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			{{Short description|Disaccharide made of glucose and fructose}}
			{{About||the fictional character|List of Genshin Impact characters#Sucrose}}
	{{chembox		{{chembox
			| Watchedfields = changed
	| verifiedrevid = 394361855
			| verifiedrevid = 458434693
	| Name = Sucrose
	| ImageFile1 = Sucrose CASCC.png		| Name = Sucrose
	| ImageFile1 size = 100px		| ImageFile1 = Saccharose2.svg
	| ImageName1 = Skeletal formula of sucrose		| ImageName1 = Haworth projection of sucrose
			| ImageClass1 = skin-invert-image
	| ImageFile2 = Sucrose-rodmodel.png
	| ImageFile2 size = 100px		| ImageFile2 = Sucrose-from-xtal-3D-bs-17.png
	| ImageName2 = Ball-and-stick model of sucrose		| ImageName2 = Ball-and-stick model of sucrose
			| IUPACName = β-<small>D</small>-Fructofuranosyl α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside
	| IUPACName = (2''R'',3''R'',4''S'',5''S'',6''R'')-2-oxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-3,4,5-triol
			| SystematicName = (2''R'',3''R'',4''S'',5''S'',6''R''<nowiki>)-2-{oxy}-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-3,4,5-triol
	| IUPACName_hidden = yes
			| OtherNames = {{ubli
	| OtherNames = Sugar; Saccharose; β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranosyl-(2→1)-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside; &beta;-(2''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-fructofuranosyl-&alpha;-(1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-glucopyranoside
			| Sugar;
	| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
			| Saccharose;
	| InChI = 1/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(19)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
			| α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranoside;
			| β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranosyl-(2→1)-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside;
			| β-(2''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-fructofuranosyl-α-(1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-glucopyranoside;
			| α-(1''R'',2''R'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-glucopyranosyl-β-(2''S'',3''S'',4''S'',5''R'')-fructofuranoside;
			| Dodecacarbon monodecahydrate;
			| ((2R,3R,4S,5S,6R)-2-oxy-6-(hydroxymethyl)oxahexane-3,4,5-triol)
			}}
			| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
			| IUPHAR_ligand = 5411
			| InChI = 1/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(264115619)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
	| CASNo = 57-50-1		| CASNo = 57-50-1
			| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
	| ChEMBL = 253582		| ChEMBL = 253582
	| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}		| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
	| EC-number = 200-334-9		| EC_number = 200-334-9
	| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}		| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
	| ChemSpiderID = 5768		| ChemSpiderID = 5768
	| PubChem = 5988		| PubChem = 5988
	| RTECS = WN6500000		| RTECS = WN6500000
			| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
	| DrugBank = DB02772		| DrugBank = DB02772
			| KEGG = C00089
			| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
	| UNII = C151H8M554		| UNII = C151H8M554
			| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
	| ChEBI = 17992		| ChEBI = 17992
			| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
	| StdInChI = 1S/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(19)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1		| StdInChI = 1S/C12H22O11/c13-1-4-6(16)8(18)9(19)11(21-4)23-12(3-15)10(20)7(17)5(2-14)22-12/h4-11,13-20H,1-3H2/t4-,5-,6-,7-,8+,9-,10+,11-,12+/m1/s1
			| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
	| StdInChIKey = CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N		| StdInChIKey = CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N
	| SMILES = O1(CO)(O)(O)(O)1O2(O((O)2O)CO)CO		| SMILES = O1(CO)(O)(O)(O)1O2(O((O)2O)CO)CO
	}}		}}
	| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties		| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
	| Reference = <ref name="ICSC">{{ICSC-ref|1507|name=Sucrose|date=November 2003}}</ref>		| Properties_ref = <ref name="ICSC">{{ICSC-ref|1507|name=Sucrose|date=November 2003}}</ref>
	| Formula = C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>		| Formula = {{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}
	| MolarMass = 342.30 g/mol		| MolarMass = 342.30 g/mol
	| Appearance = white solid		| Appearance = Colourless crystals or white powder
	| Density = 1.587 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, solid		| Density = {{cvt|1.587|g/cm3}}, solid
	| Solubility = 2000 g/L (25 °C)		| Solubility = 2.01 g/mL ({{cvt|20|°C}})
	| MeltingPt = 186 °C decomp.		| MeltingPt = None; decomposes at {{convert|186|°C|°F K|abbr=on}}
	| LogP = −3.76		| LogP = −3.76
	}}		}}
	| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure		| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
			| Thermochemistry_ref =
	| CrystalStruct = ]
			| HeatCapacity =
	| SpaceGroup = P2<sub>1</sub>
	| Dipole =		| Entropy =
			| DeltaHf = {{cvt|-2226.1|kJ/mol}}<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Haynes |editor1-first=W. M. |editor2-last=Lide |editor2-first=David R. |editor3-last=Bruno |editor3-first=Thomas J. |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |date=2014–2015 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1482208672 |edition=95th |pages=5–40}}</ref>
			| DeltaGf =
			| DeltaHc ={{cvt|1349.6|kcal/mol|kJ/mol}}<ref name=CRC>'']'', 49th edition, 1968–1969, p. D-188.</ref> (])}}
			| Section3 = {{Chembox Structure
			| CrystalStruct = ]
			| SpaceGroup = P2<sub>1</sub>
			| Dipole =
	}}		}}
	| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards		| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
	| ExternalMSDS =		| ExternalSDS =
	| EUIndex = not listed		| NFPA-H = 0
			| NFPA-F = 1
			| NFPA-R = 0
			| LD50 = 29700 mg/kg (oral, rat)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/57-50-1 |website=ChemIDplus |title=57-50-1 - CZMRCDWAGMRECN-UGDNZRGBSA-N - Sucrose |access-date=2014-08-10 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812222747/https://chem.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/rn/57-50-1 |archive-date=2014-08-12 }}</ref>
			| PEL = TWA 15 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0574}}</ref>
			| IDLH = N.D.<ref name=PGCH/>
			| REL = TWA 10 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (total) TWA 5 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (resp)<ref name=PGCH/>
	}}		}}
	| Section8 = {{Chembox Related		| Section8 = {{Chembox Related
	| OtherCpds = ]<br/>]		| OtherCompounds = ]<br />]
	}}		}}
	}}		}}
			'''Sucrose''', a ], is a ] composed of ] and ] subunits. It is produced naturally in plants and is the main constituent of ]. It has the ] {{chem|C|12|H|22|O|11}}.
	'''Sucrose''' is the ] commonly known as '''table sugar''' and sometimes called '''saccharose'''. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its role in ]. The molecule is a ] composed of ] and ] with the ] C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub>. About 150,000,000 tonnes (metric tons) are produced annually.<ref>Hubert Schiweck, Margaret Clarke, Günter Pollach Sugar" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'' 2007, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a25_345.pub2}}</ref>
			For human consumption, sucrose is extracted and refined from either ] or ]. ]s – typically located in ] near where sugarcane is grown – crush the cane and produce raw sugar which is shipped to other factories for refining into pure sucrose. Sugar beet factories are located in ]s where the beet is grown, and process the beets directly into refined sugar. The ] process involves washing the raw sugar crystals before dissolving them into a sugar syrup which is filtered and then passed over carbon to remove any residual colour. The sugar syrup is then concentrated by boiling under a vacuum and crystallized as the final purification process to produce crystals of pure sucrose that are clear, odorless, and sweet.
			Sugar is often an ] ingredient in food production and recipes. About 185 million ]s of sugar were produced worldwide in 2017.
			Sucrose is particularly dangerous as a risk factor for ] because '']'' bacteria convert it into a sticky, extracellular, ]-based ] that allows them to cohere, forming ]. Sucrose is the only sugar that bacteria can use to form this sticky polysaccharide.
			==Etymology==
			The word ''sucrose'' was coined in 1857, by the English chemist ]<ref>William Allen Miller, ''Elements of Chemistry: Theoretical and Practical'', Part III. Organic Chemistry (London, England: John W. Parker and son, 1857), {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424193600/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuMHAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA52 |date=2017-04-24 }}.</ref> from the ] {{lang|fr|sucre}} ("sugar") and the generic chemical suffix for sugars '']''. The abbreviated term ''Suc'' is often used for ''sucrose'' in scientific literature.
			The name ''saccharose'' was coined in 1860 by the French chemist ].<ref>Marcellin Berthelot, ''Chimie organique fondée sur la synthèse'' (Paris, France: Mallet-Bachelier, 1860), {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627013507/https://books.google.com/books?id=7AtQYV5FlVwC&pg=PA254 |date=2014-06-27 }}.</ref> Saccharose is an obsolete name for sugars in general, especially sucrose.
	==Physical and chemical properties==		==Physical and chemical properties==
	Sucrose is a molecule with five ]s and many sites that are reactive or can be reactive. The molecule exists as a single ].
	===Structural β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranulosyl-(2→1)-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranoside===		===Structural O-α-<small>D</small>-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranoside===
	In sucrose, the components glucose and fructose are linked via an ether bond between C1 on the glucosyl subunit and C2 on the fructosyl unit. The bond is called a ]. Glucose exists predominantly as two isomeric "pyranoses" (α and β), but only one of these forms the links to the fructose. Fructose itself exists as a mixture of "furanoses", each of which has α and β isomers, but again only one particular isomer links to the glucosyl unit. What is notable about sucrose is that unlike most disaccharides, the glycosidic bond is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the nonreducing end of the other. This linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units. Since it contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non].		In sucrose, the ]s glucose and fructose are linked via an ether bond between C1 on the ] subunit and C2 on the ] unit. The bond is called a ]. Glucose exists predominantly as a mixture of α and β "pyranose" ]s, but sucrose has only the α form. Fructose exists as a mixture of five ]s but sucrose has only the β-<small>D</small>-fructofuranose form. Unlike most ]s, the glycosidic bond in sucrose is formed between the reducing ends of both glucose and fructose, and not between the reducing end of one and the non-reducing end of the other. This linkage inhibits further bonding to other saccharide units, and prevents sucrose from spontaneously reacting with cellular and circulatory macromolecules in the manner that glucose and other reducing sugars do. Since sucrose contains no anomeric hydroxyl groups, it is classified as a non-].
	Crystallography is the technique that gives highly precise information on molecular structure. Sucrose crystallizes in the ] ] P2<sub>1</sub>, with values at 300 ] being ''a'' = 1.08631&nbsp;nm, ''b'' = 0.87044&nbsp;nm, ''c'' = 0.77624&nbsp;nm, β = 102.938°.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal = Acta Cryst|year = 1952|volume = 5|pages = 689–690|doi = 10.1107/S0365110X52001908|title = The crystal structure of sucrose|author = C. A. Beevers, T. R. R. McDonald, J. H. Robertson and F. Stern}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/paper?gl0195 |title=(IUCr) Crystallography Journals Online - paper details |publisher=Scripts.iucr.org |date= |accessdate=2010-05-05}}</ref>		Sucrose crystallizes in the ] ] P2<sub>1</sub> with room-temperature lattice parameters ''a'' = 1.08631&nbsp;nm, ''b'' = 0.87044&nbsp;nm, ''c'' = 0.77624&nbsp;nm, β = 102.938°.<ref>{{Cite journal|journal = Acta Crystallogr|year = 1952|volume = 5|pages = 689–90|doi = 10.1107/S0365110X52001908|title = The crystal structure of sucrose|author1=Beevers, C. A. |author2=McDonald, T. R. R. |author3=Robertson, J. H. |author4=Stern, F. |issue = 5| bibcode=1952AcCry...5..689B }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1107/S0021889891002492|title=Sucrose, a convenient test crystal for absolute structures|year=1991|last1=Hynes|first1=R. C.|last2=Le Page|first2=Y.|journal=Journal of Applied Crystallography|volume=24|issue=4|page=352|bibcode=1991JApCr..24..352H }}</ref>
	The usual measure of purity of sucrose is by ] — the measurement of the rotation of ] by a solution of sugar. The ] at 20 °C using yellow "sodium-D" light (589&nbsp;nm) is +66.47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter. Sucrose is not damaged by air.		The purity of sucrose is measured by ], through the rotation of ] by a sugar solution. The ] at {{cvt|20|°C}} using yellow "sodium-D" light (589&nbsp;nm) is +66.47°. Commercial samples of sugar are assayed using this parameter. Sucrose does not deteriorate at ambient conditions.
	===Thermal and oxidative degradation===		===Thermal and oxidative degradation===
			Sucrose does not melt at high temperatures. Instead, it decomposes at {{convert|186|°C}} to form ]. Like other ]s, it combusts to ] and water by the simplified equation:
	<div style="float:right;margin-left:0.5em;">
			{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 12 O2 → 12 CO2 + 11 H2O}}
			Mixing sucrose with the oxidizer ] produces the fuel known as ] that is used to propel amateur rocket motors.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sucrose.html |first=Richard |last=Nakka| website=Experimental Rocketry |title=Potassium Nitrate/Sucrose Propellant (KNSU) |access-date=2015-11-19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026075559/https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/sucrose.html |archive-date=2015-10-26}}</ref>
			{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 6 KNO3 -> 9 CO + 3 N2 + 11 H2O + 3 K2CO3}}
			This reaction is somewhat simplified though. Some of the carbon does get fully oxidized to carbon dioxide, and other reactions, such as the ] also take place. A more accurate theoretical equation is:
			{{chem2|C12H22O11 + 6.288 KNO3 -> 3.796 CO2 + 5.205 CO + 7.794 H2O + 3.065 H2 + 3.143 N2 + 2.988 K2CO3 + 0.274 KOH}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/succhem.html |first=Richard |last=Nakka |website=Experimental Rocketry|title=KN-Sucrose (KNSU) Propellant Chemistry and Performance Characteristics |access-date=2014-08-21 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118052432/https://www.nakka-rocketry.net/succhem.html |archive-date=2014-11-18}}</ref>
			Sucrose burns with ], formed by the reaction of ] and ]:
			{{chem2|8 HClO3 + C12H22O11 -> 11 H2O + 12 CO2 + 8 HCl}}
			Sucrose can be dehydrated with ] to form a black, ]-rich solid, as indicated in the following idealized equation:
			{{chem2|H2SO4 (catalyst) + C12H22O11 -> 12 C + 11 H2O + heat (and some H2O + SO3 as a result of the heat).}}
			The formula for sucrose's decomposition can be represented as a two-step reaction: the first simplified reaction is dehydration of sucrose to pure carbon and water, and then carbon is oxidised to {{chem2|CO2}} by {{chem2|O2}} from air.
			{{chem2|C12H22O11 + heat -> 12 C + 11 H2O}}
			{{chem2|12 C + 12 O2 -> 12 CO2}}
			<div style="float:right;clear:right;margin-left:0.5em;">
	{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"		{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
	|+ Solubility of sucrose in water vs. temperature		|+ Solubility of sucrose in water vs. temperature
	! T (°C) !! S (g/ml)		! T (°C) !! S (g/dL)
	|-		|-
	|50 || 2.59		| 50 || 259
	|-		|-
	|55 || 2.73		| 55 || 273
	|-		|-
	|60 || 2.89		| 60 || 289
	|-		|-
	|65 || 3.06		| 65 || 306
	|-		|-
	|70 || 3.25		| 70 || 325
	|-		|-
	|75 || 3.46		| 75 || 346
	|-		|-
	|80 || 3.69		| 80 || 369
	|-		|-
	|85 || 3.94		| 85 || 394
	|-		|-
	|90 || 4.20		| 90 || 420
	|}		|}
	</div>		</div>
			===Hydrolysis===
	Sucrose decomposes as it melts at {{convert|186|°C}} to form ]. Like other ]s, it combusts to ] and water. For example, in the amateur rocket motor propellant called ] it is the fuel together with the oxidizer ].{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}
			] breaks the glycosidic bond converting sucrose into ] and ]. Hydrolysis is, however, so slow that solutions of sucrose can sit for years with negligible change. If the ] ] is added, however, the reaction will proceed rapidly.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425011926/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/571354/sucrase |date=2010-04-25 }}, ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''</ref> Hydrolysis can also be accelerated with acids, such as ] or lemon juice, both weak acids. Likewise, gastric acidity converts sucrose to glucose and fructose during digestion, the bond between them being an acetal bond which can be broken by an acid.
			Given ] of 1349.6&nbsp;kcal/mol for sucrose, 673.0 for glucose, and 675.6 for fructose,<ref>All three from '']'', 49th edition, 1968-1969, pp. D-184-189.</ref> hydrolysis releases about {{cvt|1.0|kcal|kJ}} per mole of sucrose, or about 3 ]s per gram of product.
	: 48 KNO<sub>3</sub> + 5 C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> → 24 K<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub> + 24 N<sub>2</sub> + 55 H<sub>2</sub>O + 36 CO<sub>2</sub>
			===Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose===
	Sucrose burns with chloric acid, formed by the reaction of sulfuric acid and potassium chlorate:
			The ] of sucrose proceeds via the precursors ] and ], catalyzed by the enzyme ]. The energy for the reaction is gained by the cleavage of ] (UDP).
			Sucrose is formed by plants, ] and ] but not by other ]s. Sucrose is the end product of ] and is found naturally in many food plants along with the ] fructose. In many fruits, such as ] and ], sucrose is the main sugar. In others, such as ] and ]s, fructose is the main sugar.
			====Chemical synthesis====
	: 8 HClO<sub>3</sub> + C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> → 11 H<sub>2</sub>O + 12 CO<sub>2</sub> + 8 HCl
			After numerous unsuccessful attempts by others, ] and George Huber succeeded in synthesizing sucrose from ] glucose and fructose in 1953.<ref name = "Lemieux">{{cite journal|last1 = Lemieux|first1 = R. U.|author-link1 = Raymond Lemieux|last2 = Huber|first2 = G.|title = A chemical synthesis of sucrose|journal = J. Am. Chem. Soc.|volume = 75|issue = 16|page = 4118|year = 1953|doi = 10.1021/ja01112a545}}</ref>
			== Sources ==
	Sucrose can be dehydrated with ] to form a black, ]-rich solid, as indicated in the following idealized equation:
			In nature, sucrose is present in many plants, and in particular their roots, fruits and ]s, because it serves as a way to store energy, primarily from ].<ref>{{cite book|doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0021259 |chapter=Sucrose Metabolism |author=John E. Lunn |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences |publisher= John Wiley & Sons Ltd |date=December 2008|isbn=978-0470016176 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/foods-009009000000000000000.html?maxCount=74 |title=Foods highest in Sucrose |website=SelfNutritiondata |publisher=Condé Nast |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719080357/https://nutritiondata.self.com/foods-009009000000000000000.html?maxCount=74 |archive-date=2015-07-19 }}</ref> Many mammals, birds, insects and bacteria accumulate and feed on the sucrose in plants and for some it is their main food source. Although ]s consume sucrose, the ] they produce consists primarily of fructose and glucose, with only trace amounts of sucrose.<ref>{{cite book|title=Foods and Food Production Encyclopedia |author=Douglas M. Considine |editor1-first=Douglas M |editor1-last=Considine |editor2-first=Glenn D |editor2-last=Considine |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold Company Inc.|date=1982 |page=956|edition=1 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4684-8511-0|isbn=978-1-4684-8513-4 }}</ref>
	:H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(catalyst) + C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>22</sub>O<sub>11</sub> → 12 C + 11 H<sub>2</sub>O + heat and H<sub>2</sub>O + SO<sub>3</sub> as a result of heat
			As fruits ripen, their sucrose content usually rises sharply, but some fruits contain almost no sucrose at all. This includes grapes, cherries, blueberries, blackberries, figs, pomegranates, tomatoes, avocados, lemons and limes.
	===Hydrolysis===
	] breaks the glycosidic bond, converting sucrose into glucose and fructose. Hydrolysis is, however, so slow that solutions of sucrose can sit for years with negligible change. If the ] ] is added, however, the reaction will proceed rapidly.<ref>, ''Encyclopædia Britannica Online''</ref> Hydrolysis can also be accelerated with acids, such as ] or lemon juice, both weak acids. Similarly gastric acidity converts sucrose to glucose and fructose during digestion.
			Sucrose is a naturally occurring sugar, but with the advent of ], it has been increasingly refined and consumed in all kinds of processed foods.
	==Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose==
	The ] of sucrose proceeds via the precursors ] and ], catalyzed by the enzyme ]. The energy for the reaction is gained by the cleavage of ] (UDP).
	Sucrose is formed by plants and cyanobacteria but not by other ]s. Sucrose is found naturally in many food plants along with the ] ]. In many fruits, such as pineapple and apricot, sucrose is the main sugar. In others, such as grapes and pears, fructose is the main sugar.
			==Production==
	===Chemical synthesis===
	]
	Although sucrose is invariably isolated from natural sources, its chemical synthesis was first achieved in 1953 by ].<ref name = "Lemieux">{{cite journal|last1 = Lemieux|first1 = R. U.|authorlink1 = Raymond Lemieux|last2 = Huber|first2 = G.|title = A chemical synthesis of sucrose|journal = J. Am. Chem. Soc.|volume = 75|issue = 16|page = 4118|year = 1953|doi = 10.1021/ja01112a545}}</ref>
			===History of sucrose refinement===
	==As a food==
			{{multiple image
			| direction = vertical
			| align = left
			| footer = Table sugar production in the 19th century. ] plantations (upper image) employed slave or indentured laborers. The picture shows workers harvesting cane, loading it on a boat for transport to the plant, while a European overseer watches in the lower right. The lower image shows a sugar plant with two furnace chimneys. Sugar plants and plantations were harsh, inhumane work.<ref name=britain1/>
			| image1 = Tropenmuseum Royal Tropical Institute Objectnumber 3581-33h Ingekleurde litho voorstellende de oo.jpg
			| image2 = StateLibQld 1 235370 Mill house and stables on the Macnade Sugar Plantation, Ingham, ca. 1881.jpg
			}}
			] was a traditional form for sugar from the 17th to 19th centuries. ] were required to break off pieces.]]
	{{Main|History of sugar}}		{{Main|History of sugar}}
			The production of table sugar has a long history. Some scholars claim Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the ], around CE 350.<ref name=Adas>
	Refined sugar was originally a luxury, but it eventually became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine. Britain and the ] have cuisines where the use of sugar became particularly prominent.
			Adas, Michael (2001). {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614041819/https://books.google.com/books?id=qcSsoJ0IXawC&pg=PA311 |date=2013-06-14 }}. Temple University Press. {{ISBN|1-56639-832-0}}. p. 311.</ref>
			Other scholars point to the ancient manuscripts of China, dated to the 8th century BCE, where one of the earliest historical mentions of ] is included along with the fact that their knowledge of sugar cane was derived from ].<ref name="gr1"/> By about 500 BCE, residents of modern-day India began making sugar syrup, cooling it in large flat bowls to produce raw sugar crystals that were easier to store and transport. In the local Indian language, these crystals were called {{transliteration|hi|khanda}} ({{lang|hi|खण्ड}}), which is the source of the word ''candy''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sugarcane: Saccharum Offcinarum|publisher=USAID, Govt of United States|year=2006|page=7.1|url=https://www.usaid.gov/locations/latin_america_caribbean/environment/docs/ag&environ/Sugarcane.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106015828/https://www.usaid.gov/locations/latin_america_caribbean/environment/docs/ag%26environ/Sugarcane.pdf|archive-date=2013-11-06}}</ref>
	Sugar forms a major element in ] and ]s. ]s use it for sweetening—its fructose component, which has almost double the sweetness of glucose, makes sucrose distinctively sweet in comparison to other carbohydrate foods.<ref name=Taubes/> It can also act as a ] when used in sufficient concentrations. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "]s."
			The army of ] was halted on the banks of river ] by the refusal of his troops to go further east. They saw people in the Indian subcontinent growing sugarcane and making "granulated, salt-like sweet powder", locally called {{transliteration|mr|sākhar}} ({{lang|mr|साखर}}), ({{lang|ur|شکر}}), pronounced as {{transliteration|grc|sakcharon}} ({{lang|grc|ζακχαρον}}) in Greek (Modern Greek, {{transliteration|el|zachari}}, {{lang|el|ζάχαρη}}). On their return journey, the Greek soldiers carried back some of the "honey-bearing reeds". Sugarcane remained a limited crop for over a millennium. Sugar was a rare commodity and traders of sugar became wealthy. Venice, at the height of its financial power, was the chief sugar-distributing center of ].<ref name=gr1>{{cite book|title=Something about sugar: its history, growth, manufacture and distribution|author=Rolph, George |year=1873|publisher=San Francisco, J. J. Newbegin |url=https://archive.org/details/somethingaboutsu00rolprich}}</ref> Moors started producing it in ] and ]. Only after the ] did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the ] in 1506 (] in 1523). The ] first cultivated sugarcane in ] in 1532.
	==Metabolism of sucrose==
	]
	In mammals, sucrose is readily ] in the ] into its component sugars, by acidic ]. This step is performed by a ], which catalyzes the hydrolysis of sucrose to the monosaccharides glucose and fructose. Glucose and fructose are rapidly absorbed into the ] in the ]. Undigested sucrose passing into the intestine is also broken down by ] or isomaltase ], which are located in the ] of the ] lining the ]. These products are also transferred rapidly into the bloodstream. Sucrose is digested by the enzyme ] in ] and some animals.
			Sugar remained a luxury in much of the world until the 18th century. Only the wealthy could afford it. In the 18th century, the demand for table sugar boomed in Europe and by the 19th century it had become regarded as a human necessity.<ref name=mintz/> The use of sugar grew from use in tea, to ]s, ] and ]s. Suppliers marketed sugar in novel forms, such as solid cones, which required consumers to use a ], a pliers-like tool, in order to break off pieces.
	Sucrose is an easily assimilated ] that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in ] upon ingestion. Overconsumption of sucrose has been linked with adverse ]. The most common is ] or ], in which oral bacteria convert sugars (including sucrose) from food into acids that attack tooth enamel.
			The demand for cheaper table sugar drove, in part, colonization of tropical islands and nations where labor-intensive sugarcane plantations and table sugar manufacturing could thrive. Growing sugar cane crop in hot humid climates, and producing table sugar in high temperature sugar mills was harsh, inhumane work. The demand for cheap labor for this work, in part, first drove slave trade from Africa (in particular West Africa), followed by indentured labor trade from South Asia (in particular India).<ref name=britain1>{{cite web|title=Forced Labour|year=2010|publisher=The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom|url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204015712/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/blackhistory/india/forced.htm|archive-date=2016-12-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Lai, Walton|title=Indentured labor, Caribbean sugar: Chinese and Indian migrants to the British West Indies, 1838–1918|year=1993|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-0-8018-7746-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vertovik, Steven|editor=Cohen, Robin|title=The Cambridge survey of world migration|year=1995|pages=|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-44405-7|url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgesurveyo00robi/page/57}}</ref> Millions of slaves, followed by millions of indentured laborers were brought into the Caribbean, Indian Ocean, Pacific Islands, East Africa, Natal, north and eastern parts of South America, and southeast Asia. The modern ethnic mix of many nations, settled in the last two centuries, has been influenced by table sugar.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Question of Labour: Indentured Immigration Into Trinidad & British Guiana, 1875–1917|author=Laurence, K |publisher=St Martin's Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-312-12172-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=St. Lucia's Indian Arrival Day|publisher=Caribbean Repeating Islands|url=https://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia's-indian-arrival-day/|date=2009-05-07|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424085806/https://repeatingislands.com/2009/05/07/st-lucia%E2%80%99s-indian-arrival-day/|archive-date=2017-04-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indian indentured labourers|publisher=The National Archives, Government of the United Kingdom|year=2010|url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111212175352/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/records/research-guides/indian-indentured-labour.htm|archive-date=2011-12-12}}</ref>
	Sucrose, as a pure ], has an ] content of 3.94&nbsp;]s per gram (or 17&nbsp;]s per gram). When large amounts of food that contain high percentages of sucrose are consumed, beneficial nutrients can be displaced from the diet, which can contribute to an increased risk for chronic disease. It has been suggested that sucrose-containing drinks may be linked to the development of obesity and ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Ten|first1 = Svetlana|last2 = Maclaren|first2 = Noel|year = 2004|title = Insulin resistance syndrome in children|journal = J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab.|volume = 89|issue = 6|pages = 2526–39|doi = 10.1210/jc.2004-0276|pmid = 15181020}}</ref>
			Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The ] first powered a sugar mill in ] in 1768, and, soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. During the same century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar production from other crops. ] identified sucrose in ]<ref>Marggraf (1747) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624083152/https://books.google.com/books?id=lJQDAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA79 |date=2016-06-24 }} , ''Histoire de l'académie royale des sciences et belles-lettres de Berlin'', pp. 79–90.</ref> and his student ] built a sugar beet processing factory in Silesia (Prussia). The beet-sugar industry took off during the ], when France and the continent were cut off from Caribbean sugar. In 2009, about 20 percent of the world's sugar was produced from beets.<ref name=agrisugar1>{{cite web|title=Agribusiness Handbook: Sugar beet white sugar|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization, United Nations|year=2009|url=https://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905234431/https://www.eastagri.org/publications/pub_docs/4_Sugar_web.pdf|archive-date=2015-09-05}}</ref>
	The rapidity with which sucrose raises blood glucose can cause problems for people suffering from defective glucose metabolism, such as persons with ] or ]. Sucrose can contribute to the development of ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Alexander Aguilera|first1 = Alfonso|last2 = Hernández Díaz|first2 = Guillermo|last3 = Lara Barcelata|first3 = Martín|last4 = Angulo Guerrero|first4 = Ofelia|last5 = Oliart Ros|first5 = Rosa M.|year = 2004|title = Effects of fish oil on hypertension, plasma lipids, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in rats with sucrose-induced metabolic syndrome|journal = J. Nutr. Biochem.|volume = 15|issue = 6|pages = 350–57|doi = 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2003.12.008|pmid = 15157941}}</ref> In an experiment with rats that were fed a diet one-third of which was sucrose, the sucrose first elevated blood levels of ]s, which induced ] fat and ultimately resulted in ].<ref>{{cite journal|first1 = Satoshi|last1 = Fukuchi|first2 = Kazuyuki|last2 = Hamaguchi|first3 = Masataka|last3 = Seike|first4 = Katsuro|last4 = Himeno|first5 = Toshiie|last5 = Sakata|first6 = Hironobu|last6 = Yoshimatsu|title = Role of Fatty Acid Composition in the Development of Metabolic Disorders in Sucrose-Induced Obese Rats|journal = Exp. Biol. Med.|year = 2004|volume = 229|issue = 6|pages= 486–93|url = http://www.ebmonline.org/cgi/content/full/229/6/486|pmid = 15169967}}</ref> Another study found that rats fed sucrose-rich diets developed ], ], and ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Lombardo|first1 = Y. B.|last2 = Drago|first2 = S.|last3 = Chicco|first3 = A.|last4 = Fainstein-Day|first4 = P.|last5 = Gutman|first5 = R.|last6 = Gagliardino|first6 = J. J.|last7 = Gomez Dumm|first7 = C. L.|year = 1996|title = Long-term administration of a sucrose-rich diet to normal rats: relationship between metabolic and hormonal profiles and morphological changes in the endocrine pancreas|journal = Metabolism|volume = 45|issue = 12|pages = 1527–32|doi = 10.1016/S0026-0495(96)90183-3|pmid = 8969287}}</ref>
			Today, a large beet refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production.{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}
	==Human health==
	{{Expert-subject|Health and fitness|date=April 2008}}
	Human beings have long sought sugars, but aside from wild honey, have not had access to the large quantities that characterize the modern diet. Studies have indicated potential links between processed sugar consumption (otherwise referred to as ]s) and health hazards, including obesity and tooth decay<ref>Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation, 2003, "WHO Technical Report Series 916 Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases", Geneva</ref><ref>Diet, nutrition and the prevention of dental diseases, Paula Moynihan, WHO Collaborating Centre for Nutrition and Oral Health, School of Dental Sciences, University of Newcastle and Poul Erik Petersen, WHO Collaborating Centre for Community Oral Health Programmes and Research, University of Copenhagen, Public Health Nutrition: 7(1A), 201–226</ref> and is relevant to other chemical forms of ], not just sucrose. ] showed that the consumption of sugar and refined sweeteners is closely associated with ].<ref name=Taubes>Taubes, Gary. (April 13, 2011). . ''The New York Times''.</ref><ref>"Pure, White and Deadly", John Yudkin, Viking, 1986.</ref><ref>"Levels of dietary sucrose in patients with occlusive atherosclerotic disease", Yudkin J, Roddy J., Lancet 1964;2:6-8.</ref> It is also considered as a source of endogenous ] processes.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}
	=== Tooth decay ===		===Trends===
			] are visible to the middle left where the harvest transforms into a sugar syrup. The boiler and furnace are in the center, where table sugar crystals form. An expressway for transport is visible in the lower left.]]
	] has arguably become the most prominent health hazard associated with the consumption of sugar. Oral bacteria such as '']'' live in dental plaque and metabolize ''any'' sugars (not just sucrose, but also ], ], ], or cooked ]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |title=What causes tooth decay? |publisher=Animated-teeth.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-05}}</ref>) into ]. High concentrations of acid may result on the surface of a tooth, leading to tooth demineralization.<ref></ref><ref></ref>
			Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: ] (''Saccharum spp.'') and ]s (''Beta vulgaris''), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Minor commercial sugar crops include the ] (''Phoenix dactylifera''), ] (''Sorghum vulgare''), and the ] (''Acer saccharum''). Sucrose is obtained by extraction of these crops with hot water; concentration of the extract gives syrups, from which solid sucrose can be crystallized. In 2017, worldwide production of table sugar amounted to 185 million tonnes.<ref name="prod2017">{{cite news|title=World 2017/18 sugar production, consumption seen at record: USDA|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sugar-usda-supplies/world-2017-18-sugar-production-consumption-seen-at-record-usda-idUSKBN1DH2LV|newspaper=Reuters|author=Marcy Nicholson|date=17 November 2017|access-date=21 December 2019|archive-date=14 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190914144035/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sugar-usda-supplies/world-2017-18-sugar-production-consumption-seen-at-record-usda-idUSKBN1DH2LV|url-status=live}}</ref>
	All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to ''Streptococcus mutans''<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tanzer|first=JM|title=Essential dependence of smooth surface caries on, and augmentation of fissure caries by, sucrose and Streptococcus mutans infection.|journal=Infection and immunity|date=1979 Aug|volume=25|issue=2|pages=526–31|pmid=489122}}</ref> . Sucrose may be the sugar most efficiently converted to dextran, with which the bacteria glues itself to the tooth surface. Thus, sucrose could enable ''Streptococcus mutans'' to adhere more strongly and resist attempts at removal. The dextran itself also acts as a reserve food supply for the bacteria.
	Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent.
			Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, because sugarcane does not tolerate frost. Sugar beets, on the other hand, grow only in cooler temperate regions and do not tolerate ]. About 80 percent of sucrose is derived from sugarcane, the rest almost all from sugar beets.
	===Glycemic index===
	Sucrose has a moderately high ] of 64, about the same as ], 62, but not nearly that of ], 105<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diabetesnet.com/diabetes_food_diet/glycemic_index.php |title=Glycemic Index |publisher=Diabetesnet.com |date= |accessdate=2010-05-05}}</ref>, which, in turn, causes an immediate response within the body's digestive system. Like other sugars, sucrose is digested into ] (blood sugar) and transported into the blood. As with other sugars, overconsumption may cause an increase in blood sugar levels from a normal 90&nbsp;mg/dL to up over 150&nbsp;mg/dL.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=15504559|year=2004|last1=Baschetti|first1=R|title=Evolutionary legacy: form of ingestion, not quantity, is the key factor in producing the effects of sugar on human health.|volume=63|issue=6|pages=933–8|doi=10.1016/j.mehy.2004.07.018|journal=Medical hypotheses}}</ref>
			In mid-2018, India and Brazil had about the same production of sugar – 34 million tonnes – followed by the ], ], and China as the major producers.<ref name="usda2018">{{cite web |title=Sugar: World Markets and Trade |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/sugar.pdf |publisher=Office of Global Analysis, Foreign Agricultural Service, US Department of Agriculture |access-date=21 December 2018 |date=4 November 2018 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021034740/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/sugar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> India, the European Union, and China were the leading domestic consumers of sugar in 2018.<ref name=usda2018/>
	===Diabetes===
	], a disease that causes the body to metabolize sugar poorly, occurs when either:
	#the body attacks the cells producing insulin, the hormone that allows the metabolizing of sugar (Type 1 diabetes); or
	#the body's cells exhibit impaired responses to ] (Type 2 diabetes).
			Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing&nbsp;– the industry can store harvested beets until processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable.
	When glucose builds up in the bloodstream, it can cause two problems:
	#in the short term, cells become starved for energy because they do not have access to the glucose;
	#in the long term, frequent glucose build-up increases the acidity of the blood, damaging many of the body's organs, including the eyes, kidneys, nerves and/or heart.
			The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with the effect that many former purchasers of sugar have switched to ] (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country (candy manufacturers).
	Authorities advise diabetics to avoid sugar-rich foods to prevent adverse reactions.<ref></ref>
	===Obesity===
	The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I and Continuous indicates that the population in the United States has increased its proportion of energy consumption from carbohydrates and decreased its proportion from total fat while obesity has increased. This implies, along with the United Nations report cited below, that obesity may correlate better with sugar consumption than with fat consumption, and that reducing fat consumption while increasing sugar consumption actually increases the level of obesity. The following table summarizes this study (based on the proportion of energy intake from different food sources for US Adults 20–74 years old, as carried out by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD<ref></ref>):
	{| class="wikitable"
	|-
	! Year
	! Sex
	! Carbohydrate
	! Fat
	! Protein
	! Obesity
	|-
	| 1971
	| Male
	| 42.4%
	| 36.9%
	| 16.5%
	| 12.1%
	|-
	| 1971
	| Female
	| 45.4%
	| 36.1%
	| 16.9%
	| 16.6%
	|-
	| 2000
	| Male
	| 49.0%
	| 32.8%
	| 15.5%
	| 27.7%
	|-
	| 2000
	| Female
	| 51.6%
	| 32.8%
	| 15.1%
	| 34.0%
	|}
	A 2002 study conducted by the ] concluded: "There is no clear and consistent association between increased intakes of added sugars and BMI." (BMI, or "]," is a measure of weight and height used to estimate body fat.)<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XzjYhuCGrL0C&printsec=frontcover |title=Dietary reference intakes: guiding principles for nutrition labeling and fortification|publisher=National Academies Press|year=2004|isbn=0309091322}}</ref>
	===Gout===
	The occurrence of ] is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout.<ref>, BBC News, 1 February 2008</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |title=Nutrients for Gout - good and bad - Doctor's Corner Newsletter Archive |publisher=ABCVitaminsLife.com |date=2007-07-30 |accessdate=2010-05-05}}</ref>
	===United Nations nutritional advice===
	In 2003, four ] agencies (including the ] and the ]) commissioned a report compiled by a panel of 30 international experts. The panel stated that the total of free sugars (all monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods by manufacturers, cooks or consumers, plus sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, and fruit juices) should not account for more than 10% of the ] intake of a healthy diet, while ]s in total should represent between 55% and 75% of the energy intake.<ref>
	See table 6, page 56 of the WHO Technical Report Series 916, </ref>
	===Debate on extrinsic sugar===
	Argument continues as to the value of extrinsic sugar (sugar added to food) compared to that of intrinsic sugar (naturally present in food). Adding sugar to food sweetens the taste, but increases the total number of ]s, among other negative effects on health and physiology.
	In the US, sugar has become increasingly evident in food products, as more food manufacturers add sugar or ] to a wide variety of consumables. ]s, ]s, ], ]s, ], ], ]s, ], ]s, ], ], and many breads may have added sugars.
	===Concerns of vegetarians and vegans===
	The sugar refining industry often uses ] (] animal bones) for decolorizing.<ref></ref><ref name="VegetarianJournal">{{cite journal
	| last = Yacoubou, MS
	| first = Jeanne
	| title = Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices
	| journal = Vegetarian Journal
	| volume = 26
	| issue = 4
	| pages = 16–20
	| publisher = The Vegetarian Resource Group
	| location = Baltimore, MD
	| year = 2007
	| url = https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
	| accessdate = 2007-04-04
	|format=PDF}}</ref> About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with ]. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be ]/]. In contrast, Muslims consider filtered sugar to be ] because the animals may have been improperly slaughtered or bone char may contain pork remains. <ref name="VegetarianJournal"/>
	==Production==
	]
	Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: ] (''Saccharum spp.'') and ]s (''Beta vulgaris''), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Minor commercial sugar crops include the ] (''Phoenix dactylifera''), ] (''Sorghum vulgare''), and the ] (''Acer saccharum''). In ] 2001/2002, worldwide production of sugar amounted to 133.9 million ]<ref>{{Citation
	| title = CRB commodity year book
	| year = 2003
	| isbn = 0471444707
	| last1 = Bureau | first1 = Commodity Research
	| author2 = S. Commodity Research Bureau U.
	}}</ref>. Sucrose is obtained by extraction of these crops with hot water, concentration of the extract gives syrups, from which solid sucrose can be crystallized.
	The first production of sugar from sugarcane took place in India. ]'s companions reported seeing "] produced without the intervention of bees," and it remained exotic in Europe until the Arabs started producing it in ] and Spain. Only after the ] did it begin to rival honey as a sweetener in Europe. The Spanish began cultivating sugarcane in the ] in 1506 (and in ] in 1523). The ] first cultivated sugarcane in ] in 1532.
	Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, such as Brazil, India, China, Thailand, Mexico, and Australia, the <!-- five -- or six ? --> top sugar-producing countries in the world.<ref name="faostat.fao.org"></ref> Brazil overshadows most countries, with roughly 30 million ]s of cane sugar produced in 2006, while India produced 21 million, China 11 million, and Thailand and Mexico roughly 5 million each. Viewed by region, Asia predominates in cane sugar production, with large contributions from China, India and Thailand and other countries combining to account for 40% of global production in 2006. South America comes in second place with 32% of global production; Africa and Central America each produce 8% and Australia 5%. The United States, the Caribbean and Europe make up the remainder, with roughly 3% each.<ref name="faostat.fao.org"/>
	Beet sugar comes from regions with cooler climates: northwest and eastern Europe, northern Japan, plus some areas in the United States (including California). In the northern hemisphere, the beet-growing season ends with the start of harvesting around September. Harvesting and processing continues until March in some cases. The availability of processing plant capacity, and the weather both influence the duration of harvesting and processing - the industry can lay up harvested beet until processed, but a frost-damaged beet becomes effectively unprocessable.
	The ] (EU) has become the world's second-largest sugar exporter. The ] of the EU sets maximum quotas for members' production to match supply and demand, and a price. Europe exports excess production quota (approximately 5 million tonnes in 2003). Part of this, "quota" sugar, gets subsidised from industry levies, the remainder (approximately half) sells as "C quota" sugar at market prices without subsidy. These ] and a high import ] make it difficult for other countries to export to the EU states, or to compete with the Europeans on world markets.
	The United States sets high sugar prices to support its producers, with the effect that many former consumers of sugar have switched to ] (beverage manufacturers) or moved out of the country (candymakers).
	The low prices of ]s produced from ] and corn (]) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with ]s, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods.		The low prices of ]s produced from ] and corn (]) threaten the traditional sugar market. Used in combination with ]s, they can allow drink manufacturers to produce very low-cost goods.
			===Types===
	===Politics of sugar vs HFCS===
	{{main|High-fructose corn syrup}}
	Sucrose has been partially replaced in American industrial food production by other sweeteners such as ]s or combinations of functional ingredients and high-intensity sweeteners. This shift is attributable to governmental subsidies of U.S. corn and an import tariff on foreign sugar, raising the price of sucrose to levels above those of the rest of the world.<ref>{{cite web|title = Sugar's money, influence continue to plague domestic candy companies| first = Benjamin|last = Miraski|date = 2008-06-05| url = http://news.medill.northwestern.edu/chicago/news.aspx?id=92869|publisher = Medill Reports |June 05, 2008}}</ref> Because of the artificially elevated price of sucrose, HFCS is cost efficient for many sweetener applications.
	===Cane===		====Cane====
	{{Main|Sugarcane}}		{{Main|Sugarcane}}
			]
	Since the 6th century BC, cane sugar producers have crushed the harvested vegetable material from sugarcane in order to collect and filter the juice. They then treat the liquid (often with ]) to remove impurities and then neutralize it. Boiling the juice then allows the sediment to settle to the bottom for dredging out, while the scum rises to the surface for skimming off. In cooling, the liquid crystallizes, usually in the process of stirring, to produce sugar crystals. ]s usually remove the uncrystallized syrup. The producers can then either sell the resultant sugar, as is, for use or process it further to produce lighter grades. This processing may take place in another factory in another country. Sugar cane appears fourth in the list for agriculture in China.
			Since the 6th century BCE, cane sugar producers have crushed the harvested vegetable material from sugarcane in order to collect and filter the juice. They then treat the liquid, often with lime (]), to remove impurities and then neutralize it. Boiling the juice then allows the sediment to settle to the bottom for dredging out, while the scum rises to the surface for skimming off. In cooling, the liquid crystallizes, usually in the process of stirring, to produce sugar crystals. ]s usually remove the uncrystallized syrup. The producers can then either sell the sugar product for use as is, or process it further to produce lighter grades. The later processing may take place in another factory in another country.
			Sugarcane is a major component of Brazilian agriculture; the country is the world's largest producer of sugarcane and its derivative products, such as crystallized sugar and ] (]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Top Sugarcane Producing Countries: Brazil outperforms its next 6 closest competitors combined|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugarcane-producing-countries.html|publisher=World Atlas|access-date=2 January 2018|date=25 April 2017|archive-date=3 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103082507/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/top-sugarcane-producing-countries.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
	===Beet===		====Beet====
	]		]
	{{Main|Sugar beet}}		{{Main|Sugar beet}}
	Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a "]". An alkaline solution ("]" and ] from the lime kiln) then serves to ] impurities (see ]). After filtration{{Clarify|date=February 2010}}, evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as ], or sells it on to producers of animal feed.		Beet sugar producers slice the washed beets, then extract the sugar with hot water in a "]". An alkaline solution ("]" and ] from the lime kiln) then serves to ] impurities (see ]). After filtration,{{Clarify|date=February 2010}} evaporation concentrates the juice to a content of about 70% solids, and controlled crystallisation extracts the sugar. A centrifuge removes the sugar crystals from the liquid, which gets recycled in the crystalliser stages. When economic constraints prevent the removal of more sugar, the manufacturer discards the remaining liquid, now known as ], or sells it on to producers of animal feed.
	Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling.		Sieving the resultant white sugar produces different grades for selling.
	===Cane versus beet===		=====Cane versus beet=====
	It is difficult to tell the difference between fully refined sugar produced from beet and that from cane. One way is by ] of carbon. Cane uses ], and beet ], resulting in a different ratio of ] and ] isotopes in the sucrose. Tests are used to detect fraudulent abuse of ] subsidies or to aid in the detection of adulterated ].		It is difficult to distinguish between fully refined sugar produced from beet and cane. One way is by ] of carbon. Cane uses ], and beet uses ], resulting in a different ratio of ] and ] isotopes in the sucrose. Tests are used to detect fraudulent abuse of ] subsidies or to aid in the detection of adulterated ].
	The production of sugarcane needs approximately four times as much water as the production of sugar beet, therefore some countries that traditionally produced cane sugar (such as ]) have seen the building of new beet sugar factories {{As of|2008|alt= recently}}. On the other hand, sugar cane tolerates hot climates better. Some sugar factories process both sugar cane and sugar beets and extend their processing period in that way.		Sugar cane tolerates hot climates better, but the production of sugar cane needs approximately four times as much water as the production of sugar beet. As a result, some countries that traditionally produced cane sugar (such as ]) have built new beet sugar factories since about 2008. Some sugar factories process both sugar cane and sugar beets and extend their processing period in that way.
	The production of sugar results in residues that differ substantially depending on the raw materials used and on the place of production. While cooks often use cane ] in food preparation, humans find molasses from sugar beet unpalatable, and it, therefore, ends up mostly as industrial ] feedstock (for example in ] distilleries), or as ]. Once dried, either type of molasses can serve as fuel for burning.		The production of sugar leaves residues that differ substantially depending on the raw materials used and on the place of production. While cane molasses is often used in food preparation, humans find molasses from sugar beets unpalatable, and it consequently ends up mostly as ] feedstock (for example in ] distilleries), or as ]. Once dried, either type of molasses can serve as fuel for burning.
	Pure beet sugar is difficult to find in the marketplace. Although some brands label their product clearly as "pure cane sugar", beet sugar is almost always labeled simply as sugar or pure sugar. Interviews with the 5 major beet sugar-producing companies revealed that many store brands or "private label" sugar products are pure beet sugar. The lot code can be used to identify the company and the plant from which the sugar came, thus enabling the savvy shopper to identify beet sugar in the store.<ref>, IBS Treatment Center</ref>		Pure beet sugar is difficult to find, so labelled, in the marketplace. Although some makers label their product clearly as "pure cane sugar", beet sugar is almost always labeled simply as sugar or pure sugar. Interviews with the five major beet sugar-producing companies revealed that many store brands or "private label" sugar products are pure beet sugar. The lot code can be used to identify the company and the plant from which the sugar came, enabling beet sugar to be identified if the codes are known.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924162218/https://ibstreatmentcenter.com/Newsletters/Jan10.pdf |date=2010-09-24 }}, IBS Treatment Center</ref>
	===Culinary sugars===		====Culinary sugars====
			]
			=====Mill white=====
	{{globalize/Eng|date=December 2010}}
			Mill white, also called plantation white, crystal sugar or superior sugar is produced from raw sugar. It is exposed to ] during the production to reduce the concentration of color compounds and helps prevent further color development during the crystallization process. Although common to sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well. After a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping; therefore this type of sugar is generally limited to local consumption.<ref>{{cite book | author = Steindl, Roderick | date = 2005 | title = Syrup Clarification for Plantation White Sugar to meet New Quality Standards | editor = Hogarth, DM | publisher = Proceedings of the XXV Congress of International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists | pages = 106–16 | location = Guatemala, Guatemala City | url = https://eprints.qut.edu.au/4888/1/4888_1.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130810042657/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/4888/1/4888_1.pdf | archive-date = 2013-08-10 }}</ref>
			=====Blanco directo=====
	]
			Blanco directo, a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, is produced by precipitating many impurities out of cane juice using ] and ], similar to the ] technique used in beet sugar refining. Blanco directo is more pure than mill white sugar, but less pure than white refined.
	So-called ''']''' comprise yellow to brown sugars made by clarifying the source syrup by boiling and drying with heat, until it becomes a crystalline solid, with minimal chemical processing.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}} Raw beet sugars result from the processing of sugar beet juice, but only as intermediates ''en route'' to white sugar. Types of raw sugar include ''demerara'', '']'', and ''turbinado''. ] and ] export significant quantities of such specialty sugars. Manufacturers sometimes prepare raw sugar as loaves rather than as a crystalline powder, by pouring sugar and molasses together into molds and allowing the mixture to dry. This results in sugar-cakes or loaves, called '']'' or ''gur'' in India, ''pingbian tang'' in China, and ''panela'', ''panocha'', ''pile'', ''piloncillo'' and ''pão-de-açúcar'' in various parts of Latin America. In South America, truly raw sugar, unheated and made from sugarcane grown on farms, does not have a large market-share.
			=====White refined=====
	'''Mill white sugar''', also called '''plantation white''', '''crystal sugar''', or '''superior sugar''', consists of raw sugar where the production process does not remove colored impurities, but rather bleaches them white by exposure to ]. Though the most common form of sugar in sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well; after a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping.
			{{See also|White sugar}}
			White refined is the most common form of sugar in North America and Europe. Refined sugar is made by dissolving and purifying raw sugar using ] similar to the method used for blanco directo, a ] process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of ] or ]. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw stage.{{Clarify|date=February 2010}}
			White refined sugar is typically sold as '''''granulated sugar''''', which has been dried to prevent clumping and comes in various crystal sizes for home and industrial use:
	'''Blanco directo''', a white sugar common in India and other south Asian countries, comes from precipitating many impurities out of the cane juice by using ''phosphatation''—a treatment with ] and ] similar to the carbonatation technique used in beet sugar refining. In terms of sucrose purity, blanco directo is more pure than mill white, but less pure than white refined sugar.
			]
			* {{Anchor|Coarse-grain}}'''Coarse-grain''', such as ''sanding sugar'' (also called "pearl sugar", "decorating sugar", ''nibbed sugar'' or ''sugar nibs'') is a coarse grain sugar used to add sparkle and flavor atop baked goods and candies. Its large reflective crystals will not dissolve when subjected to heat.
			* '''Granulated''', familiar as table sugar, with a grain size about 0.5&nbsp;mm across.<ref name="tryengineering"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130508221320/https://www.tryengineering.org/lessons/sugarnano.pdf |date=2013-05-08 }}. IEEE</ref> "]s" are lumps for convenient consumption produced by mixing granulated sugar with sugar syrup.
			* {{Anchor|Caster}}'''Caster''' (0.35&nbsp;mm),<ref name="tryengineering" /> a very fine sugar in Britain and other Commonwealth countries, so-named because the grains are small enough to fit through a ] which is a small vessel with a perforated top, from which to sprinkle sugar at table.<ref name="OED">"castor, n.2." OED Online. Oxford University Press, June 2017. Web. 25 July 2017. It says castor is a misspelling that is now the preferred spelling.</ref> Commonly used in baking and mixed drinks, it is sold as '''"superfine"''' sugar in the United States. Because of its fineness, it dissolves faster than regular white sugar and is especially useful in meringues and cold liquids. Caster sugar can be prepared at home by grinding granulated sugar for a couple of minutes in a mortar or food processor.
			* ''']''', ''10X sugar,'' ''confectioner's sugar'' (0.060&nbsp;mm), or ''icing sugar'' (0.024&nbsp;mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of ] to prevent clumping&nbsp;— either ] (1% to 3%) or tri-].
			]
	'''White refined sugar''' has become the most common form of sugar in North America as well as in Europe. Refined sugar can be made by dissolving raw sugar and purifying it with a ] method similar to that used for blanco directo, a ] process involving calcium hydroxide and carbon dioxide, or by various filtration strategies. It is then further purified by filtration through a bed of ] or ] depending on where the processing takes place. Beet sugar refineries produce refined white sugar directly without an intermediate raw{{Clarify|date=February 2010}} stage. White refined sugar is typically sold as ''granulated sugar,'' which has been dried to prevent clumping.
			''']''' comes either from the late stages of cane sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses syrup (blackstrap molasses). Brown sugar's color and taste become stronger with increasing molasses content, as do its moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this.
			===Measurement===
	Granulated sugar comes in various crystal sizes—for home and industrial use—depending on the application:
	*Coarse-grain sugars, such as ''sanding sugar'' (also called "pearl sugar", "decorating sugar", ''nibbed sugar'' or ''sugar nibs'') adds "sparkle" and flavor for decorating to baked goods, candies, ]s/] and other desserts. The sparkling effect occurs because the sugar forms large crystals that reflect light. Sanding sugar, a large-crystal sugar, serves for making edible decorations. It has larger granules that sparkle when sprinkled on baked goods and candies and will not dissolve when subjected to heat.
	*Normal granulated sugars for table use: They have a grain size about 0.5&nbsp;mm across
	*Finer grades result from selectively sieving the granulated sugar
	*caster (or ''castor''<ref>The ] classifies both spellings as correct, but "castor" used to prevail.</ref>) (0.35&nbsp;mm), commonly used in baking, originally sprinkled from a ]. Castor or caster sugar is the name of a very fine sugar in Britain, so named because the grains are small enough to fit through a sugar "caster" or sprinkler. It is sold as "superfine" sugar in the United States. Because of its fineness, it dissolves more quickly than regular white sugar, and, so, is especially useful in meringues and cold liquids. It is not as fine as confectioner's sugar, which has been crushed mechanically (and mixed with a little starch to keep it from clumping). Castor sugar can be prepared at home by grinding granulated sugar for a couple of minutes in a food processor.
			====Dissolved sugar content====
	**''superfine'' sugar, also called ''{{visible anchor|baker's sugar}}'', ''berry sugar'', or ''bar sugar'' — favored for sweetening drinks or for preparing ]
			Scientists and the ] use degrees ] (symbol °Bx), introduced by ], as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose per 100&nbsp;grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose sugar and 75&nbsp;grams of water exist in the 100&nbsp;grams of solution.
	*Finest grades
	**'']'', ''10X sugar,'' ''confectioner's sugar'' (0.060&nbsp;mm), or ''icing sugar'' (0.024&nbsp;mm), produced by grinding sugar to a fine powder. The manufacturer may add a small amount of ] to prevent clumping — either ] (1% to 3%) or tri-].
			The Brix degrees are measured using an infrared sensor. This measurement does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement, because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as "]" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of ''total'' dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement.
	]
	{{Anchor|Cubes}}Retailers also sell '''sugar cubes''' or lumps for convenient consumption of a standardized amount. Suppliers of sugarcubes make them by mixing sugar crystals with sugar syrup. ] invented sugarcubes in 1841 in the ] (what is now the ]).<ref></ref>
	]
			==Consumption==
	''']s''' come from the late stages of sugar refining, when sugar forms fine crystals with significant molasses content, or from coating white refined sugar with a cane molasses ]. Their color and taste become stronger with increasing molasses content, as do their moisture-retaining properties. Brown sugars also tend to harden if exposed to the atmosphere, although proper handling can reverse this.
			{{Main|History of sugar}}
			Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes.<ref name=mintz>{{cite book|title=Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History|author=Mintz, Sidney|isbn=978-0-14-009233-2|year=1986|publisher=Penguin|url=https://archive.org/details/sweetnesspowerpl00mint}}</ref> Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks.
			Sucrose forms a major element in ] and ]s. Cooks use it for sweetening. It can also act as a ] when used in sufficient concentrations, and thus is an important ingredient in the production of ]. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "]s".
	===Dissolved sugar content===
	Scientists and the ] use degrees ] (symbol °Bx), introduced by ], as units of measurement of the mass ratio of dissolved substance to water in a liquid. A 25 °Bx sucrose solution has 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose per 100&nbsp;grams of liquid; or, to put it another way, 25&nbsp;grams of sucrose sugar and 75&nbsp;grams of water exist in the 100&nbsp;grams of solution.
			===Nutritional information===
	The Brix degrees are measured using an infrared sensor. This measurement does not equate to Brix degrees from a density or refractive index measurement, because it will specifically measure dissolved sugar concentration instead of all dissolved solids. When using a refractometer, one should report the result as "]" (RDS). One might speak of a liquid as having 20 °Bx RDS. This refers to a measure of percent by weight of ''total'' dried solids and, although not technically the same as Brix degrees determined through an infrared method, renders an accurate measurement of sucrose content, since sucrose in fact forms the majority of dried solids. The advent of in-line infrared Brix measurement sensors has made measuring the amount of dissolved sugar in products economical using a direct measurement.
			{{nutritional value
			| name = Sugars, granulated
			| kJ = 1620
			| protein = 0 g
			| fat = 0 g
			| carbs = 100 g
			| calcium_mg =
			| iron_mg = 0
			| phosphorus_mg = 0
			| potassium_mg = 2.0
			| vitC_mg = 0
			| thiamin_mg = 0
			| riboflavin_mg = 0
			| niacin_mg = 0
			| selenium_ug = 0.6
			| source_usda = 1
			| note =
			}}
			Fully refined sugar is 99.9% sucrose, thus providing only carbohydrate as dietary ] and 390 ] per 100 g serving (table).<ref name="nd">{{cite web|url=https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|title=Nutrition Facts for sugars, granulated per 100 g (USDA National Nutrient Database, SR-21)|publisher=Conde Nast|date=2014|access-date=6 March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150307044435/https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/sweets/5592/2|archive-date=7 March 2015}}</ref> There are no ] of significance in fully refined sugar (table).<ref name=nd/>
			===Metabolism of sucrose===
	===Baking weight/mass volume relationship===
			]
	Different culinary sugars have different densities due to variation in particle size and inclusion of moisture.
			In humans and other mammals, sucrose is broken down into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose, by ] or ] ], which are located in the ] of the ] lining the ].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gray GM|title= Intestinal digestion and maldigestion of dietary carbohydrate|journal=Annual Review of Medicine|year=1971|volume=22|pages=391–404|doi=10.1146/annurev.me.22.020171.002135|pmid=4944426}}</ref><ref>Kaneko J.J. (2008) {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140922061138/https://books.google.com/books?id=spsD4WQbL0QC&pg=PA46 |date=2014-09-22 }}, p. 46 in Kaneko J.J., Harvey J.W., Bruss M.L. (eds.) ''Clinical Biochemistry of Domestic Animals,'' San Diego, CA: Academic Press, {{ISBN|012370491X}}.</ref> The resulting glucose and fructose molecules are then rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream. In ] and some animals, sucrose is digested by the enzyme ]. Sucrose is an easily assimilated ] that provides a quick source of energy, provoking a rapid rise in ] upon ingestion. Sucrose, as a pure carbohydrate, has an energy content of 3.94&nbsp;]s per gram (or 17&nbsp;]s per gram).
			If consumed excessively, sucrose may contribute to the development of ], including increased risk for ], insulin resistance, weight gain and ] in adults and children.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: A meta-analysis |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |year=2010 |last1=Malik |first1=V. S. |last2=Popkin |first2=B. M. |last3=Bray |first3=G. A. |last4=Despres |first4=J.-P. |last5=Willett |first5=W. C. |last6=Hu |first6=F. B. |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Vasanti S. |last2=Pan |first2=An |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |date=2013-10-01 |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain in children and adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |language=en |volume=98 |issue=4 |pages=1084–1102 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.113.058362 |issn=0002-9165 |pmc=3778861 |pmid=23966427 |access-date=2018-12-21 |archive-date=2018-01-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109162407/https://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/98/4/1084.full |url-status=live }}</ref>
	The Domino Sugar Company has established the following volume to weight conversions:
	*Brown sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 195 g = 6.88 oz
	*Granular sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 200 g = 7.06 oz
	*Powdered sugar 1 cup = 48 teaspoons ~ 120 g = 4.23 oz
	==History of sugar (sucrose) production==
	] were required to break off pieces.]]
	{{Main|History of sugar}}
	People used to chew the cane raw to extract its sweetness. Indians discovered how to crystallize sugar during the ], around AD 350.<ref name=Adas>
	Adas, Michael (January 2001). ''Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History''. Temple University Press. ISBN 1-56639-832-0. Page 311.</ref>
			==== Tooth decay ====
	Sugarcane was originally from tropical ] and ].<!--Mainland or island?--> Different species likely originated in different locations with ''S. barberi'' originating in India and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' coming from ].<ref name=Sharpe></ref>
			] (dental caries) has become a pronounced health hazard associated with the consumption of sugars, especially sucrose. Oral bacteria such as '']'' live in ] and metabolize ''any'' free sugars (not just sucrose, but also glucose, ], fructose, and cooked ]es)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |title=What causes tooth decay? |publisher=Animated-teeth.com |access-date=2010-05-05 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |archive-date=2010-02-09 }}</ref> into ]. The resultant lactic acid lowers the pH of the tooth's surface, stripping it of minerals in the process known as tooth decay.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025132424/https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/548toothdecay.html |date=2014-10-25 }}. Elmhurst.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100209031710/https://www.animated-teeth.com/tooth_decay/t2_tooth_decay_caries.htm |date=2010-02-09 }}. Animated-teeth.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref>
			All 6-carbon sugars and disaccharides based on 6-carbon sugars can be converted by dental plaque bacteria into acid that demineralizes teeth, but sucrose may be uniquely useful to '']'' (formerly ''Streptococcus sanguis'') and ''Streptococcus mutans''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tanzer|first=JM|title=Essential dependence of smooth surface caries on, and augmentation of fissure caries by, sucrose and Streptococcus mutans infection|journal=Infection and Immunity|date=August 1979|volume=25|issue=2|pages=526–31|doi=10.1128/IAI.25.2.526-531.1979|pmid=489122|pmc=443577}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite thesis|last=Darlington|first=W.|title=Metabolism of sucrose by Stepococcus sanguis 804 (NCTC 10904) and its relevance to the oral environment|type=Ph.D Thesis|publisher= University of Glasgow |date=August 1979}}</ref> Sucrose is the only dietary sugar that can be converted to sticky glucans (dextran-like polysaccharides) by extracellular enzymes.<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | veditors = Ryan KJ, Ray CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2004 | isbn= 978-0-8385-8529-0 }}</ref> These glucans allow the bacteria to adhere to the tooth surface and to build up thick layers of plaque. The anaerobic conditions deep in the plaque encourage the formation of acids, which leads to carious lesions. Thus, sucrose could enable ''S. mutans'', ''S. sanguinis'' and many other species of bacteria to adhere strongly and resist natural removal, e.g. by flow of saliva, although they are easily removed by brushing. The glucans and levans (fructose polysaccharides) produced by the plaque bacteria also act as a reserve food supply for the bacteria.
	During the ], ] entrepreneurs adopted the techniques of sugar production from ] and then refined and transformed them into a large-scale ]. Arabs set up the first large scale ] and ]s.
			Such a special role of sucrose in the formation of tooth decay is much more significant in light of the almost universal use of sucrose as the most desirable sweetening agent. Widespread replacement of sucrose by high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) has not diminished the danger from sucrose. If smaller amounts of sucrose are present in the diet, they will still be sufficient for the development of thick, anaerobic plaque and plaque bacteria will metabolise other sugars in the diet,<ref name="ReferenceA"/> such as the glucose and fructose in HFCS.
			====Glycemic index====
	The 1390s saw the development of a better press, which doubled the juice obtained from the cane. This permitted economic expansion of sugar plantations to ] and to the ]. The 1420s saw sugar production extended to the ], ] and the ].
			Sucrose is a disaccharide made up of 50% glucose and 50% fructose and has a ] of 65.<ref>{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref> Sucrose is digested rapidly,<ref name="wolever">{{cite book|last=Wolever|first=Thomas M. S.|title=The Glycaemic Index: A Physiological Classification of Dietary Carbohydrate|publisher=CABI|year=2006|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|isbn=9781845930523|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216215845/https://books.google.com/books?id=_UkSoDwCN80C&pg=PA65|archive-date=2017-12-16}}</ref><ref name="nas">{{cite book|last=Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies|title=Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids (macronutrients)|publisher=National Academies Press|year=2005|page=323|doi=10.17226/10490|isbn=978-0-309-08525-0|url=https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150715023623/https://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10490&page=323|archive-date=2015-07-15}}</ref> but has a relatively low glycemic index due to its content of fructose, which has a minimal effect on blood glucose.<ref name="wolever" />
			As with other sugars, sucrose is digested into its components via the enzyme ] to glucose (blood sugar). The glucose component is transported into the blood where it serves immediate metabolic demands, or is converted and reserved in the ] as ].<ref name=nas/>
	The Portuguese took sugar to ]. ], published in 1555, writes that by 1540 ] had 800 sugar mills and that the north coast of Brazil, ] and ] had another 2,000. Approximately 3,000 small mills built before 1550 in the New World created an unprecedented demand for ] ]s, levers, axles and other implements. Specialist trades in mold-making and iron-casting developed in Europe due to the expansion of sugar production. Sugar mill construction developed technological skills needed for a nascent ] in the early 17th century.{{Citation needed|date=October 2007}}
			====Gout====
	After 1625, the ] carried sugarcane from South America to the Caribbean islands — where it became grown from ] to the ].{{Citation needed|date=September 2007}} With the ], the ] became the world's largest source of sugar. These islands could supply sugarcane using ] and produce sugar at prices vastly lower than those of cane sugar imported from the East.
			The occurrence of ] is connected with an excess production of uric acid. A diet rich in sucrose may lead to gout as it raises the level of insulin, which prevents excretion of uric acid from the body. As the concentration of uric acid in the body increases, so does the concentration of uric acid in the joint liquid and beyond a critical concentration, the uric acid begins to precipitate into crystals. Researchers have implicated sugary drinks high in fructose in a surge in cases of gout.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816223811/https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7219473.stm |date=2009-08-16 }}, BBC News, 1 February 2008</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |title=Nutrients for Gout – good and bad |author=Magidenko, Leonid |publisher=ABCVitaminsLife.com |date=2007-07-30 |access-date=2010-05-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223191342/https://www.abcvitaminslife.com/HealthFacts/Article429.aspx |archive-date=2009-02-23 }}</ref>
			====Sucrose intolerance====
	During the eighteenth century, sugar became enormously popular and the sugar market went through a series of ]s. As Europeans established sugar plantations on the larger Caribbean islands, prices fell, especially in Britain. By the eighteenth century, all levels of society had become common consumers of the former luxury product. At first most sugar in Britain went into tea, but later ] and ]s became extremely popular. Suppliers commonly sold sugar in solid cones and consumers required a ], a pliers-like tool, to break off pieces.
			{{main|Sucrose intolerance}}
			===UN dietary recommendation===
	Beginning in the late 18th century, the production of sugar became increasingly mechanized. The ] first powered a sugar mill in ] in 1768, and soon after, steam replaced direct firing as the source of process heat. During the same century, Europeans began experimenting with sugar production from other crops. ] identified sucrose in ] and his student ] built a sugar beet processing factory in Silesia (Poland). However, the beet-sugar industry really took off during the ], when France and the continent were cut off from caribbean sugar. Today 30% of the world's sugar is produced from beets.
			In 2015, the ] published a new guideline on sugars intake for adults and children, as a result of an extensive review of the available scientific evidence by a multidisciplinary group of experts. The guideline recommends that both adults and children ensure their intake of free sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides added to foods and beverages by the manufacturer, cook or consumer, and sugars naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and fruit juice concentrates) is less than 10% of total energy intake. A level below 5% of total energy intake brings additional health benefits, especially with regards to dental caries.<ref>See {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817100425/https://www.who.int/nutrition/publications/guidelines/sugars_intake/en/ |date=2015-08-17 }}</ref>
			===Religious concerns===
	Today, a large beet refinery producing around 1,500 tonnes of sugar a day needs a permanent workforce of about 150 for 24-hour production.
			The sugar refining industry often uses bone char (] animal bones) for decolorizing.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919012241/https://www.vegfamily.com/articles/sugar.htm |date=2009-09-19 }}. Vegfamily.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref><ref name="VegetarianJournal">{{cite journal
			|last = Yacoubou, MS
			|first = Jeanne
			|title = Is Your Sugar Vegan? An Update on Sugar Processing Practices
			|journal = Vegetarian Journal
			|volume = 26
			|issue = 4
			|pages = 16–20
			|publisher = The Vegetarian Resource Group
			|location = Baltimore, MD
			|year = 2007
			|url = https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
			|access-date = 2007-04-04
			|url-status = live
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080409003341/https://www.vrg.org/journal/vj2007issue4/vj2007issue4.pdf
			|archive-date = 2008-04-09
			}}</ref> About 25% of sugar produced in the U.S. is processed using bone char as a filter, the remainder being processed with ]. As bone char does not seem to remain in finished sugar, Jewish religious leaders consider sugar filtered through it to be ], meaning that it is neither meat nor dairy and may be used with either type of food. However, the bone char must source to a kosher animal (e.g. cow, sheep) for the sugar to be ].<ref name="VegetarianJournal"/>
	==Trade and economics==		==Trade and economics==
			{{update|section|date=January 2024}}
	Historically one of the most widely-traded commodities in the world, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3 to over 60 cents <!-- what cents: US$ or euro)--> per pound in the {{As of|2007|alt=past}} 50 years. About 100 of the world's 180 countries produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around 3 kilograms per person per annum in Ethiopia to around 40&nbsp;kg/person/yr in Belgium.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around 35&nbsp;kg per person per year in middle income countries.
			One of the most widely traded commodities in the world throughout history, sugar accounts for around 2% of the global dry cargo market.{{citation needed|date=November 2007}} International sugar prices show great volatility, ranging from around 3&nbsp;cents to over 60&nbsp;cents{{clarify|reason=What cents: US$ or euro? |date=April 2022}} per pound in the {{As of|2007|alt=past}} 50&nbsp;years. About 100&nbsp;of the world's 180&nbsp;countries produce sugar from beet or cane, a few more refine raw sugar to produce white sugar, and all countries consume sugar. Consumption of sugar ranges from around {{convert|3|kg|lb|abbr=off}} per person per annum in Ethiopia to around {{convert|40|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in Belgium.{{citation needed|date=November 2007}} Consumption per capita rises with income per capita until it reaches a plateau of around {{convert|35|kg|lb|abbr=on}} per person per year in middle income countries.
	]
	Many countries subsidize sugar production heavily. The European Union, the United States, Japan and many developing countries subsidize domestic production and maintain high tariffs on imports. Sugar prices in these countries have often exceeded prices on the international market by up to three times; {{As of|2007|alt=today}}, with world market sugar futures prices {{As of|2007|alt=currently}} strong, such prices typically exceed world prices by two times.		Many countries subsidize sugar production heavily. The European Union, the United States, Japan, and many ] subsidize domestic production and maintain high tariffs on imports. Sugar prices in these countries have often up to triple the prices on the international market; {{As of|2007|alt=today}}, with world market sugar futures prices {{As of|2007|alt=currently}} strong, such prices were typically double world prices.
			<div class="skin-invert-image">{{wide image|World raw sugar prices since 1960.svg|700px|{{center|World raw sugar price 1960–2014}}|alt=World raw sugar price from 1960 to 2014}}</div>
	Within international trade bodies, especially in the ], the "]" countries led by Brazil have long argued that because these sugar markets essentially exclude cane sugar imports, the G20 sugar producers receive lower prices than they would under ]. While both the ] and United States maintain trade agreements whereby certain developing and ] (LDCs) can sell certain quantities of sugar into their markets, free of the usual import tariffs, countries outside these preferred trade régimes have complained that these arrangements violate the "]" principle of international trade. This has led to numerous tariffs and levies in the past.
			Within international trade bodies, especially in the ] (WTO), the "]" countries led by Brazil have long argued that, because these sugar markets in essence exclude cane sugar imports, the G20 sugar producers receive lower prices than they would under ]. While both the ] and United States maintain trade agreements whereby certain developing and ] (LDCs) can sell certain quantities of sugar into their markets, free of the usual import tariffs, countries outside these preferred trade régimes have complained that these arrangements violate the "]" principle of international trade. This has led to numerous tariffs and levies in the past.
	In 2004, the ] sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ACP-EU Sugar Protocol (whereby a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market) illegal.<ref></ref> In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures on the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on 22 June 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime, cutting prices by 39% and eliminating all EU sugar exports.<ref></ref>		In 2004, the WTO sided with a group of cane sugar exporting nations (led by Brazil and Australia) and ruled illegal the EU sugar-régime and the accompanying ''ACP-EU Sugar Protocol'', that granted a group of African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries receive preferential access to the European sugar market.<ref>{{cite report |title=EC export subsidies on sugar |website=wto.org |publisher=] |url=https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/1pagesum_e/ds266sum_e.pdf |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410230058/https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/1pagesum_e/ds266sum_e.pdf |archive-date=2009-04-10}}</ref> In response to this and to other rulings of the WTO, and owing to internal pressures against the EU sugar-régime, the European Commission proposed on 22&nbsp;June 2005 a radical reform of the EU sugar-régime that cut prices by 39% and eliminated all EU sugar exports.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugar |series=Agriculture |date=2004-07-14 |website=ec.europa.eu |publisher=European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/markets/sugar/index_en.htm |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090822160634/https://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/markets/sugar/index_en.htm |archive-date=2009-08-22}}</ref>
	The African, Caribbean, Pacific and ] sugar exporters reacted with dismay to the EU sugar proposals.<ref></ref> On 25 November 2005, the Council of the EU agreed to cut EU sugar prices by 36% as from 2009. In 2007, it seemed<ref>
	</ref>
	that the ] could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7 million to US House and US Senate incumbents in the 2006 US election, more than any other group of US food-growers.<ref>'']'', October 18, 2007, </ref>
	Especially prominent lobbyists include ], so-called "sugar barons" who made the single {{As of|2003|alt= largest}} individual contributions of ] to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the political system of the United States of America.<ref>
	'']'', November 11, 2003, </ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coinop_congress/97mojo_400/boller.html |title=Sugar Daddie$ |publisher=Mother Jones |date=1997-05-01 |accessdate=2010-05-05}}</ref>
			In 2007, it seemed<ref>{{cite web |title=International Sugar Trade Coalition |type=main page |website=sugarcoalition.org |url=https://www.sugarcoalition.org/ |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601235516/https://www.sugarcoalition.org/ |archive-date=2009-06-01}}</ref> that the ] could become the next target for reform. However, some commentators expected heavy lobbying from the U.S. sugar industry, which donated $2.7&nbsp;million to U.S. House and Senate incumbents in the 2006 U.S. election, more than any other group of U.S. food-growers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Seeing sugar's future in fuel |department=Business |date=8 October 2007 |newspaper=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/business/18sugar.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707111955/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/18/business/18sugar.html |archive-date=2017-07-07}}</ref> Especially prominent among sugar lobbyists were ], so-called "sugar barons" who made the single {{as of|2003|alt=largest}} individual contributions of ] to both the Democratic and Republican parties in the U.S. political system.<ref>{{cite news |title=America's sugar daddies |date=11 November 2003 |newspaper=] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/29/opinion/29SAT1.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307151447/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/11/29/opinion/29SAT1.html |archive-date=2016-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=Sugar daddie$ |date=1997-05-01 |magazine=] |url=https://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coinop_congress/97mojo_400/boller.html |access-date=2010-05-05 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202042223/https://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/coinop_congress/97mojo_400/boller.html |archive-date=2008-12-02 }}</ref>
	Small quantities of sugar, especially specialty grades of sugar, reach the market as ']' commodities; the ] system produces and sells these products with the understanding that a larger-than-usual fraction of the revenue will support small farmers in the developing world. However, whilst the Fairtrade Foundation offers a premium of $60.00 per tonne to small farmers for sugar branded as "Fairtrade",<ref></ref>
	government schemes such the U.S. Sugar Program and the ] offer premiums of around $400.00 per tonne above world market prices. However, the EU announced on 14 September 2007 that it had offered "to eliminate all duties and quotas on the import of sugar into the EU".<ref></ref>
			Small quantities of sugar, especially specialty grades of sugar, reach the market as ']' commodities; the fair trade system produces and sells these products with the understanding that a larger-than-usual fraction of the revenue will support small farmers in the developing world. However, whilst the ] offers a premium of $60.00&nbsp;per tonne to small farmers for sugar branded as "Fairtrade",<ref>{{cite web |title=Sugar |website=fairtrade.net |publisher=] (FLO) |url=https://www.fairtrade.net/sugar.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120802115902/https://www.fairtrade.net/sugar.html |archive-date=2012-08-02}}</ref> government schemes such as the U.S. Sugar Program and the ACP-EU Sugar Protocol offer premiums of around $400.00&nbsp;per tonne above world market prices. However, the EU announced on 14&nbsp;September 2007 that it had offered "to eliminate all duties and quotas on the import of sugar into the EU".<ref>{{cite report |title=Trade Issues |date=2010-05-06 |department=External Trade |publisher=] |website=Ec.europa.eu |url=https://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/regions/acp/pr140907_en.htm |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090905045532/https://ec.europa.eu/trade/issues/bilateral/regions/acp/pr140907_en.htm |archive-date=2009-09-05 }}</ref>
	The ] has launched a campaign to promote sugar over artificial substitutes. The Association {{As of|2007|alt= now}} aggressively challenges many common beliefs regarding negative side effects of sugar consumption. The campaign aired a high-profile television commercial during the 2007 ] on FOX Television. The Sugar Association uses the trademark tagline "Sugar: sweet by nature."<ref></ref>
	==References==		==References==
	{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}		{{reflist}}
	==Further reading==		==Further reading==
	*{{Cite book|first1 = J.|last1 = Yudkin|last2 = Edelman|first2 = J.|last3 = Hough|first3 = L.|title = Sugar – Chemical, Biological and Nutritional Aspects of Sucrose|publisher = Butterworth|year = 1973|isbn = 0-408-70172-2}}.		* {{Cite book|first1 = J.|last1 = Yudkin|last2 = Edelman|first2 = J.|last3 = Hough|first3 = L.|title = Sugar: Chemical, Biological and Nutritional Aspects of Sucrose|publisher = Butterworth|year = 1973|isbn = 978-0-408-70172-3}}
	==External links==		==External links==
	{{Commons category|Sucrose}}		{{Commons category|Sucrose}}
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			{{Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism}}
	{{Carbohydrates}}		{{Carbohydrates}}
			{{Sugar}}
			{{Authority control}}
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