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(Redirected from Liao Zhai) Qing dynasty book of short stories
Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio
A 1935 edition of Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio
AuthorPu Songling
Original title聊齋誌異
LanguageClassical Chinese
GenreZhiguai
chuanqi
Publication date1766
Publication placeChina
Liaozhai zhiyi
Traditional Chinese聊齋誌異
Simplified Chinese聊斋志异
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinLiáozhāi zhìyì
Wade–GilesLiaochai chiyi
Yue: Cantonese
JyutpingLiu4zaai1 zi3ji6

Liaozhai zhiyi, sometimes shortened to Liaozhai, known in English as Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio, Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio, Strange Tales from Make-Do Studio, or literally Strange Tales from a Studio of Leisure, is a collection of Classical Chinese stories by Qing dynasty writer Pu Songling, comprising close to 500 stories or "marvel tales" in the zhiguai and chuanqi styles, which according to some critics, served to implicitly criticise societal problems. Written over a period of forty years from the late 1600s and ending in the early 1700s, it circulated in manuscripts that were copied and recopied among the author's friends but did not appear in print until 1766. Since then, many of the critically lauded stories have been adapted for other media such as film and television.

Publication history

An excerpt from the original manuscript of Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio by Pu Songling
A depiction of the story "Luo Zu", from an illustrated edition located in the National Museum of China

Pu assembled the nearly five hundred short and lengthy tales over a period of forty years between the early 1670s and the early 1700s. As was the convention of his time, Pu titled his work using the sobriquet Liaozhai (聊齋), translated into English as the "Studio of Conversation" or "Studio of Leisure".

The scholar Zhang Peiheng (章培恒) writes that the original Liaozhai comprised eight volumes, the earliest completed around 1681 and the latest completed between 1707 and 1714. The compilation was first circulated in scribal copies but it was not published until after the author's death in 1715. Around 1693, Shandong financial commissioner Yu Chenglong reportedly offered Pu a thousand taels in exchange for his Liaozhai manuscript, but Pu declined his offer.

The final manuscript was "carefully preserved" by the Pu family after his death, with many different individuals, including the local magistrate, requesting to make copies of it. The earliest surviving print version of Liaozhai was printed in 1766 in Hangzhou by publisher Zhao Qigao (趙起杲), who claimed that Pu originally intended for his anthology to be titled Tales of Ghosts and Foxes (鬼狐傳). Although Zhao also alleged that his publication was based on the "original manuscript" as was copied by a friend, it did not contain all the stories found in the original manuscript; in the preface to his publication, he writes, "I have expunged simple and brief notes which are dull and commonplace, forty-eight in all." Moreover, Zhao censored stories that had "brief references to sensitive topics". Nonetheless, the Zhao edition was well-received and was first republished by scholar Li Shixian (李時憲) in 1767.

At some point after 1871, Pu Jieren (普价人), a seventh-generation descendant of Pu Songling, had the original manuscript, which was reportedly made up of twenty volumes, rebound in eight volumes. They were then kept in two boxes, one of which disappeared "under circumstances which are still obscure". In 1950, the Pu family donated the surviving four volumes, which contained some 237 short stories, to the Liaoning Provincial Library.

Themes

Unlike much Chinese and Western horror fiction, the "scary stories" in Liaozhai are not intended to be frightening, but to blur the borders between the supernatural and everyday reality, using physical and psychological detail to make the move between these realms seem natural. These tales, which are "works rich in romanticism", explore the philosophical concept of qing (情), the passionate and emotional entanglement of the world, be it human or supernatural.

Literary significance

Liaozhai zhiyi is the most acclaimed Chinese "supernatural tales" collection since the three major Ming dynasty hua (話) collections, which are the Jiandeng Xinhua (剪燈新話) by Qu You, the Jiandeng Yuhua (剪燈餘話) by Li Changqi, and the Mideng Yinhua (覓燈因話) by Shao Jingzhan; these three had a far-reaching impact across East Asia.

Early commentary on Liaozhai regarded it as a "superior but typical example" of the zhiguai genre. Subsequent critics and writers disagreed with such a view, instead focusing on the allegorical nature of the stories instead; for instance, Yu Ji, who was Zhao Qigao's secretary, wrote in his preface to Zhao's edition of Liaozhai: "... saying that it differs little from collections of rare phenomena or strange tales is a very shallow view and one that greatly contradicts the author's intent." Pu's grandson, Pu Lide (蒲立德), viewed the work as "an act of serious self-expression".

Still later critics in the nineteenth century focused on the "literary style and narrative technique" of Liaozhai. Qing dynasty critic Dan Minglun (但明倫) writes in the preface to his 1842 interlinear commentary of Liaozhai: "From Liaozhai, I also gained insight into literary methods." Around the same period, Liaozhai also attracted critical attention from Western writers, for example, Samuel Wells Williams mentioned Liaozhai in his writings as "a perfect work with pure language and elegant style" and its "beautiful writing style" has also received praises from the likes of William Frederick Mayers and Karl Gützlaff.

Since the 20th century, its literary status was further elevated. Guo Moruo said of Liaozhai that "The writing of ghosts and demons is superior to all others; the satire on corruption and tyranny is penetrating to the marrow." Yuken Fujita of Keio University wrote in 1954 that "Among the many literary works that are descended from ancient Chinese fiction , it has already established a reputation as the most outstanding short story collection." Hiromasa Imai describes Liaozhai as "the pinnacle of ghost literature." Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio was also listed by Jorge Luis Borges as one of his favorite books.

Influence

Following Liaozhai zhiyi's critical and commercial success, other well-received "wonder tale" and "fantasy" story collections also soon appeared, creating a publishing craze for such literature in China well into the 19th century. Some notable major collections include Yuan Mei's Zibuyu (What the Master Would Not Discuss, 1788), Shen Qifeng's Xie Duo (1791), Ji Yun's Yuewei caotang biji (Notes of the Thatched Abode of Close Observations, 1789-1798 & 1800) and Wang Tao's Songyin manlu (1875).

Translations

English

Unabridged

  • Strange Tales From A Chinese Studio (Unabridged Version), 12 volumes (tr. Park Jongho). Park Jongho, 2024. ASIN B0CXKK9GCC.
  • Strange Tales from Liaozhai, 6 volumes (tr. Sidney L. Sondergard). Jain Pub Co., 2008-2014. ISBN 978-0-89581-001-4.

Excerpts and abridgements

  • Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio (tr. John Minford). London: Penguin, 2006. 562 pages. ISBN 0-14-044740-7.
  • Strange Tales from the Liaozhai Studio (Zhang Qingnian, Zhang Ciyun and Yang Yi). Beijing: People's China Publishing, 1997. ISBN 7-80065-599-7.
  • Strange Tales from Make-do Studio (Denis C. & Victor H. Mair). Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1989. ISBN 7-119-00977-X.
  • Strange Tales of Liaozhai (Lu Yunzhong, Chen Tifang, Yang Liyi, and Yang Zhihong). Hong Kong: Commercial Press, 1982.
  • Strange Stories from the Lodge of Leisure (George Soulie). London: Constable, 1913.
  • Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio (tr. Herbert A. Giles). London: T. De La Rue, 1880; 2nd ed. revised, London, 1908; 3rd ed. revised, London, Laurie, 1916. Reprinted with a new foreword by Victoria Cass. Tokyo, Rutland, Vt.: Tuttle, 2010. ISBN 978-0-8048-9408-1.

Giles's translation

John Minford and Tong Man describe Herbert Giles's translation as "prudish", because he chose not to translate "anything connected with sex, procreation, blood, sometimes indeed the human body in any of its aspects" and often made "extraordinary lengths to cover up his traces, showing considerable craft and cunning." In the Giles translation fox spirits wish to chat and share tea with people rather than trying to seduce and engage in sexual intercourse, and romantic partners at most exchange kisses. They wrote that "Giles was a creature of his time" since he was required to follow Victorian Era morality, and urged readers to "not get Giles' bowdlerising of Liao-chai out of proportion." They added that "the widely distributed Commercial Press (HK) edition of the stories makes many of the same prudish cuts as Giles."

Minford and Tong Man write that people have continued reading Giles's translations even though they "have been at best quietly tolerated, more often derided, and dismissed as orientalist bowdlerisations..." Lydia Chiang describes Minford and Tong Man's essay as a "post-Saidian re-evaluation" that compares the Giles translation to traditional and modern Chinese representations of the story.

German

Martin Buber made the first German translation of the work, included within his Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten. Buber had assistance from a person named Wang Jingdao. Buber stated in the preface of his translation that his translation had portions previously untranslated in Giles work because Giles, according to the "English custom", had "omitted or paraphrased all passages which seemed to him indecorous". The Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten was translated into English by Alex Page, published in 1991 by the Humanities Press.

Other translations

Vasily Mikhaylovich Alekseyev published an acclaimed translation of Pu Songling's stories in Russian in two volumes, Fox's Wiles (1922) and The Wizard Monks (1923). It has been cited as the most accomplished translation of the book into a foreign language. The book was translated into Manchu as Sonjofi ubaliyambuha Liyoo jai jy i bithe. Lodovico Nicola di Giura (1868–1947) produced a complete Italian translation of the 1766 edition.

Illustrated editions

In the 19th century, colorful and fully illustrated collector's editions of Liaozhai zhiyi also circulated onto the literary scenes. These exquisitely mounted illustrated Liaozhai are now collected by major libraries and museums around the world, such as the National Library of China and Library of Congress.


Painted stories from an illustrated edition of Liaozhai zhiyi from the late Qing Guangxu period; this edition is located in the Austrian National Library.

Full summary

Based on the full translation by André Lévy published by Philippe Picquier:


First book

1. Examination for the post of tutelary genius

2. Homunculus in the ear

3. The Animated Corpse

4. Fatal aspersion

5. When the pupils speak to each other…

6. The fresco

7. Incursion of a mountain griffin

8. Bitten lamie

9. Fox Caught

10. The Black Wheat Monster

11. Spells of a haunted house

12. Wang, the friend of a humble fisherman

13. For the theft of a peach

14. The magic pear tree

15. The Hermit of the Mountains of Labor

16. The monk of Long Purity

17. The snake charmer

18. The injured python

19. The adulterous dog

20. God of Hail

21. Fox marries his daughter

22. Grace

23. The Retribution of the Trickster Monk

24. Witchcraft

25. Cynocephalic monster

26. The Three Lives of Liu

27. Bottled

28. Sobbing ghosts

29. Mother at Eight

30. The Exorcist

31. Competition bad luck

32. Forty ligatures

33. Inverted

34. Newlywed Hijacking

35. The Prophecy of the Dirty Fox

36. Immortal and ghost

37. Eagle and tiger, vigilant deities

38. Quail fights

39. Phénichette

40. Made-up skin

41. Son of a merchant

42. Snake bulimic

Second book

43. The Coprophagus Monk

44. Vulpine Seductions

45. Stonecruncher

46. Local temple demon

47. Judge Lu

48. The laughing girl

49. Little Grace

50. Noble Mouse

51. Earthquake

52. The Young Lord of the Sea

53. Hospitality

54. Big sea fish

55. Giant aquatic turtle

56. Star anise

57. Cattle maker

58. Triple dream

59. Missed Widower

60. Children from Beyond the Grave

61. Lilliputian Officers

62. The fourth young lady Goupil

63. Dying together

64. Alligator's Revenge

65. Goat hair

66. Magnificent sword stroke

67. Vengeance (Literally: “The heroic woman”, adapted into a film in 1971 by King Hu under the title “A touch of zen”)

68. Friendship of good drinkers

69. Lotus fragrance

70. The loving parrot

71. Prince of the Nine Mountains

72. Survivor's Revenge

73. Three brothers

74. The Vixen of Fenzhou

75. The smart one

76. The city of the two tutelary geniuses

77. Vocal imitations

78. Sentences of Vixens

79. Wei Water Fox

80. Red Jade

81. Dragons

82. Ghost poem

Third book

83. In the middle of the river

84. Love of youth

85. The Taoist priest receives

86. Monsieur Goupil

87. Sleight of hand

88. Begging monk

89. Downed Foxes

90. Hibernating Dragon

91. The Peach Trees of Su the Immortal

92. Temporary underworld

93. Huang the ninth

94. The Daughter of Nanking

95. The Resurrection of Mr. Tang

96. Judge in the Underworld

97. The Blue Birds

98. The Taoist Priest Dan

99. The golden bracelet

100. In the land of  yaksha

101. The little bun

102. Monks of the West

103. The Glutton gang

104. Embroidery

105. Worse than bad jokes

106. A game of ball

107. Avenged by his daughter

108. The young wolf slayer

109. Little Second, Great Magician

110. Lady Geng, the avenger

111. Hidden treasures

112. The crested blackbird

113. Raccoon

114. Sermon to the Specters

115. The Devil's Glass Eyes

116. Farewell in a dream

117. Bitch of Light

118. Monks of the Barbarian West

119. The vixen's companion

120. Thunder Department Attendant

121. The Gambler's Talisman

122. Disloyal Husband

123. Self-harm of a murderer

124. “Lord of the five black ram skins”

125. The Hairy Vixen

126. Pianpian, helpful sylph

127. The black beast

Fourth book

128. The Wonderful Pool

129. Captain Yang's Arrow

130. Strange watermelon

131. Half Vixen, Double Devotion

132. Port of Mirages

133. Friend Tian

134. She gives birth to a dragon

135. Master Thief

136. Sharing Death

137. Fighting Crickets

138. Diversion of the plague of locusts

139. Survivors of the flood

140. Death of laughter

141. Treasury Officer

142. At the gates of hell

143. Eyeless Dragon

144. Mischievous vixen

145. Rain of sapeques

146. The Beaten Concubine Takes Down the Bandits

147. Exorcist in spite of himself

148. The younger replaces the older

149. A new “Dream of Yellow Millet”

150. How dragons draw rainwater

151. The Tiny Hound

152. The Go Game Demon

153. The Fourteenth Maiden Xin

154. White Lotus Cultist

155. The pair of lanterns

156. Ghost and fox do not lead far

157. The donkey repays the debt

158. Rolling head…

159. Ghost Kitchen

160. The invisible Mr. Goupil

161. Barkers

162. Frog Concert

163. Mouse Theater

164. Clay Scholar

165. The Lady of the Soil God

166. Lotus flowers in midwinter

167. Madness of Drunkenness

Fifth book

168. A Prolonged Childbirth

169. Noble tiger

170. Killed by a praying mantis!

171. Martial arts

172. Miniaturized

173. Drink to death

174. The little one

175. Good Drinker's Little Beast

176. The beautiful carved wooden one

177. Two friends

178. Dream of vixens

179. Remission

180. A peasant!

181. Ghosts and arch-wraiths

182. The old lady with pancakes

183. An unexpected birth

184. Florette

185. Ingratitude

186. The Princess of the Lake

187. A Godly Son

188. The lion

189. Retribution for Jealousy

190. The clay figurine

191. Murder and rebirth

192. The Tomb of the Loyal Dog

193. The God of Poyang Lake

194. Dream of a Woman

195. The Bee Princess

196. The girl in green

197. The wolf in the sheepfold

198. Water lily flower

199. Salutary invectives

200. Unworthy Son

201. The Immortal Fox

202. The Montcalme Monkey

203. Flows of sapeques

204. Master Fox's Relevant Scribbles

205. Risks of widowhood

206. The unknown

207. Geomancy

208. Abandoned Daughter-in-law

209. Curious growth

210. Dragon Meat

Sixth book

211. Sub-prefect of Lu City

212. Execrable shrew

213. The star of literary success

214. Felony

215. The Goddess of Flowers

216. A Welcoming Fox

217. Cowardice

218. Dancing Deity

219. Hard as Iron

220. General of Herculean Strength

221. White Lotus Sect

222. Mandarin woman

223. Changed into a pig

224. Mischievous ghosts

225. Ghost of a Hanged Man

226. The Suzhou Painter

227. Holy woman

228. Mischievous Vixen

229. Cruel loyalty

230. Three Wolf Stories

231. Head of a pretty woman

232. The reincarnation of a fox

233. Coumarin

234. The genius of the mountain

235. Vixen sister

236. Two cases of separation in times of trouble

237. Snake breeders

238. Duke of Thunder

239. Miraculous Interventions of Guanyin

240. Hungry Ghost

241. Abuse Control Office

242. Duplicate Yama

243. Ogres

244. As an avenging tiger

245. Head glued back together?

246. Goupil against foxes

247. Prodigious pigeons

248. Righter of grievances from beyond the grave

249. The laughing bachelor

250. The debauchee built by a fox

251. Mirage

252. The Repentant Shrew

253. The Recalcitrant Wife

254. Great Turtle Prince

255. Hanged by joke

Seventh book

256. “Transformed”

257. For a single good deed

258. Jealousy conquered

259. A world in the sleeve

260. Two brothers

261. Studwork

262. Ghost of a Hanged Woman

263. Strange encounter

264. The Laughter of the Murdered Monk

265. Promised Parakeet

266. The orange tree

267. Fire letters

268. A specter avenges the abandonment of his son

269. The magic shovel

270. The Mirror Oracle

271. Rinderpest

272. Virginal marriage

273. Twice sub-prefect in Zitong

274. Specter Saliva

275. The Island of Immortals

276. Death of the Underworld Judge

277. The Mad Priest

278. The fabulous destiny of the youngest

279. Magic sapeque

280. The number of life

281. Physiognomist Predictions

282. Judicial error

283. Specter games

284. Empress Zhen

285. Love of the lute

286. Axiu and his double

287. Eye scar

288. The Idiot and His Little Vixen

289. The monk who made a fortune

290. The spider, pearl of dragons

291. The Substitute

292. Diverted Feast

293. Ghosts at your service

294. He who loves well, punishes well

Eighth book

295. Horse in painting

296. Scams

297. Releasing butterflies

298. A man gives birth to twins

299. Asine Retributions

300. The specter of the jealous wife

301. General Huang

302. First elder under three dynasties

303. Medical art

304. Death louse

305. Dream of wolves

306. Night luminosity

307. Snow in summer

308. Changed into a boy

309. The Vindicator Bird

310. The Wild Goose

311. Elephants

312. Strange Corpse

313. Grievance of a past life

314. Doubling

315. Marrying the Moon

316. Unrepentant Taoist

317. The Disembodied Friend

318. Homes of rebels

319. Repentant Thief

320. The girl with three husbands

321. Archivist in the Other World

322. Ugly vixen

323. Ghost bride

324. Divinatory sapeques

325. Murderous jealousy

326. Vetch Eater

327. Vindicators

328. The track of the poem

329. The grass of life of deer

330. Small coffins

331. Women who fell from the sky

332. A strange donkey

333. Wonderful private secretary!

334. Buddhist hymn

335. Previous life

336. Ophthalmia

337. Filial piety, marital loyalty

Ninth book

338. The Sticked Shrew

339. Examinations and competitions in this world and the next

340. Burst of laughter

341. Customs of Cheng

342. Vigilant Mirror

343. Lesson in modesty

344. Returning from Liaoyang

345. Singer from the heart

346. Aimée

347. Magistrate of castrate-father

348. Sun Be Saved

349. Cut up before breakfast

350. Ingot Mark

351. Inkstone

352. Scale of a thousand toises

353. Big rat

354. Spared by hail

355. The she-wolf

356. Wise creditor

357. Constable Wang

358. Summoning the Eastern Peak

359. Little Vixen

360. Aphrodisiac overdose

361. The Insight of Censor Yu

362. On duty in the underworld

363. The spinner

364. The Dutch carpet

365. Tripe Nightmare

366. Marital attachment

367. Deadly Bear Meat

368. Flying Ox

369. Haunting of competitions

370. The Cunning of the Cunning

371. Peasant woman with fist

372. Changed into a fox

373. Paradoxical Verdicts

374. Criminal cases

375. The grateful dog

376. One less weight on the heart

377. Mount Chaya Cave

378. Island of Immortals

379. Strange customs

380. Dream Princess

381. Bird language

382. Heavenly Palaces

383. Ugly, but noble and faithful

384. Strange bivalve

385. Madam Liu

386. The Fox of Lingxian

Tenth book

387. Wang the peddler

388. Dragons at the end of their strength

389. Secrets Disclosed

390. Cloth merchant

391. Disappeared in the bag!

392. Literary divination

393. Fragment of a vulpine story

394. The Fairy

395. Brotherly Love

396. Three lives of animosity

397. Abusive father-in-law

398. Infernal Corruptions

399. Silverfish

400. ????

401. The hell of the race for honors

401. The Affair of the Embroidered Slipper

402. Finette

403. Disfigured Face

404. Big sister

405. Cao Cao's Tomb

406. Thrown into a well

407. The two daughters-in-law

408. The five penetrators

409. The last of the five penetrators

410. Giant turtle

411. How to regain the husband's favor

412. Crazy about peonies

Eleventh book

413. Carpenter Feng

414. Chrysanthemums

415. Bibliomaniac

416. Great Saint Equal to Heaven

417. Frog Girl

418. Subscriptions

419. A fabulous game of dice

420. Dance Ghost Loves

421. Love and poetry

422. Justice Prince

423. Terrible Retribution

424. Three curses of Quzhou

425. The Demolisher

426. Giant Scorpion

427. Married to two Taoist nuns

428. Puns

429. Scutigera

430. Assistant Instructors

431. Black slaves

432. Daughter of Dongting Lake

433. Crow Robe

434. Repentant Jealous

435. The vixen in the box

436. Wise Woman

437. The fish friend

438. Male concubine

439. Child prodigy

440. Young buffalo

441. Unrepentant Gamblers

442. The Innocent

443. Peony and honeysuckle

444. Three immortals

445. Council of Specters

446. False salt workers

447. Coincidences

448. From a strange country

449. Incest

450. Passionate about stones

451. Quarrels of half-brothers

452. Son of family

Twelfth book

453. The two tigers

454. The Wolf and the Carter

455. Clairvoyance and poetry

456. Devourer of mediocre scholars

457. Scorpion Merchant

458. Bru changed into a sow

459. Grateful wolves

460. Goldfish

461. Eight jars

462. Criminal boatmen

463. Daughter of the Serpent

464. Owl

465. Ancient vases

466. Tutor in Hell

467. Returned from beyond the grave

468. Ghosts of the Lake

469. Boatman's Daughter

470. Double Marriage (Continuation of the previous story)

471. Scriptural improprieties

472. Grateful Fox

473. Brave veterinarian

474. Where do hares come from?

475. Message from birds

476. Trapped by a fox

477. Retributions

478. Prevarications

479. Evil epidemic

480. Thunderbolts

481. Divine Grip

482. Daughter of Heaven exiled here below

483. Death and rebirth

484. Rejected Husband

485. The Taiyuan Affair

486. The Trial of Xinzheng

487. Previous life

488. Temporary wife

489. Good for dogs

490. Blue Fears

491. Vengeful Dragon

492. Mandarin worthy of the name? Just one!

493. Beggar Immortal

494. Suborned Bribery

Apocrypha

495. Hibernating snake

496. A guy from Shanxi

497. Dragon

498. For the Love of Literary Talent

499. Dream of wolves

500. Ten absurdities

501. Pig snout

502. Wonderful Pebble

503. The Persian

Adaptations

The Scholar Meets the Fairy (秀才遇仙記), a Yue opera based on "Zhang Hongjian", Nanjing, 5 May 2019Capturing Shi Huaiyu Alive (活捉石懷玉), a Sichuan opera based on "Wu Xiaolian" (武孝廉), Shanghai, 10 June 2016

References

Citations

  1. "Pu Songling". Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. 1995. ISBN 0-87779-042-6.
  2. Barr 2001, pp. 692–693.
  3. Zeitlin 1993, p. 1.
  4. Barr 1984, p. 516.
  5. ^ Barr 1984, p. 518.
  6. Barr 1984, p. 517.
  7. Barr 1984, p. 540.
  8. Barr 1984, p. 530.
  9. ^ Barr 1984, p. 533.
  10. Barr 1984, p. 534.
  11. ^ Barr 1984, p. 519.
  12. Barr (2001), p. 692.
  13. "The Strange Tales from Liaozhai". 4 Corners of the World: International Collections and Studies...
  14. "Ghoulish images from East Asia". bl.uk.
  15. Zeitlin 1993, p. 25.
  16. Zeitlin 1993, p. 31.
  17. Zeitlin 1993, p. 26.
  18. Zeitlin 1993, p. 27.
  19. Zeitlin 1993, p. 35.
  20. "'Liaozhai' in the English-speaking world". Csstoday.com.
  21. Sun, Jiahui. "Strange (and Sad) Tales from a Chinese Studio".
  22. 藤田祐賢「聊齋志異研究序説 : 特に蒲松齡の執筆態度に就いて」『藝文研究』第3巻、慶應義塾大学文学部藝文学会、1954年1月、 49-61頁、 ISSN 0435-1630、 CRID 1050282813926397312 (in Japanese)。
  23. 今井弘昌 「『聊斎志異』の冥界」 『岐阜女子大学紀要』第39号、岐阜女子大学、2010年、 107-116頁、 ISSN 0286-8644、 CRID 1520572358101498496 (in Japanese)。
  24. "Jorge Luis Borges Picks 33 of His Favorite Books to Start His Famous Library of Babel". Openculture.com.
  25. ^ Minford and Tong Man, p. 1.
  26. ^ Minford and Tong Man, p. 11.
  27. MinfordTong (1999), p. 34.
  28. ^ Chiang, Lydia, p. 72.
  29. ^ Chiang, Lydia, p. 62.
  30. Этнокультурное взаимодействие в Евразии. Том 2. Москва: Наука, 2006. ISBN 9785020343726. C. 159.
  31. Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Rawski, Evelyn S. (June 1993). "A Profile of The Manchu Language in Ch'ing History". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. 53 (1). Harvard-Yenching Institute: 94. doi:10.2307/2719468. JSTOR 2719468.
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