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Revision as of 13:48, 15 February 2012 editBeetstra (talk | contribs)Edit filter managers, Administrators172,031 edits Saving copy of the {{chembox}} taken from revid 476395137 of page Sulfuric_acid for the Chem/Drugbox validation project (updated: '').  Latest revision as of 07:52, 27 December 2024 edit Grendon84 (talk | contribs)172 editsm changed word in first paragraph from soluble to miscible 
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{{Short description|Chemical compound (H₂SO₄)}}
{{ambox | text = This page contains a copy of the infobox ({{tl|chembox}}) taken from revid of page ] with values updated to verified values.}}
{{redirect|Oil of vitriol|sweet oil of vitriol|Diethyl ether}}
{{chembox
{{redirect|Sulphuric acid|the novel by Amélie Nothomb|Sulphuric Acid (novel)}}
| verifiedrevid = 464362700
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019|cs1-dates=l}}
| ImageFile = Sulfuric-acid-2D-dimensions.svg
{{Use American English|date=April 2021}}
| ImageAlt = S=O bond length = 142.2 pm, <br>S-O bond length = 157.4 pm, <br>O-H bond length = 97 pm
{{Chembox
| ImageFile1 = Sulfuric-acid-Givan-et-al-1999-3D-balls.png
|Verifiedfields = changed
| ImageSize1 = 160
|Watchedfields = changed
| ImageFile3 = Sulphuric acid 96 percent extra pure.jpg
|verifiedrevid = 477003658
| IUPACName = Sulfuric acid
|ImageFileL1 = Sulfuric-acid-Givan-et-al-1999-3D-vdW.png
| OtherNames = Oil of vitriol
|ImageCaptionL1 = Space-filling model
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
|ImageFileR1 = Sulfuric-acid-Givan-et-al-1999-3D-balls.png
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
|ImageCaptionR1 = Ball-and-stick model<br/>S=O bond length = 142.2&nbsp;pm,<br/>S-O bond length = 157.4&nbsp;pm,<br/>O-H bond length = 97&nbsp;pm
| ChemSpiderID = 1086
|ImageSize2 = 150
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
|ImageFile3 = Sulphuric acid 96 percent extra pure.jpg
| UNII = O40UQP6WCF
|ImageSize3 = 140px
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
|IUPACName = Sulfuric acid
| KEGG = D05963
|OtherNames = {{Unbulleted list|Oil of vitriol|Hydrogen sulfate}}
| InChI = 1/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)
|Section1={{Chembox Identifiers
| InChIKey = QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYAC
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}} |ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
|ChemSpiderID = 1086
| ChEBI = 26836
|UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| SMILES = OS(=O)(=O)O
|UNII = O40UQP6WCF
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
|KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| ChEMBL = 572964
|KEGG = D05963
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4) |InChI = 1/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)
|InChIKey = QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYAC
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
|ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| StdInChIKey = QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo = 7664-93-9 |ChEBI = 26836
|SMILES = OS(=O)(=O)O
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
|ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| RTECS = WS5600000
|ChEMBL = 572964
| EINECS = 231-639-5
|StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| UNNumber = 1830
|StdInChI = 1S/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)
}}
|StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
|StdInChIKey = QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| Formula = {{chem|H|2}}{{chem||SO|4}}
|CASNo = 7664-93-9
| MolarMass = 98.079 g/mol
|CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| Appearance = Clear, colorless, odorless liquid
|RTECS = WS5600000
| Density = 1.84 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid
|EINECS = 231-639-5
| Solubility = miscible
| MeltingPtC = 10 |UNNumber = 1830
| BoilingPtC = 337 |Gmelin = 2122
|PubChem = 1118
| Viscosity = 26.7 ] (20&nbsp;°C)
| pKa = −3, 1.99
}}
| Section4 = {{Chembox Thermochemistry
| DeltaHf = −814&nbsp;kJ·mol<sup>−1</sup><ref name=b1>{{cite book| author = Zumdahl, Steven S.|title =Chemical Principles 6th Ed.| publisher = Houghton Mifflin Company| year = 2009| isbn = 061894690X|page=A23}}</ref>
| Entropy = 157&nbsp;J·mol<sup>−1</sup>·K<sup>−1</sup><ref name=b1/>
}}
| Section7 = {{Chembox Hazards
| ExternalMSDS =
| EUIndex = 016-020-00-8
| FlashPt = Non-flammable
| EUClass = {{Hazchem C}} {{Hazchem N}} {{Hazchem T}}
| NFPA-H = 3
| NFPA-F = 0
| NFPA-R = 2
| NFPA-O = W
| RPhrases = {{R35}}
| SPhrases = {{S1/2}} {{S26}} {{S30}} {{S45}}
}}
| Section8 = {{Chembox Related
| Function = ]s
| OtherFunctn = ]<br/>]<br/>]
| OtherCpds = ]<br/>]<br/>]<br/>]
}}
}} }}
|Section2={{Chembox Properties
|Formula = {{chem2|H2SO4}}, sometimes expressed {{chem2|(HO)2SO2}}
|MolarMass = 98.079 g/mol
|Appearance = Colorless viscous liquid
|Odor = Odorless
|Density = 1.8302 g/cm<sup>3</sup>, liquid<ref name="CRCHCP" />
|Solubility = miscible, exothermic
|MeltingPtC = 10.31<ref name="CRCHCP">{{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=William M. |title=CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |date=2014 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9781482208689 |pages=4–92 |edition=95 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bNDMBQAAQBAJ |access-date=18 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref>
|BoilingPtC = 337<ref name="CRCHCP" />
|BoilingPt_notes = <br/>When sulfuric acid is above 300 °C (572 °F; 573 K), it gradually decomposes to {{chem2|SO3 + H2O}}
|Viscosity = 26.7 ] (20&nbsp;°C)
|pKa = p''K''<sub>a1</sub> = −2.8<br>p''K''<sub>a2</sub> = 1.99
|ConjugateBase = ]
|VaporPressure = 0.001 mmHg (20&nbsp;°C)<ref name=PGCH/>
}}
|Section3 = {{Chembox Structure
|Structure_ref =<ref name="kemnitz">{{cite journal |last1=Kemnitz |first1=E. |last2=Werner |first2=C. |last3=Trojanov |first3=S. |title=Reinvestigation of Crystalline Sulfuric Acid and Oxonium Hydrogensulfate |journal=Acta Crystallographica Section C Crystal Structure Communications |date=15 November 1996 |volume=52 |issue=11 |pages=2665–2668 |doi=10.1107/S0108270196006749 |bibcode=1996AcCrC..52.2665K }}</ref>
|CrystalStruct = monoclinic
|SpaceGroup = C2/c
|LattConst_a = 818.1(2)&nbsp;pm
|LattConst_b = 469.60(10)&nbsp;pm
|LattConst_c = 856.3(2)&nbsp;pm
|LattConst_beta = 111.39(3)<br/>
|UnitCellFormulas = 4
}}
|Section4={{Chembox Thermochemistry
|DeltaHf = −814&nbsp;kJ/mol<ref name=b1>{{cite book |author= Zumdahl, Steven S. |title= Chemical Principles 6th Ed. |publisher= Houghton Mifflin Company |year= 2009 |isbn= 978-0-618-94690-7|page=A23}}</ref>
|Entropy = 157&nbsp;J/(mol·K)<ref name=b1/>
}}
|Section5={{Chembox Hazards
|ExternalSDS =
|FlashPt = Non-flammable
|NFPA-H = 3
|NFPA-F = 0
|NFPA-R = 2
|NFPA-S = W+OX
|GHSPictograms = {{GHS corrosion}} {{GHS skull and crossbones}}
|GHSSignalWord = '''Danger'''
|HPhrases = {{H-phrases|314}}
|PPhrases = {{P-phrases|260|264|280|301+330+331|303+361+353|363|304+340|305+351+338|310|321|405|501}}
|TLV-TWA = 1 mg/m<sup>3</sup>
|TLV-STEL = 2 mg/m<sup>3</sup>
|TLV = 15 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (IDLH)
|PEL = TWA 1 mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0577}}</ref>
|IDLH = 15 mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=PGCH/>
|REL = TWA 1 mg/m<sup>3</sup><ref name=PGCH/>
|LD50 = 2140 mg/kg (rat, oral)<ref name=IDLH>{{IDLH|7664939|Sulfuric acid}}</ref>
|LC50 = {{ubl|50 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (guinea pig, 8 hr)|510 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (rat, 2 hr)|320 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (mouse, 2 hr)|18 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (guinea pig)}}<ref name=IDLH/>
| LCLo = 87 mg/m<sup>3</sup> (guinea pig, 2.75 hr)<ref name=IDLH/>
}}
|Section6={{Chembox Related
|OtherFunction_label = ]s
|OtherFunction = {{ubl|]|]|]|
]|
]|
]}}
|OtherCompounds = {{ubl|]|]|]|]}}
}}
}}

'''Sulfuric acid''' (] and the ]) or '''sulphuric acid''' (]), known in antiquity as '''oil of vitriol''', is a ] composed of the elements ], ], and ], with the ] {{chem2|H2SO4}}. It is a colorless, odorless, and ] liquid that is ] with water.<ref name="ds">{{cite web|url=http://www.arkema-inc.com/msds/01641.pdf|work=arkema-inc.com|title=Sulfuric acid safety data sheet|quote=Clear to turbid oily odorless liquid, colorless to slightly yellow.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617181442/http://www.arkema-inc.com/msds/01641.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2012}}</ref>

]

Pure sulfuric acid does not occur naturally due to its ]; it is ] and readily absorbs ] from the ].<ref name="ds"/> Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong oxidant with powerful dehydrating properties, making it highly corrosive towards other materials, from rocks to metals. ] is a notable exception in that it is not dehydrated by sulfuric acid but, to the contrary, dehydrates sulfuric acid to ]. Upon addition of sulfuric acid to water, a considerable amount of heat is released; thus, the reverse procedure of adding water to the acid is generally avoided since the heat released may boil the solution, spraying droplets of hot acid during the process. Upon contact with body tissue, sulfuric acid can cause severe ] ]s and secondary ]s due to dehydration.<ref name="OA"/><ref name=TB>{{cite web|url=https://collaboration.basf.com/portal/load/fid1032678/E015%20Sulfuric%20acid%20C.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190614101454/https://collaboration.basf.com/portal/load/fid1032678/E015%20Sulfuric%20acid%20C.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2019-06-14|title=BASF Chemical Emergency Medical Guidelines – Sulfuric acid (H2SO4)|publisher=BASF Chemical Company|date=2012|access-date=18 December 2014}}</ref> Dilute sulfuric acid is substantially less hazardous without the oxidative and dehydrating properties; though, it is handled with care for its acidity.

Sulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical; a country's sulfuric acid production is a good indicator of its industrial strength.<ref name="Chenier 1987 45–57">{{cite book |last=Chenier |first=Philip J. |title=Survey of Industrial Chemistry |pages= |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=New York |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-471-01077-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/surveyofindustri0000chen/page/45 }}</ref> Many methods for its production are known, including the ], the ], and the ].<ref>Hermann Müller "Sulfuric Acid and Sulfur Trioxide" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. 2000 {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a25_635}}</ref> Sulfuric acid is also a key substance in the ]. It is most commonly used in ] manufacture<ref>{{cite web|url=https://essentialchemicalindustry.org/chemicals/sulfuric-acid.html|title=Sulfuric acid|website=essentialchemicalindustry.org}}</ref> but is also important in ], ], ], and ]. It has a wide range of end applications, including in ],<ref name="dc"/> as an ] in ], as a dehydrating compound, and in various ]s.
Sulfuric acid can be obtained by dissolving ] in water.

== Physical properties ==

===Grades of sulfuric acid===
Although nearly 100% sulfuric acid solutions can be made, the subsequent loss of ] at the boiling point brings the concentration to 98.3% acid. The 98.3% grade, which is more stable in storage, is the usual form of what is described as "concentrated sulfuric acid". Other concentrations are used for different purposes. Some common concentrations are:<ref name="Columbia">{{cite book |chapter=Sulfuric Acid|chapter-url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/sulfuric_acid.aspx|title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |edition=6th |year=2009 |access-date=16 March 2010}}</ref><ref name="EB11">{{cite book|chapter=Sulphuric acid|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|edition=11th|year=1910–1911|volume=26|pages=65–69|title-link=Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition}} Please note, no EB1911 wikilink is available to this article</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Mass fraction<br />{{chem2|H2SO4}}
! Density<br />(kg/L)
! Concentration<br />(mol/L)
! Common name
|-
| <29% || 1.00-1.25 || align=center| <4.2 || diluted sulfuric acid
|-
| 29–32% || 1.25–1.28 || align=center| 4.2–5.0 || battery acid<br />(used in ])
|-
| 62–70% || 1.52–1.60 || align=center| 9.6–11.5 || chamber acid<br />fertilizer acid
|-
| 78–80% || 1.70–1.73 || align=center| 13.5–14.0 || tower acid<br />Glover acid
|-
| 93.2% || 1.83 || align=center| 17.4 || 66 ] ("66-degree Baumé") acid
|-
| 98.3% || 1.84 || align=center| 18.4 || concentrated sulfuric acid
|}

"Chamber acid" and "tower acid" were the two concentrations of sulfuric acid produced by the ], chamber acid being the acid produced in the lead chamber itself (<70% to avoid contamination with ]) and tower acid being the acid recovered from the bottom of the Glover tower.<ref name="Columbia"/><ref name="EB11"/> They are now obsolete as commercial concentrations of sulfuric acid, although they may be prepared in the laboratory from concentrated sulfuric acid if needed. In particular, "10 M" sulfuric acid (the modern equivalent of chamber acid, used in many ]s), is prepared by slowly adding 98% sulfuric acid to an equal volume of water, with good stirring: the temperature of the mixture can rise to 80&nbsp;°C (176&nbsp;°F) or higher.<ref name="EB11"/>

===Sulfuric acid===
Sulfuric acid contains not only {{chem2|H2SO4}} molecules, but is actually an equilibrium of many other chemical species, as it is shown in the table below.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+colspan=2|Equilibrium of pure sulfuric acid<ref name="greenwood"/>
!Species
!mMol/kg
|-
|{{chem2|HSO4-}}
| 15.0
|-
|{{chem2|H3SO4+}}
| 11.3
|-
|{{chem2|H3O+}}
| 8.0
|-
|{{chem2|HS2O7-}}
| 4.4
|-
|{{chem2|H2S2O7}}
| 3.6
|-
|{{chem2|H2O}}
| 0.1
|}
Sulfuric acid is a colorless oily liquid, and has a vapor pressure of <0.001 mmHg at 25&nbsp;°C and 1 mmHg at 145.8&nbsp;°C,<ref name="OEHHA">{{cite book |chapter=Sulfuric acid|chapter-url=http://oehha.ca.gov/air/chronic_rels/pdf/sulfuric.pdf|title=Determination of Noncancer Chronic Reference Exposure Levels Batch 2B December 2001|year=2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030522222447/http://oehha.ca.gov/air/chronic_rels/pdf/sulfuric.pdf|access-date=1 October 2012|archive-date=22 May 2003}}</ref> and 98% sulfuric acid has a vapor pressure of <1 mmHg at 40&nbsp;°C.<ref name="Rhodia">{{cite web|url=http://www.rhodia.com/our_company/businesses/documents/Sulfuric_Acid_98.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107022427/http://www.rhodia.com/our_company/businesses/documents/Sulfuric_Acid_98.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 January 2011|title=Sulfuric Acid 98%|year=2009|access-date=2 July 2014|publisher=rhodia.com}}</ref>

In the solid state, sulfuric acid is a molecular solid that forms ] crystals with nearly ] lattice parameters. The structure consists of layers parallel to the (010) plane, in which each molecule is connected by ]s to two others.<ref name="kemnitz"/> ]s {{chem2|H2SO4*''n''H2O}} are known for ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6.5, and 8, although most intermediate hydrates are stable against ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Giauque |first1=W. F. |last2=Hornung |first2=E. W. |last3=Kunzler |first3=J. E. |last4=Rubin |first4=T. R. |title=The Thermodynamic Properties of Aqueous Sulfuric Acid Solutions and Hydrates from 15 to 300K. 1 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |date=January 1960 |volume=82 |issue=1 |pages=62–70 |doi=10.1021/ja01486a014}}</ref>

===Polarity and conductivity===

] {{chem2|H2SO4}} is a very ] liquid, having a ] of around 100. It has a high ], a consequence of ], i.e. self-]:<ref name=greenwood>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}</ref>
:{{chem2 |2 H2SO4 <-> H3SO4+ + HSO4- }}
The ] for autoprotolysis (25&nbsp;°C) is:<ref name=greenwood/>
:{{chem2|+-}} = 2.7 × 10<sup>−4</sup>

The corresponding ], ''K''<sub>w</sub> is 10<sup>−14</sup>, a factor of 10<sup>10</sup> (10 billion) smaller.

In spite of the viscosity of the acid, the effective ] of the {{chem2|H3SO4+}} and {{chem2|HSO4-}} ions are high due to an intramolecular proton-switch mechanism (analogous to the ] in water), making sulfuric acid a good conductor of electricity. It is also an excellent solvent for many reactions.

==Chemical properties==

===Acidity===
], slow carbonification of the sucrose takes place. The reaction is accompanied by the evolution of gaseous products that contribute to the formation of the foamy carbon pillar that rises above the beaker.]]
]
The ] of sulfuric acid is highly ].<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.cleapss.org.uk/attachments/article/0/SSS22.pdf?Secondary/Science/Student%20Safety%20Sheets/ |title = Consortium of Local Education Authorities for the Provision of Science Equipment -STUDENT SAFETY SHEETS 22 Sulfuric(VI) acid |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130331050001/http://www.cleapss.org.uk/attachments/article/0/SSS22.pdf?Secondary/Science/Student%20Safety%20Sheets/ |archive-date=31 March 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

As indicated by its ], sulfuric acid is a strong acid:
:{{chem2|H2SO4 -> H3O+ + HSO4-}} K<sub>a1</sub> = 1000 (pK<sub>a1</sub> = −3)
The product of this ionization is {{chem2|HSO4-}}, the ] anion. Bisulfate is a far weaker acid:
:{{chem2|HSO4- + H2O -> H3O+ + SO4(2-)}} K<sub>a2</sub> = 0.01 (pK<sub>a2</sub> = 2) <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/acidity.htm |title=Ionization Constants of Inorganic Acids |publisher=.chemistry.msu.edu |access-date=30 May 2011}}</ref>
The product of this second dissociation is {{chem2|SO4(2-)}}, the '']'' anion.

===Dehydration===
Concentrated sulfuric acid has a powerful ] property, removing ] ({{chem2|H2O}}) from other chemical compounds such as ] (]) and other ]s, to produce ], ], and heat. Dehydration of table sugar (sucrose) is a common laboratory demonstration.<ref name="Dolson1995">{{cite journal | last=Dolson | first=David A.| display-authors=etal | title=Carbohydrate Dehydration Demonstrations | journal=J. Chem. Educ. | volume=72 | issue=10 | year=1995 | issn=0021-9584 | doi=10.1021/ed072p927 | page=927| bibcode=1995JChEd..72..927D}}</ref> The sugar darkens as carbon is formed, and a rigid column of black, porous carbon called a ] may emerge.<ref name="Helmenstine2020">{{cite web | last=Helmenstine | first=Anne | title=Carbon Snake Demo (Sugar and Sulfuric Acid) | website=Science Notes and Projects | date=2020-02-18 | url=https://sciencenotes.org/carbon-snake-demo-sugar-and-sulfuric-acid/ | access-date=2022-07-05}}</ref>

:<math chem>\underset{\text{sucrose}}{\ce{C12H22O11}} \longrightarrow \underset{\text{black} \atop \text{graphitic foam}}{\ce{12 C}} + \ce{11 H2O_{(g,l)}}</math>

Similarly, mixing ] into concentrated sulfuric acid gives elemental carbon and water. The effect of this can also be seen when concentrated sulfuric acid is spilled on paper. Paper is composed of ], a ] related to starch. The cellulose reacts to give a burnt appearance in which the carbon appears much like ] that results from fire.
Although less dramatic, the action of the acid on ], even in diluted form, destroys the fabric.

:<math chem>\underset{\text{polysaccharide}}{\ce{}_n} \longrightarrow 6n\ \ce{C} + 5n\ \ce{H2O}</math>

The reaction with ] can also demonstrate the dehydration property of sulfuric acid. The blue crystals change into white powder as water is removed.
:<math chem>\underset{\text{copper(II) sulfate} \atop \text{pentahydrate}}{\ce{CuSO4*5H2O}} \longrightarrow \underset{\text{anhydrous} \atop \text{copper(II) sulfate}}{\ce{CuSO4}} + \ce{5 H2O}</math>

===Reactions with salts===
Sulfuric acid reacts with most ] to give the corresponding sulfate or bisulfate.

], also known as paper maker's alum, is made by treating ] with sulfuric acid:
:{{chem2 | 2 AlO(OH) + 3 H2SO4 -> Al2(SO4)3 + 4 H2O }}

Sulfuric acid can also be used to displace weaker acids from their salts. Reaction with ], for example, displaces ], {{chem2|CH3COOH}}, and forms ]:
:{{chem2 | H2SO4 + CH3CO2Na -> NaHSO4 + CH3COOH }}

Similarly, treating ] with sulfuric acid produces ]. Sulfuric acid reacts with ], and gives ] ] and ]:
:{{chem2 | NaCl + H2SO4 -> NaHSO4 + HCl }}

When combined with ], sulfuric acid acts both as an acid and a dehydrating agent, forming the ] {{chem2|NO2+}}, which is important in ] reactions involving ]. This type of reaction, where protonation occurs on an ] atom, is important in many ] reactions, such as ] and dehydration of alcohols.

+}} ion present in {{chem2|+−}}, synthesized by using ]F in place of HF.]]

When allowed to react with ]s, sulfuric acid can act as a base and can be protonated, forming the {{chem2|+}} ion. Salts of {{chem2|+}} have been prepared (e.g. trihydroxyoxosulfonium hexafluoroantimonate(V) {{chem2|+-}}) using the following reaction in liquid ]:

:{{chem2 | 2SO2 + 3 HF + SbF5 -> +- + 2 (CH3)3SiF }}

The above reaction is thermodynamically favored due to the high ] of the Si–F bond in the side product. Protonation using simply ], however, has met with failure, as pure sulfuric acid undergoes ] to give {{chem2|+}} ions:
:{{chem2 | 2 H2SO4 <-> H3O+ + HS2O7- }}
which prevents the conversion of {{chem2|H2SO4}} to {{chem2|+}} by the HF/{{chem2|SbF5}} system.<ref name="InorgChem">{{cite book|author1=Housecroft, Catherine E.|title=Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd Edition|author2=Sharpe, Alan G.|publisher=Pearson|year=2008|isbn=978-0-13-175553-6|page=523|chapter=Chapter 16: The group 16 elements}}</ref>

=== Reactions with metals ===
Even dilute sulfuric acid reacts with many metals via a single displacement reaction, like other typical ]s, producing ] gas and ]s (the metal sulfate). It attacks reactive metals (metals at positions above ] in the ]) such as ], ], ], ], ], and ].
:{{chem2 | Fe + H2SO4 -> H2 + FeSO4 }}

Concentrated sulfuric acid can serve as an ], releasing sulfur dioxide:<ref name="OA">{{cite web|url=http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions/chemistry/sulfuricacid1.html|title=Sulfuric acid – uses|work=dynamicscience.com.au|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509024826/http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions/chemistry/sulfuricacid1.html|archive-date=9 May 2013}}</ref>
:{{chem2 | Cu + 2 H2SO4 -> SO2 + 2 H2O + SO4(2-) + Cu(2+) }}
] and ], however, are resistant to sulfuric acid.

===Reactions with carbon and sulfur===
Hot concentrated sulfuric acid oxidizes ]<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kinney, Corliss Robert |author2=Grey, V. E. |title=Reactions of a Bituminous Coal with Sulfuric Acid|year=1959|publisher=Pennsylvania State University|url=https://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/03_2_BOSTON_04-59_0169.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428004603/https://web.anl.gov/PCS/acsfuel/preprint%20archive/Files/03_2_BOSTON_04-59_0169.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-04-28 }}</ref> (as ]) and ]:
:{{chem2 | C + 2 H2SO4 -> CO2 + 2 SO2 + 2 H2O }}
:{{chem2 | S + 2 H2SO4 -> 3 SO2 + 2 H2O }}

===Electrophilic aromatic substitution===
Benzene and many derivatives undergo ] with sulfuric acid to give the corresponding ]s:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/351/Carey/Ch12/ch12-4.html |title=Reactions of Arenes. Electrophilic Aromatic Substitution |author=Carey, F. A. |work=On-Line Learning Center for Organic Chemistry |publisher=] |access-date=27 January 2008 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706063639/http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/courses/351/Carey/Ch12/ch12-4.html |archive-date=6 July 2008}}</ref>
:]

===Sulfur–iodine cycle===
Sulfuric acid can be used to produce ] from ]:
:{|
|-
| {{chem2|2 I2 + 2 SO2 + 4 '''H2O''' → 4 HI + 2 H2SO4}} || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || (120&nbsp;°C, ])
|-
| {{chem2|2 H2SO4 → 2 SO2 + 2 '''H2O''' + '''O2'''}} || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || (830&nbsp;°C)
|-
| {{chem2|4 HI → 2 I2 + 2 '''H2'''}} || &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; || (320&nbsp;°C)
|}

The compounds of sulfur and ] are recovered and reused, hence the process is called the ]. This process is ] and must occur at high temperatures, so energy in the form of heat has to be supplied. The sulfur–iodine cycle has been proposed as a way to supply hydrogen for a ]. It is an alternative to ], and does not require ]s like current methods of ]. But note that all of the available energy in the hydrogen so produced is supplied by the heat used to make it.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D-yPCwAAQBAJ&q=oxygen+from+sulfur-iodine+cycle+danger|title=Our Energy Future: Resources, Alternatives and the Environment|last1=Ngo|first1=Christian|last2=Natowitz|first2=Joseph|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2016|isbn=9781119213369|pages=418–419}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/review05/pd27_pickard.pdf |title=2005 DOE Hydrogen Program Review: Sulfur-Iodine Thermochemical Cycle |last=Pickard |first=Paul |publisher=Sandia National Labs |date=25 May 2005 |access-date=8 October 2021 }}</ref>

==Occurrence==
] with its highly acidic water]]

Sulfuric acid is rarely encountered naturally on Earth in anhydrous form, due to its great ]. Dilute sulfuric acid is a constituent of ], which is formed by atmospheric ] of ] in the presence of ] – i.e. oxidation of ]. When sulfur-containing fuels such as coal or oil are burned, sulfur dioxide is the main byproduct (besides the chief products carbon oxides and water).

Sulfuric acid is formed naturally by the oxidation of sulfide minerals, such as ]:
:{{chem2|2 FeS2(s) + 7 O2 + 2 H2O → 2 Fe(2+) + 4 SO4(2-) + 4 H+}}
The resulting highly acidic water is called ] (AMD) or acid rock drainage (ARD).

The {{chem2|Fe(2+)}} can be further oxidized to {{chem2|Fe(3+)}}:
:{{chem2|4 Fe(2+) + O2 + 4 H+ → 4 Fe(3+) + 2 H2O}}

The {{chem2|Fe(3+)}} produced can be precipitated as the ] or ]:
:{{chem2|Fe(3+) + 3 H2O → Fe(OH)3↓ + 3 H+}}

The iron(III) ion ("ferric iron") can also oxidize pyrite:
:{{chem2|FeS2(s) + 14 Fe(3+) + 8 H2O → 15 Fe(2+) + 2 SO4(2-) + 16 H+}}

When iron(III) oxidation of pyrite occurs, the process can become rapid. ] values below zero have been measured in ARD produced by this process.

ARD can also produce sulfuric acid at a slower rate, so that the ] (ANC) of the aquifer can neutralize the produced acid. In such cases, the ] (TDS) concentration of the water can be increased from the dissolution of minerals from the acid-neutralization reaction with the minerals.

Sulfuric acid is used as a defense by certain marine species, for example, the phaeophyte alga ''Desmarestia munda'' (order ]) concentrates sulfuric acid in cell vacuoles.<ref name='Pelletreau'>{{cite journal|first= K.|last= Pelletreau|author2=Muller-Parker, G. |journal= Marine Biology|year= 2002|volume= 141|issue=1|pages=1–9|doi=10.1007/s00227-002-0809-6|title= Sulfuric acid in the phaeophyte alga Desmarestia munda deters feeding by the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis|bibcode= 2002MarBi.141....1K|s2cid= 83697676}}</ref>

===Stratospheric aerosol===

In the ], the atmosphere's second layer that is generally between 10 and 50&nbsp;km above Earth's surface, sulfuric acid is formed by the oxidation of volcanic sulfur dioxide by the ]:<ref name='Kremser'>{{cite journal|first= S.|last= Kremser|author2= Thomson, L.W.|journal= Reviews of Geophysics|year= 2016|volume= 54|issue= 2|pages=278–335|doi=10.1002/2015RG000511|title= Stratospheric aerosol—Observations, processes, and impact on climate|bibcode= 2016RvGeo..54..278K|url= http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/97280/7/Kremser_et_al-2016-Reviews_of_Geophysics.pdf|doi-access= free}}</ref>
:{{chem2|SO2 + HO^{•} → HSO3}}
:{{chem2|HSO3 + O2 → SO3 + HO2}}
:{{chem2|SO3 + H2O → H2SO4}}

Because sulfuric acid reaches ] in the stratosphere, it can nucleate aerosol particles and provide a surface for aerosol growth via condensation and coagulation with other water-sulfuric acid aerosols. This results in the ].<ref name='Kremser' />

===Extraterrestrial sulfuric acid===
The permanent ]ian clouds produce a concentrated acid rain, as the clouds in the atmosphere of Earth produce water rain.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Chemical composition of Venus atmosphere and clouds: Some unsolved problems |first=Vladimir A. |last=Krasnopolsky |date=2006 |journal=] |volume=54 |issue=13–14 |pages=1352–1359 |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2006.04.019 |bibcode=2006P&SS...54.1352K}}</ref> ]'s moon ] is also thought to have an atmosphere containing sulfuric acid hydrates.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=T. M. |last1=Orlando |first2=T. B. |last2=McCord |first3=G. A. |last3=Grieves |title=The chemical nature of Europa surface material and the relation to a subsurface ocean |journal=] |volume=177 |year=2005 |issue=2 |pages=528–533 |doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2005.05.009 |bibcode=2005Icar..177..528O}}</ref>

==Manufacturing==
{{Main|Contact process|Wet sulfuric acid process|Lead chamber process}}

Sulfuric acid is produced from ], oxygen and water via the conventional ] (DCDA) or the ] (WSA).

===Contact process===
{{Main|Contact process}}
In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide.
:{{chem2|S(s) + O2 → SO2}}

The sulfur dioxide is oxidized to sulfur trioxide by oxygen in the presence of a ] ]. This reaction is reversible and the formation of the sulfur trioxide is exothermic.
:{{chem2|2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3}}

The sulfur trioxide is absorbed into 97–98% {{chem2|H2SO4}} to form ] ({{chem2|H2S2O7}}), also known as fuming sulfuric acid or pyrosulphuric acid. The oleum is then diluted with water to form concentrated sulfuric acid.

:{{chem2|H2SO4 + SO3 → H2S2O7}}
:{{chem2|H2S2O7 + H2O → 2 H2SO4}}

Directly dissolving {{chem2|SO3}} in water, called the "]", is rarely practiced because the reaction is extremely exothermic, resulting in a hot aerosol of sulfuric acid that requires condensation and separation.

===Wet sulfuric acid process===
{{Main|Wet sulfuric acid process}}
In the first step, sulfur is burned to produce sulfur dioxide:
:{{chem2|S + O2 → SO2}} (−297&nbsp;kJ/mol)

or, alternatively, ] ({{chem2|H2S}}) gas is incinerated to {{chem2|SO2}} gas:
:{{chem2|2 H2S + 3 O2 → 2 H2O + 2 SO2}} (−1036&nbsp;kJ/mol)
The sulfur dioxide then oxidized to sulfur trioxide using oxygen with ] as ].
:{{chem2|2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3}} (−198&nbsp;kJ/mol) (reaction is reversible)

The sulfur trioxide is hydrated into sulfuric acid {{chem2|H2SO4}}:
:{{chem2|SO3 + H2O → H2SO4(g)}} (−101&nbsp;kJ/mol)

The last step is the condensation of the sulfuric acid to liquid 97–98% {{chem2|H2SO4}}:
:{{chem2|H2SO4(g) → H2SO4(l)}} (−69&nbsp;kJ/mol)

===Other methods===
Burning ] together with saltpeter (], {{chem2|KNO3}}), in the presence of steam, has been used historically. As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to {{chem2|SO3}}, which combines with water to produce sulfuric acid.

Prior to 1900, most sulfuric acid was manufactured by the ].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Edward M. |last=Jones |title=Chamber Process Manufacture of Sulfuric Acid |journal=Industrial and Engineering Chemistry |year=1950 |volume=42 |issue=11 |pages=2208–2210 |doi=10.1021/ie50491a016}}</ref> As late as 1940, up to 50% of sulfuric acid manufactured in the United States was produced by chamber process plants.

A wide variety of laboratory syntheses are known, and typically begin from ] or an equivalent ]. In the metabisulfite method, ] reacts with ] to produce ] vapors. The gas is bubbled through ], which will release brown/red vapors of ] as the reaction proceeds. The completion of the reaction is indicated by the ceasing of the fumes. This method conveniently does not produce an inseparable mist.{{cn|date=December 2024}}
:{{chem2|3 SO2 + 2 HNO3 + 2 H2O → 3 H2SO4 + 2 NO}}

Alternatively, dissolving sulfur dioxide in an aqueous solution of an oxidizing metal salt such as copper(II) or iron(III) chloride:{{cn|date=December 2024}}
:{{chem2|2 FeCl3 + 2 H2O + SO2 → 2 FeCl2 + H2SO4 + 2 HCl}}
:{{chem2|2 CuCl2 + 2 H2O + SO2 → 2 CuCl + H2SO4 + 2 HCl}}

Two less well-known laboratory methods of producing sulfuric acid, albeit in dilute form and requiring some extra effort in purification, rely on ]. A solution of ] can be electrolyzed with a copper cathode and platinum/graphite anode to give spongy ] at cathode and oxygen gas at the anode. The solution of dilute sulfuric acid indicates completion of the reaction when it turns from blue to clear (production of hydrogen at cathode is another sign):{{cn|date=December 2024}}
:{{chem2|2 CuSO4 + 2 H2O → 2 Cu + 2 H2SO4 + O2}}

More costly, dangerous, and troublesome is the electrobromine method, which employs a mixture of ], water, and ] as the electrolyte. The sulfur is pushed to bottom of container under the acid solution. Then the copper cathode and platinum/graphite anode are used with the cathode near the surface and the anode is positioned at the bottom of the electrolyte to apply the current. This may take longer and emits toxic ]/sulfur bromide vapors, but the reactant acid is recyclable. Overall, only the sulfur and water are converted to sulfuric acid and hydrogen (omitting losses of acid as vapors):{{cn|date=December 2024}} <!--OP put in edit summary that this technique is taken from some nurdrage post which adapted it from an old textbook.-->
:{{chem2|2 HBr → H2 + Br2}} (electrolysis of aqueous hydrogen bromide)
:{{chem2|Br2 + Br− ↔ Br3−}} (initial ] production, eventually reverses as {{chem2|Br−}} depletes)
:{{chem2|2 S + Br2 → S2Br2}} (bromine reacts with sulfur to form ])
:{{chem2|S2Br2 + 8 H2O + 5 Br2 → 2 H2SO4 + 12 HBr}} (oxidation and hydration of disulfur dibromide)

==Uses==
]
Sulfuric acid is a very important commodity chemical, and indeed, a nation's sulfuric acid production is a good indicator of its industrial strength.<ref name="Chenier 1987 45–57"/> World production in the year 2004 was about 180 million ]s, with the following geographic distribution: Asia 35%, North America (including Mexico) 24%, Africa 11%, Western Europe 10%, Eastern Europe and Russia 10%, Australia and Oceania 7%, South America 7%.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Davenport, William George |author2=King, Matthew J. |title=Sulfuric acid manufacture: analysis, control and optimization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRAb2CniRG4C|access-date=23 December 2011|year=2006|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-044428-4|pages=8, 13}}</ref> Most of this amount (≈60%) is consumed for fertilizers, particularly superphosphates, ammonium phosphate and ammonium sulfates. About 20% is used in chemical industry for production of detergents, synthetic resins, dyestuffs, pharmaceuticals, petroleum catalysts, insecticides and ], as well as in various processes such as oil well acidicizing, aluminium reduction, paper sizing, and water treatment. About 6% of uses are related to ]s and include paints, ], printing inks, coated fabrics and paper, while the rest is dispersed into a multitude of applications such as production of explosives, ], acetate and viscose textiles, lubricants, non-ferrous metals, and batteries.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|page=653}}</ref>

===Industrial production of chemicals===
The dominant use for sulfuric acid is in the "wet method" for the production of ], used for manufacture of ] ]s. In this method, phosphate rock is used, and more than 100 million tonnes are processed annually. This raw material is shown below as ], though the exact composition may vary. This is treated with 93% sulfuric acid to produce ], ] (HF) and ]. The HF is removed as ]. The overall process can be represented as:
:<math chem>\underset{\text{fluorapatite}}{\ce{Ca5(PO4)3F}} + \ce{5 H2SO4 + 10 H2O} \longrightarrow \underset{\text{calcium sulfate} \atop \text{dihydrate}}{\ce{5 CaSO4*2H2O}} + \ce{HF + 3 H3PO4}</math>

], an important nitrogen fertilizer, is most commonly produced as a byproduct from ] supplying the iron and steel making plants. Reacting the ] produced in the thermal decomposition of ] with waste sulfuric acid allows the ammonia to be crystallized out as a salt (often brown because of iron contamination) and sold into the agro-chemicals industry.

Sulfuric acid is also important in the manufacture of ]stuffs solutions.

===Industrial cleaning agent===
Sulfuric acid is used in ] and other ] as a ] for removal of ] and ].<ref name="Ullmann 2012">{{Ullmann |last=Müller |first=Hermann |date=2012 |title=Sulfuric Acid and Sulfur Trioxide |doi=10.1002/14356007.a25_635}}</ref> Used acid is often recycled using a spent acid regeneration (SAR) plant. These plants combust spent acid{{clarify|reason="What is it, exactly? Is it still the same acid, dirty, reacted, or what?"|date=February 2015}} with natural gas, refinery gas, fuel oil or other fuel sources. This combustion process produces gaseous ] ({{chem2|SO2}}) and ] ({{chem2|SO3}}) which are then used to manufacture "new" sulfuric acid.

] ({{chem2|H2O2}}) can be added to sulfuric acid to produce ], a powerful but very toxic cleaning solution with which substrate surfaces can be cleaned. Piranha solution is typically used in the microelectronics industry, and also in laboratory settings to clean glassware.

===Catalyst===
Sulfuric acid is used for a variety of other purposes in the chemical industry. For example, it is the usual acid catalyst for the conversion of ] to ], used for making ]. It is used for making ] from ] via the ]. Much {{chem2|H2SO4}} is used in ] refining, for example as a catalyst for the reaction of ] with ] to give ], a compound that raises the ] of ] (petrol). Sulfuric acid is also often used as a dehydrating or oxidizing agent in industrial reactions, such as the dehydration of various sugars to form solid carbon.

===Electrolyte===
] usually contain sulfuric acid at a high concentration which turns a piece of ] red and chars it instantly, demonstrating both the strong acidic nature and dehydrating property.]]

Sulfuric acid acts as the electrolyte in ] (lead-acid accumulator):

At ]:
:{{chem2|Pb + SO4(2−) ⇌ PbSO4 + 2 e−}}

At ]:
:{{chem2|PbO2 + 4 H+ + SO4(2−) + 2 e− ⇌ PbSO4 + 2 H2O}}

] can be used to dissolve grease, hair and even tissue paper inside water pipes.]]

Overall:
:{{chem2|Pb + PbO2 + 4 H+ + 2 SO4(2−) ⇌ 2 PbSO4 + 2 H2O}}

===Domestic uses===
Sulfuric acid at high concentrations is frequently the major ingredient in ]<ref name="dc">{{cite web|url=http://www.staplesdisposables.com/uploads/products/B470FF98A27F414881DB3FE1A1116C93.pdf|title=Sulphuric acid drain cleaner|publisher=herchem.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192755/http://www.staplesdisposables.com/uploads/products/B470FF98A27F414881DB3FE1A1116C93.pdf|archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref> which are used to remove ], ], ], etc. Similar to their ], such drain openers can dissolve fats and proteins via ]. Moreover, as concentrated sulfuric acid has a strong dehydrating property, it can remove tissue paper via dehydrating process as well. Since the acid may react with water vigorously, such acidic drain openers should be added slowly into the pipe to be cleaned.

== History ==
]'s 1808 sulfuric acid molecule shows a central ] atom bonded to three oxygen atoms, or ], the ] of sulfuric acid.]]

=== Vitriols ===
The study of ]s (hydrated ] of various metals forming glassy minerals from which sulfuric acid can be derived) began in ]. ]ians had a list of types of vitriol that they classified according to the substances' color. Some of the earliest discussions on the origin and properties of vitriol is in the works of the Greek physician ] (first century AD) and the Roman naturalist ] (23–79 AD). ] also discussed its medical use. Metallurgical uses for vitriolic substances were recorded in the Hellenistic alchemical works of ], in the treatise ''Phisica et Mystica'', and the ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Karpenko |first1=Vladimír |last2=Norris |first2=John A. |year=2002 |title=Vitriol in the History of Chemistry |url=http://www.chemicke-listy.cz/ojs3/index.php/chemicke-listy/article/view/2266 |journal=Chemické listy |volume=96 |issue=12 |pages=997–1005}}</ref> ] like the authors writing under the name of ] (died c. 806 – c. 816 AD, known in Latin as Geber), ] (865 – 925 AD, known in Latin as Rhazes), ] (980 – 1037 AD, known in Latin as Avicenna), and ] (1234 – 1318 AD) included vitriol in their mineral classification lists.<ref>{{harvnb|Karpenko|Norris|2002|pp=999–1000}}.</ref>

=== Jabir ibn Hayyan, Abu Bakr al-Razi, Ibn Sina, et al. ===
The Jabirian authors and al-Razi experimented extensively with the distillation of various substances, including vitriols.<ref>{{cite book |last=Multhauf |first=Robert P. |title=The Origins of Chemistry |publisher=Oldbourne |year=1966 |isbn= |location=London |author-link=Robert P. Multhauf}} pp. 140-142.</ref> In one recipe recorded in his {{transliteration|ar|Kitāb al-Asrār}} (]), al-Razi may have created sulfuric acid without being aware of it:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xrNDwP0pS8sC&pg=PA195 |title=Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part IV, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts |last2=Ping-Yü |first2=Ho |last3=Gwei-Djen |first3=Lu |last4=Sivin |first4=Nathan |date=1980 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-08573-1 |location=Cambridge |author1-link=Joseph Needham}} p. 195, note d. {{cite journal <!-- Citation bot bypass--> |last1=Stapleton |first1=Henry E. |author1-link=Henry Ernest Stapleton |last2=Azo |first2=R.F. |last3=Hidayat Husain |first3=M. |year=1927 |title=Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in the Tenth Century A.D. |url=http://www.southasiaarchive.com/Content/sarf.100203/231270 |journal=Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=VIII |issue=6 |pages=317–418 |oclc=706947607}} pp. 333 (on the {{lang|la|Liber Bubacaris}}, cf. p. 369, note 3), 393. Quote from p. 393: "It is extremely curious to see how close ar-Rāzī came to the discovery of Sulphuric acid, without actually recognising the powerful solvent properties of the distillate of vitriols and alum. This is all the more surprising, as he fully realised the reactive powers of both Arsenic sulphide and Sal-ammoniac, the 'Spirits' with which he must have associated the distillate from alum".</ref>
{{Blockquote|Take white (Yemeni) ], dissolve it and purify it by filtration. Then distil (green?) vitriol with copper-green (the acetate), and mix (the distillate) with the filtered solution of the purified alum, afterwards let it solidify (or crystallise) in the glass beaker. You will get the best qalqadis (white alum) that may be had.<ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Needham|Ping-Yü|Gwei-Djen|Sivin|1980|loc=p. 195, note d}}.

</ref>|author=Abu Bakr al-Razi, Kitāb al-Asrār}}
In an anonymous Latin work variously attributed to ] (under the title {{lang|la|Liber Aristotilis}}, 'Book of Aristotle'),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pattin |first1=Adriaan |author1-link=Adriaan Pattin |date=1972 |title=Un recueil alchimique: le manuscrit Firenze, Bibl. Riccardiana, L. III. 13. 119 - Description et documentation |journal=] |volume=14 |pages=89–107 |doi=10.1484/J.BPM.3.143}} pp. 93–94.</ref> to al-Razi (under the title {{lang|la|Lumen luminum magnum}}, 'Great Light of Lights'), or to Ibn Sina,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moureau |first1=Sébastien |date=2020 |title=Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages |url=http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/211340 |journal=Micrologus |volume=28 |issue= |pages=87–141 |hdl=2078.1/211340}} p. 114 (no. 20). Moureau mentions that the work also sometimes occurs anonymously. He gives its {{lang|la|]}} as "{{lang|la|cum de sublimiori atque precipuo rerum effectum ...}}". Some parts of it have been published by {{cite journal |last1=Ruska |first1=Julius |author1-link=Julius Ruska |year=1939 |title=Pseudepigraphe Rasis-Schriften |journal=Osiris |volume=7 |pages=31–94 |doi=10.1086/368502 |s2cid=143373785}} pp. 56–65.</ref> the author speaks of an 'oil' ({{lang|la|oleum}}) obtained through the distillation of ] (green vitriol), which was likely 'oil of vitriol' or sulfuric acid.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoefer |first1=Ferdinand |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rmcDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA341 |title=Histoire de la chimie |date=1866 |publisher=Librairie de Firmin Didot |edition=2nd |location=Paris |author1-link=Ferdinand Hoefer}} p. 341.</ref> The work refers multiple times to Jabir ibn Hayyan's '']'' ({{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}}), one of the few Arabic Jabir works that were translated into Latin.<ref>{{harvnb|Ruska|1939|p=58}}; {{harvnb|Pattin|1972|p=93}}; {{cite encyclopedia |year=1996 |title=The Reception of Arabic Alchemy in the West |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science |publisher=Routledge |location=London |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mnAXV09Z5bIC&pg=PA892 |editor1-last=Rashed |editor1-first=Roshdi |volume=3 |pages=886–902 |isbn=9780415020633 |last1=Halleux |first1=Robert |editor1-link=Roshdi Rashed}} p. 892. On the Latin {{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}} and the two other known Latin translations of Arabic Jabir works, see {{harvnb|Moureau|2020|pp=111–112}}.</ref> The author of the version attributed to al-Razi also refers to the {{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}} as his own work, showing that he erroneously believed the {{lang|la|Liber de septuaginta}} to be a work by al-Razi.<ref>{{harvnb|Ruska|1939|p=58}}.</ref> There are several indications that the anonymous work was an original composition in Latin,<ref>{{harvnb|Ruska|1939|pp=58–61}}.</ref> although according to one manuscript it was translated by a certain Raymond of Marseilles, meaning that it may also have been a translation from the Arabic.<ref>{{harvnb|Halleux|1996|p=892}}; {{harvnb|Moureau|2020|p=114}}. Moureau mentions that 'Raymond of Marseilles' may be the ] (fl. 1141). {{harvnb|Hoefer|1866|p=343}} still firmly believed that the work belonged to al-Razi, but this view has been abandoned ever since the studies done by {{harvnb|Ruska|1939}}; cf. {{harvnb|Moureau|2020|p=117}}, quote "although many alchemical Latin texts are attributed to Rāzı̄, only one is, in the current state of research, known to be a translation of the famous physician and alchemist" (i.e., the {{lang|la|Liber secretorum Bubacaris}}, a paraphrase of al-Razi's {{transliteration|ar|Kitāb al-asrār}}); {{cite journal |last1=Ferrario |first1=Gabriele |date=2009 |title=An Arabic Dictionary of Technical Alchemical Terms: MS Sprenger 1908 of the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin (fols. 3r–6r) |journal=Ambix |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=36–48 |doi=10.1179/174582309X405219 |pmid=19831258 |s2cid=41045827}} p. 42, quote "A strong and yet to be refuted critique of this traditional attribution was proposed by Ruska ".</ref>

According to ], three recipes for sulfuric acid occur in an anonymous ] manuscript containing a compilation taken from several authors and dating from before {{circa|1100 AD}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Al-Hassan|2001|loc=pp. 60, 63}}. On the dating of this manuscript, see also {{cite book |last1=Berthelot |first1=Marcellin |title=La Chimie au Moyen Âge |last2=Houdas |first2=Octave V. |date=1893 |publisher=Imprimerie nationale |location=Paris |author1-link=Marcellin Berthelot}} vol. II, p. xvii.</ref> One of them runs as follows:

<blockquote>The water of vitriol and sulphur which is used to irrigate the drugs: yellow vitriol three parts, yellow sulphur one part, grind them and distil them in the manner of rose-water.<ref name="auto">{{harvnb|Al-Hassan|2001|p=60}}.</ref></blockquote>

A recipe for the preparation of sulfuric acid is mentioned in {{transliteration|ar|Risālat Jaʿfar al-Sādiq fī ʿilm al-ṣanʿa}}, an Arabic treatise falsely attributed to the Shi'i Imam ] (died 765). ] dated this treatise to the 13th century, but according to Ahmad Y. al-Hassan it likely dates from an earlier period:<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FW5FaeZEVAsC&pg=PA104 |title=The Sword and the Crucible: A History of the Metallurgy of European Swords Up to the 16th Century |date=2012 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-22783-5 |location=Leiden}} p. 104. {{cite book |last=Al-Hassan |first=Ahmad Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2g1qte4iegC&pg=PA60 |title=Science and Technology in Islam: Technology and applied sciences |date=2001 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-103831-0 |author-link=Ahmad Y. al-Hassan}} p. 60.</ref>

<blockquote>Then distil green vitriol in a cucurbit and alembic, using medium fire; take what you obtain from the distillate, and you will find it clear with a greenish tint.<ref name="auto"/></blockquote>

=== Vincent of Beauvais, Albertus Magnus, and pseudo-Geber ===
Sulfuric acid was called 'oil of vitriol' by medieval European alchemists because it was prepared by roasting iron(II) sulfate or green vitriol in an iron ]. The first allusions to it in works that are European in origin appear in the thirteenth century AD, as for example in the works of ], in the ''Compositum de Compositis'' ascribed to ], and in ]'s ''Summa perfectionis''.<ref>{{harvnb|Karpenko|Norris|2002|pp=1002–1004}}.</ref>

=== Producing sulfuric acid from sulfur ===
A method of producing ''oleum sulphuris per campanam,'' or "oil of sulfur by the bell", was known by the 16th century: it involved burning sulfur under a glass bell in moist weather (or, later, under a moistened bell). However, it was very inefficient (according to ], {{Convert|5|lb|kg}} of sulfur converted into less than {{Convert|1|oz|kg|sigfig=1}} of acid), and the resulting product was contaminated by ] (or rather, solution of ]) so most alchemists (including, for example, Isaac Newton) didn't consider it equivalent with the "oil of vitriol".

In the 17th century, ] discovered that adding saltpeter (], {{chem2|KNO3}}) significantly improves the output, also replacing moisture with steam. As saltpeter decomposes, it oxidizes the sulfur to {{chem2|SO3}}, which combines with water to produce sulfuric acid. In 1736, ], a London pharmacist, used this method to begin the first large-scale production of sulfuric acid.

=== Lead chamber process ===
In 1746 in Birmingham, ] adapted this method to produce sulfuric acid in ]-lined chambers, which were stronger, less expensive, and could be made larger than the previously used glass containers. This process allowed the effective industrialization of sulfuric acid production. After several refinements, this method, called the ] or "chamber process", remained the standard for sulfuric acid production for almost two centuries.<ref name="b1" />

=== Distillation of pyrite ===
Sulfuric acid created by John Roebuck's process approached a 65% concentration. Later refinements to the lead chamber process by French chemist ] and British chemist John Glover improved concentration to 78%. However, the manufacture of some ]s and other chemical processes require a more concentrated product. Throughout the 18th century, this could only be made by ] minerals in a technique similar to the original ] processes. ] (iron disulfide, {{chem2|FeS2}}) was heated in air to yield iron(II) sulfate, {{chem2|FeSO4}}, which was oxidized by further heating in air to form ], {{chem2|Fe2(SO4)3}}, which, when heated to 480&nbsp;°C, decomposed to ] and sulfur trioxide, which could be passed through water to yield sulfuric acid in any concentration. However, the expense of this process prevented the large-scale use of concentrated sulfuric acid.<ref name="b1" />

=== Contact process ===
In 1831, British ] merchant Peregrine Phillips patented the ], which was a far more economical process for producing sulfur trioxide and concentrated sulfuric acid. Today, nearly all of the world's sulfuric acid is produced using this method.<ref name="z1">{{cite book |author=Philip J. Chenier |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KlziQA-yx3gC&pg=PA28 |title=Survey of industrial chemistry |date=1 April 2002 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-306-47246-6 |pages=28– |access-date=23 December 2011}}</ref>

In the early to mid 19th century "vitriol" plants existed, among other places, in ] in Scotland, ] and the ] in County Antrim Ireland, where it was used as a bleach for linen. Early bleaching of linen was done using lactic acid from sour milk but this was a slow process and the use of vitriol sped up the bleaching process.<ref>{{cite book|title=A history of lactic acid making: a chapter in the history of biotechnology|last=(Harm)|first=Benninga, H.|date=1990|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|isbn=9780792306252|location=Dordrecht |oclc=20852966|page=4}}</ref>

==Safety==

===Laboratory hazards===
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Sulfuric acid is capable of causing very severe burns, especially when it is at high ]s. In common with other corrosive ] and ], it readily decomposes ] and ] through ] and ] upon contact with ], such as ] and ]. In addition, it exhibits a strong ] on ], liberating extra ] and causing ].<ref name="OA"/><ref name=TB/> Accordingly, it rapidly attacks the ] and can induce ] if splashed onto ]s. If ingested, it damages ] irreversibly and may even be fatal.<ref name="ds"/> ] should hence always be used when handling it. Moreover, its ] makes it highly corrosive to many ]s and may extend its destruction on other materials.<ref name="OA"/> Because of such reasons, damage posed by sulfuric acid is potentially more severe than that by other comparable ], such as ] and ].
<div style="float: right; margin-left: 1.0 em">] ]</div>

Sulfuric acid must be stored carefully in containers made of nonreactive material (such as glass). Solutions equal to or stronger than 1.5&nbsp;M are labeled "CORROSIVE", while solutions greater than 0.5&nbsp;M but less than 1.5&nbsp;M are labeled "IRRITANT". However, even the normal laboratory "dilute" grade (approximately 1&nbsp;M, 10%) will char paper if left in contact for a sufficient time.

The standard first aid treatment for acid spills on the skin is, as for other ], irrigation with large quantities of water. Washing is continued for at least ten to fifteen minutes to cool the tissue surrounding the acid burn and to prevent secondary damage. Contaminated clothing is removed immediately and the underlying skin washed thoroughly.

===Dilution hazards===
Preparation of diluted acid can be dangerous due to the heat released in the dilution process. To avoid splattering, the concentrated acid is usually added to water and not the other way around. A saying used to remember this is "Do like you oughta, add the acid to the water".<ref>{{cite web|last=Snyder|first=Lucy A.|date=2005-11-04|title=Do like you oughta, add acid to water|url=https://www.lucysnyder.com/index.php/do-like-you-oughta-add-acid-to-water/|access-date=2022-01-23|website=Lucy A. Snyder|language=en-US}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (]).|date=January 2022}} Water has a higher heat capacity than the acid, and so a vessel of cold water will absorb heat as acid is added.

{| class="wikitable floatleft"
|+Comparison of sulfuric acid and water
|-
! Physical property
! {{chem2|H2SO4}}
! Water
! Units
|-&nbsp;
!]
| 1.84
| 1.0
| kg/L
|-&nbsp;
!]
| 2.54
| 4.18
| kJ/L
|-
!]
| 337
| 100
| °C
|}

Also, because the acid is denser than water, it sinks to the bottom. Heat is generated at the interface between acid and water, which is at the bottom of the vessel. Acid will not boil, because of its higher boiling point. Warm water near the interface rises due to ], which cools the interface, and prevents boiling of either acid or water.

In contrast, addition of water to concentrated sulfuric acid results in a thin layer of water on top of the acid. Heat generated in this thin layer of water can boil, leading to the dispersal of a sulfuric acid ] or worse, an ].

Preparation of solutions greater than 6&nbsp;M (35%) in concentration is dangerous, unless the acid is added slowly enough to allow the mixture sufficient time to cool. Otherwise, the heat produced may be sufficient to boil the mixture. Efficient mechanical stirring and external cooling (such as an ice bath) are essential.

Reaction rates double for about every 10-degree Celsius ].<ref>] (1988) ''General Chemistry'', Dover Publications</ref> Therefore, the reaction will become more violent as dilution proceeds, unless the mixture is given time to cool. Adding acid to warm water will cause a violent reaction.

On a laboratory scale, sulfuric acid can be diluted by pouring concentrated acid onto crushed ice made from de-ionized water. The ice melts in an endothermic process while dissolving the acid. The amount of heat needed to melt the ice in this process is greater than the amount of heat evolved by dissolving the acid so the solution remains cold. After all the ice has melted, further dilution can take place using water.

===Industrial hazards===
Sulfuric acid is non-flammable.

The main occupational risks posed by this acid are skin contact leading to burns (see above) and the inhalation of aerosols. Exposure to aerosols at high concentrations leads to immediate and severe irritation of the eyes, respiratory tract and mucous membranes: this ceases rapidly after exposure, although there is a risk of subsequent ] if tissue damage has been more severe. At lower concentrations, the most commonly reported symptom of chronic exposure to sulfuric acid aerosols is erosion of the teeth, found in virtually all studies: indications of possible chronic damage to the ] are inconclusive as of 1997. Repeated occupational exposure to sulfuric acid mists may increase the chance of lung cancer by up to 64 percent.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid= 3479642 |volume=79 |issue=5 |title=Lung cancer mortality in workers exposed to sulfuric acid mist and other acid mists |journal=J Natl Cancer Inst |pages=911–21 |last1= Beaumont |first1= JJ |last2= Leveton |first2= J |last3= Knox |first3= K |last4= Bloom |first4= T |last5= McQuiston |first5= T |last6= Young |first6= M |last7= Goldsmith |first7= R |last8= Steenland |first8= NK |last9= Brown |first9= DP |last10= Halperin |first10= WE |year=1987 |doi=10.1093/jnci/79.5.911}}</ref> In the United States, the ] (PEL) for sulfuric acid is fixed at 1&nbsp;mg/m<sup>3</sup>: limits in other countries are similar. There have been reports of sulfuric acid ingestion leading to ] with subacute combined degeneration. The spinal cord is most often affected in such cases, but the optic nerves may show ], loss of ]s and ].

==Legal restrictions==
International commerce of sulfuric acid is controlled under the ], which lists sulfuric acid under Table II of the convention as a chemical frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances.<ref name=incb>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227224025/http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/red.pdf|title=Annex to Form D ("Red List"), 11th Edition|archive-date=27 February 2008|url-status=live|url=http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/red.pdf|date=January 2007|page=4|publisher=]|location=Vienna, Austria}}</ref>

==See also==
*]
*] – also known as "sweet oil of vitriol"
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*]
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==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Sulfuric acid}}
*{{ICSC|0362|03}}
* at '']'' (University of Nottingham)
*
*
*Calculators: , and of aqueous sulfuric acid

{{Hydrogen compounds}}
{{Sulfur compounds}}
{{Sulfates}}

{{Authority control}}

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