloid Content of Roadside-Stand Potatoes as Stored by Consumers. |journal=Journal of Food Protection |date=February 1983 |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=119–121 |doi=10.4315/0362-028X-46.2.119 |pmid=30913609|doi-access=free }}</ref> A study found that the solanine levels in Kurfi Jyoti and Kurfi Giriraj potatoes increase solanine levels by 0.232&nbsp;mg/g and 0.252&nbsp;mg/g respectively after being poorly stored in a heap.<ref>Haseena, R., Ganapathy, S., Pandiarajan, T., &amp; Amirtham, D. (2019). Effect of storage methods on solanine content of potato tubers. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 8(6), 1677–1679.</ref>
			=== Effects of cooking on solanine levels ===
			Most home processing methods like boiling, cooking, and frying potatoes have been shown to have minimal effects on solanine levels. For example, ] potatoes reduces the α-chaconine and α-solanine levels by only 3.5% and 1.2% respectively, but ] potatoes reduces the ] content by 15%.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Phillips |first1=B.J. |last2=Hughes |first2=J.A. |last3=Phillips |first3=J.C. |last4=Walters |first4=D.G. |last5=Anderson |first5=D. |last6=Tahourdin |first6=C.S.M. |display-authors=3 |title=A study of the toxic hazard that might be associated with the consumption of green potato tops |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |date=May 1996 |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=439–448 |doi=10.1016/0278-6915(96)87354-6|pmid=8655092 }}</ref> ] at {{convert|150|C|F}} also does not result in any measurable change. ] like solanine have been shown to start decomposing and degrading at approximately {{convert|170|C|F}}, and deep-frying potatoes at {{convert|210|C|F}} for 10 minutes causes a loss of ~40% of the solanine.<ref name="mendel"/> ] and ] potatoes has a very minimal effect on solanine content.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tice|first=Raymond|url=https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/chem_background/exsumpdf/chaconinesolanine_508.pdf|title=Review of toxicological literature|date=February 1998|type=PhD Thesis}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated4>{{cite journal |last1=Maga |first1=Joseph A. |last2=Fitzpatrick |first2=Thomas J. |title=Potato glycoalkaloids |journal=CRC Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=29 September 2009 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=371–405 |doi=10.1080/10408398009527281|pmid=6996922 }}</ref>
			The majority (30–80%) of the solanine in potatoes is found in the outer layer of the potato.<ref name=autogenerated4 /> Therefore, peeling potatoes before cooking them reduces the glycoalkaloid intake from potato consumption. Fried potato peels have been shown to have 1.4–1.5&nbsp;mg solanine/g, which is seven times the recommended upper safety limit of 0.2&nbsp;mg/g.<ref name=":0" /> Chewing a small piece of the raw potato peel before cooking can help determine the level of solanine contained in the potato; ]ness indicates high glycoalkaloid content.<ref name=":0" /> If the potato has more than 0.2&nbsp;mg/g of solanine, an immediate burning sensation will develop in the mouth.<ref name=":0" />
			== Recorded human poisonings ==
			Though ] from solanine poisoning are rare, there have been several notable cases of human solanine poisonings. Between 1865 and 1983, there were around 2000 documented human cases of solanine poisoning, with most recovering fully and 30 deaths.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cheeke |first1=Peter R. |title=Toxicants of Plant Origin: Alkaloids |date=1989 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-6990-2 |language=en}}</ref> Because the symptoms are similar to those of ], it is possible that there are many undiagnosed cases of solanine ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Friedman |first1=M |last2=Roitman |first2=JN |last3=Kozukue |first3=N |title=Glycoalkaloid and calystegine contents of eight potato cultivars. |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=7 May 2003 |volume=51 |issue=10 |pages=2964–73 |doi=10.1021/jf021146f |pmid=12720378}}</ref>
			In 1899, 56 German soldiers fell ill due to solanine poisoning after consuming cooked potatoes containing 0.24&nbsp;mg of solanine per gram of potato.<ref>{{cite book |title=Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants |year=1993 |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=9241660325}}</ref> There were no fatalities, but a few soldiers were left partially ] and ]. In 1918, there were 41 cases of solanine poisoning in people who had eaten a bad crop of potatoes with 0.43&nbsp;mg solanine/g potato with no recorded fatalities.<ref name=autogenerated4 />
			In Scotland in 1918, there were 61 cases of solanine poisoning after consumption of potatoes containing 0.41&nbsp;mg of solanine per gram of potato, resulting in the death of a five-year old.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Willimott |first1=S. G. |title=An investigation of solanine poisoning |journal=The Analyst |date=1933 |volume=58 |issue=689 |pages=431 |doi=10.1039/AN9335800431|bibcode=1933Ana....58..431W }}</ref>
			A ] from 1925 reported that 7 family members who ate green potatoes fell ill from solanine poisoning two days later, resulting in the deaths of the 45-year-old mother and 16-year-old daughter. The other family members recovered fully.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> In another case report from 1959, four members of a British family exhibited symptoms of solanine poisoning after eating ] containing 0.5&nbsp;mg of solanine per gram of potato.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			There was a mass solanine poisoning incident in 1979 in the U.K., when 78 adolescent boys at a boarding school exhibited symptoms after eating potatoes that had been stored improperly over the summer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=M |last2=Thompson |first2=JC |title=An outbreak of suspected solanine poisoning in schoolboys: Examinations of criteria of solanine poisoning. |journal=The Quarterly Journal of Medicine |date=April 1979 |volume=48 |issue=190 |pages=227–43 |pmid=504549}}</ref> Seventeen of them ended up hospitalized, but they all recovered. The potatoes were determined to have between 0.25 and 0.3&nbsp;mg of solanine per gram of potato.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			Another mass poisoning was reported in Canada in 1984, after 61 schoolchildren and teachers showed symptoms of solanine toxicity after consuming baked potatoes with 0.5&nbsp;mg of solanine per gram of potato.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hopkins |first1=James |title=The glycoalkaloids: Naturally of interest (but a hot potato?) |journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology |date=1 April 1995 |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=323–328 |doi=10.1016/0278-6915(94)00148-H |pmid=7737605 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/027869159400148H |language=en |issn=0278-6915}}</ref>
			== In potatoes ==
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			Potatoes naturally produce solanine and ], a related glycoalkaloid, as a ] against ]s, ], and ]s. Potato ], ], and ]s are naturally high in glycoalkaloids.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			When potato ]s are exposed to light, they turn green and increase glycoalkaloid production. This is a natural defense to help prevent the uncovered tuber from being eaten. The green colour is from ], and is itself harmless. However, it is an indication that increased level of solanine and ] may be present. In potato tubers, 30–80% of the solanine develops in and close to the skin, and some potato varieties have high levels of solanine.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			Some potato diseases, such as ], can dramatically increase the levels of glycoalkaloids present in potatoes. Tubers damaged in harvesting and/or transport also produce increased levels of glycoalkaloids; this is believed to be a natural reaction of the plant in response to disease and damage.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			Also, the tuber glycoalkaloids (such as solanine) can be affected by some chemical fertilization. For example, different studies have reported that glycoalkaloids content increases by increasing the concentration of nitrogen fertilizer.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Najm |first1=AA |last2=Haj Seyed Hadi |first2=MR | last3=F|first3=Fazeli |last4= Darzi|first4=MT|last5= Rahi|first5=A|display-authors=3|title= Effect of Integrated Management of Nitrogen Fertilizer and Cattle Manure on the Leaf Chlorophyll, Yield, and Tube Glycoalkaloids of Agria Potato|journal=Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis|volume=43 |issue=6|pages=912–923|year=2012 |doi=10.1080/00103624.2012.653027|bibcode=2012CSSPA..43..912N |s2cid=98187389 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tajner-Czopek |first1=A|last2= Jarych-Szyszka|first2=M| last3= Fazeli|first3= Fazeh |last4= Lisinska |first4=G|title= Changes in glycoalkaloids content 'of potatoes destined for consumption|journal=Food Chemistry |volume=106 |pages=706–711|year=2008 |issue=2|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.06.034}}</ref>
			Green colouring under the skin strongly suggests solanine build-up in potatoes, although each process can occur without the other. A ] in a potato is another – potentially more reliable – indicator of toxicity. Because of the bitter taste and appearance of such potatoes, solanine poisoning is rare outside conditions of food shortage. The symptoms are mainly ] and ], and the condition may be misdiagnosed as ]. Most potato poisoning victims recover fully, although fatalities are known, especially when victims are undernourished or do not receive suitable treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Solanine poisoning |journal=BMJ |volume=2 |issue=6203 |pages=1458–9 |year=1979 |pmid=526812 |pmc=1597169 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.6203.1458-a }}</ref>
			The United States ]'s information on solanine strongly advises against eating potatoes that are green below the skin.<ref name="MP">{{MedlinePlusEncyclopedia|002875|Potato plant poisoning – green tubers and sprouts}}</ref>
			== In other plants ==
			Fatalities are also known from solanine poisoning from other plants in the nightshade family, such as the berries of '']'' (woody nightshade).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alexander |first1=R. F. |last2=Forbes |first2=G. B. |last3=Hawkins |first3=E. S. |title=A Fatal Case of Solanine Poisoning |journal=BMJ |volume=2 |issue=4575 |pages=518 |year=1948 |pmid=18881287 |pmc=2091497 |doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4575.518 }}</ref>
			==={{vanchor|In tomatoes}}===
			Some, such as the California ], have claimed that unripe ]es and tomato leaves contain solanine. However, Mendel Friedman of the United States Department of Agriculture contradicts this claim, stating that ], a relatively benign alkaloid, is the tomato alkaloid while solanine is found in potatoes. Food science writer ] has found scant evidence for tomato toxicity in the medical and veterinary literature.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/29/dining/29curi.html | work=The New York Times | title=Accused, Yes, but Probably Not a Killer | first=Harold | last=McGee | date=2009-07-29 | access-date=2010-05-23}}</ref>
			== In popular culture ==
			]'s short story "The Leopard Lady", in the 1939 collection '']'', features a child poisoned by ] injected with solanine to increase their toxicity.{{Citation needed |date=March 2024}}
			== See also ==
			* ]
			* ]
			== References ==
			{{reflist}}
			== External links ==
			{{Commons category}}
			*
			* {{MedlinePlusEncyclopedia|002875}} – "Green tubers and sprouts"
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